Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1R-96
Mass Concrete
Reported by ACI Committee 207
Woodrow L.
Gary R. Mass Burgess*
Chairman, Task
Chairman Group
Edward A. Abdun- Robert W. Walter H. Ernest K.
Nur* Cannon David Groner Price*† Schrader*
Kenneth D. Roger L.
Fred A. Anderson* Roy W. Carlson Hansen Milos Polivka Sprouse
Richard A. James L. Jerome M. John H.
Bradshaw, Jr.* Cope* Gordon M. Kidd Raphael* Stout
Edward G. W. James R. W. Douglas Patricia J. Carl R.
Bush Graham* McEwen Roberts Wilder
James E.
Oliverson*
*Members of the task group who prepared this report.
†Deceased
207.1R-1
207.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Chapter 4—Construction, p.
CONTENTS 207.1R-22
4.1—Batching
Chapter 1— 4.2—Mixing
Introduction and
historical 4.3—Placing
developments, p. 4.4—Curing
207.1R-2 4.5—Forms
1.1—Scope 4.6—Height of lifts and time
1.2—History intervals between lifts
1.3—Temperature control 4.7—Cooling and temperature
1.4—Long-term strength control
design 4.8—Grouting contraction joints
Chapter 2—Materials and Chapter 5—Behavior, p.
mix proportioning, p. 207.1R- 207.1R-29
6 5.1—Thermal stresses and
2.1—General cracking
2.2—Cements 5.2—Volume change
2.3—Pozzolans and ground 5.3—Heat generation
slag 5.4—Heat dissipation studies
2.4—Chemical admixtures 5.5—Instrumentation
2.5—Aggregates
2.6—Water Chapter 6—References, p.
2.7—Selection of proportions 207.1R-38
6.1—Specified and
2.8—Temperature control
recommended references
Chapter 3—Properties, p. 6.2—Cited references
207.1R-13 6.3—Additional references
3.1—General
3.2—Strength Appendix—Metric examples,
3.3—Elastic properties p. 207.1R-40
3.4—Creep
3.5—Volume change
3.6—Permeability
3.7—Thermal properties
3.8—Shear properties
3.9—Durability
concrete practice can also be applied
CHAPTER 1— to general concrete work whereby
INTRODUCTION AND certain economic and other benefits
HISTORICAL may be realized.
DEVELOPMENTS
This report contains a history of the
1.1—Scope development of mass concrete
1.1.1—“Mass concrete” is defined practice and discussion of materials
in ACI 116R as “any volume of and concrete mix proportioning,
concrete with dimensions large properties, construction methods and
enough to require that measures be equipment, and thermal behavior. This
taken to cope with generation of heat report covers tradi-tionally placed and
from hydration of the cement and consolidated mass concrete, and does
attendant volume change to not cover roller-compacted concrete.
minimize cracking.” The design of Roller-compacted concrete is
mass concrete structures is described in detail in ACI 207.5R.
generally based principally on Mass concreting practices were
durability, economy, and thermal developed largely from concrete
action, with strength often being a
dam construction, where
secondary rather than a primary
temperature-related crack-ing
concern. The one characteristic that
was first identified. Temperature-
distin-guishes mass concrete from
related cracking also has been
other concrete work is thermal
experienced in other thick-section
behavior. Since the cement-water
concrete struc-tures, including
reaction is exothermic by nature, the
mat foundations, pile caps,
temperature rise within a large
bridge piers, thick walls, and
concrete mass, where the heat is not
tunnel linings.
quickly dissipated, can be quite high
(see 5.1.1). Significant tensile High compressive strengths are
stresses and strains may de-velop usually not required in mass
from the volume change associated concrete structures; thin arch
with the increase and decrease of dams are exceptions. Massive
temperature within the mass. structures, such as gravity dams,
Measures should be taken where resist loads by vir-tue of their
cracking due to thermal behavior shape and mass, and only
may cause loss of structural integrity secondarily by their strength. Of
and monolithic action, or may cause more importance are durability
excessive seepage and shortening and properties connected with
of the service life of the structure, or temperature behavior and the
may be esthetically objectionable. tendency for cracking.
Many of the principles in mass
The effects of heat generation,
restraint, and volume changes
on the design and behavior of
massive reinforced el-ements
and structures are discussed in
ACI 207.2R. Cooling and
insulating systems for mass
concrete are addressed in ACI
207.4R. Mixture proportioning
for mass concrete is dis-cussed
in ACI 211.1.
1.2—History
1.2.1—When concrete was first used in dams, the
dams were small and the concrete was mixed by hand.
The port-land cement usually had to be aged to comply
with a “boil-ing” soundness test, the aggregate was
bank-run sand and gravel, and proportioning was by the
shovelful (Davis
207.1
MASS CONCRETE R-3
The record monthly placing rate of
* 3 3
1963). Tremendous progress has 328,500 yd (250,200 m ) for roller-
been made since the early days, and compact-ed concrete was achieved at
the art and science of dam building Tarbela Dam in Pakistan. Plac-ing
practiced today has reached a highly rates for no-slump concrete, using
large earth-moving equipment for
advanced state. The selection and
transportation and large vibrating
pro-portioning of concrete materials to
rollers for consolidation, appear to be
produce suitable strength, durability, limited only by the size of the project
and impermeability of the finished and its plant's ability to produce
product can be predicted and concrete. Those con-cerned with
controlled with accuracy. concrete dam construction should not
1.2.2—Covered herein are the feel that the ultimate has been
principal steps from those very small reached, but they are justified in
beginnings to the present. In large feeling some satisfaction with the
dam construc-tion there is now exact progress that has been made.
and automatic proportioning and mix-
3
1.2.3 Prior to 1900—Prior to the
ing of materials. Concrete in 12-yd beginning of the twenti-eth
3
(9-m ) buckets can be placed by century, much of the portland
conventional methods at the rate of cement used in the United States
3 3 was imported from Europe. All
10,000 yd /day (7650 m /day) at a
temperature of less than 50 F (10 C) cements were very coarse by
as placed, even during the hottest present standards—and quite
weather. Grand Coulee Dam still holds
commonly they were
the all-time record monthly placing
3 3 underburned and had a high free
rate of 536,250 yd (410,020 m )
lime content. For dams of that
followed by the more recent
achievement at Itaipu Dam on the period, bank-run sand and gravel
3 were used without ben-efit of
Brazil-Paraguay border of 440,550 yd
3 washing to remove objectionable
(336,840 m ) (Itaipu Binacional 1981). dirt and fines. Con-crete mixes
Lean mixes are now made workable varied widely in cement content
by means of air-entraining and other
chemical admixtures and the use of and in sand/ coarse aggregate
finely divided pozzolanic materials. ratio. Mixing was usually by hand
Water-reducing, strength-enhancing, and pro-portioning by shovel,
and set-controlling chemical wheelbarrow, box, or cart. The
admixtures are effective in re-ducing
the required cement content to a effect of water-cement ratio was
minimum as well as in controlling the unknown, and generally no at-
time of setting. With the increased tempt was made to control the
atten-tion to roller-compacted volume of mixing water. There
concrete, a new dimension has been
given to mass concrete construction. was no measure of consistency
except by visual obser-vation of
the newly-mixed concrete. dry consistency was placed in
Some of the dams were of cyclopean thin layers and consolidated by
masonry in which “plums” (large rigorous hand tamping.
stones) were partially embedded in a Generally, mixed concrete was
very wet concrete. The spaces transported to the forms by
between plums were then filled with wheelbarrow. Where plums were
concrete, also very wet. Some of the employed in cyclopean masonry,
early dams were built without stiff-leg derricks operating inside
contraction joints and without regular the work area moved the wet
lifts. Howev-er, there were notable concrete and plums. The rate of
exceptions where concrete was cast in placement was at most a few
blocks; the height of lift was regulated hundred cubic yards a day.
and concrete of very Generally, there was no attempt
to moist cure.
*. See 6.2 for references. An exception to these general
practices was the Lower Crystal
Springs Dam completed in 1890. This
dam is located near San Mateo,
California, about 20 miles south of
San Francisco. According to available
information, it was the first dam in the
United States in which the maximum
permis-sible quantity of mixing water
was specified. The concrete for this
154 ft (47 m) high structure was cast
in a system of interlocking blocks of
specified shape and dimensions. An
old photograph indicates that hand
tampers were employed to
consolidate the dry concrete. Fresh
concrete was covered with planks as
a protection from the sun and the
concrete was kept wet until hardening
occurred.
2.2—Cements
2.2.1—ACI 207.2R and ACI
207.4R contain additional in-
formation on cement types and
effects on heat generation. The percent or less on the sum of
following types of hydraulic tricalcium aluminate and tricalcium
cement are suitable for use in silicate, or a limit on the heat of
mass concrete construction: hydration to 70 cal/g (290 kJ/kg) at 7
days. When one of the optional re-
(a) Portland cement: Types I, II,
quirements is specified, the 28-day
IV and V as covered by ASTM strength requirement for cement paste
C 150. under ASTM C 150 is reduced due to
(b) Blended cement: Types P, IP, the slow-er rate of strength gain of this
S, IS, I(PM), and I(SM) as cement.
covered by ASTM C 595. 2.2.4—Type IV portland cement, also
When portland cement is used referred to as “low heat” cement, may be used
where it is desired to produce low heat development in
with pozzolan or with other massive structures. It has not been used in recent years
cements, the materials are because it has been difficult to obtain and,
batched separately at the mixing
plant. Economy and low
temperature rise are both
achieved by limiting the total
cement content to as small an
amount as possible.
2.2.2—Type I portland cement is
commonly used in gen-eral
construction. It is not
recommended for use by itself in
mass concrete without other
measures that help to control
temperature problems because of
its substantially higher heat of
hydration.
2.2.3—Type II portland cement is
suitable for mass con-crete
construction because it has a
moderate heat of hydra-tion important
to the control of cracking.
Specifications for Type II portland
cement require that it contain no more
than 8 percent tricalcium aluminate
(C3A), the compound that contributes
substantially to early heat development
in the concrete. Optional specifications
for Type II cement place a limit of 58
207.1
MASS CONCRETE R-7
Type P having the generally
more importantly, because higher poz-zolan content.
experience has shown that in
Type I(PM) pozzolan-modified
most cases heat development
can be controlled satisfactorily by portland cement contains less
other means. Type IV than 15 percent pozzolan and its
specifications limit the C3A to 7 properties are close to those of
Type I cement. A heat of
percent, the C3S to 35 percent,
hydration limit of 70 cal/ g
and place a minimum on the C2S (290kJ/kg) at 7 days is an
of 40 percent. At the option of the optional requirement for Type IP
purchaser, the heat of hydration
may be limited to 60 cal/g (250 and Type I(PM) by adding the
kJ/kg) at 7 days and 70 cal/g suffix (MH). A limit of 60 cal/g
(290 kJ/kg) at 28 days. (250 kJ/kg) at 7 days is optional
Type V sulfate-resistant portland for Type P by add-ing the suffix
cement (Canadian Type (LH).
50) is available both in the 2.2.6—Type IS portland blast-
United States and in Canada furnace slag cement is a uniform
usu-ally at a price premium over blend of portland cement and fine
Type I. It is usually both low al- blast-furnace slag. It is produced
kali and low heat. either by intergrinding portland
2.2.5—Type IP portland- cement clinker and granulated
pozzolan cement is a uniform blast-furnace slag or by blending
blend of portland cement or portland cement and finely
portland blast-furnace slag ce- ground granulated blast-furnace
ment and fine pozzolan. Type P slag. The amount of slag used
is similar but early strength may vary between 25 and 70
requirements are lower. They are percent by weight of the portland
produced either by inter-grinding blast-furnace slag cement. This
portland cement clinker and cement has sometimes been
pozzolan or by blend-ing portland used with a pozzolan. Type S
cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement is finely divided
slag cement and finely divided material consisting essential-ly of
pozzolan. The pozzolan a uniform blend of granulated
constituents are between 15 and blast-furnace slag and hydrated
40 percent by weight of the lime in which the slag constituent
portland-poz-zolan cement, with is at least 70 per-cent of the
weight of the slag cement. Slag
cement is gener-ally used in a
blend with portland cement for
making concrete. 2.3—Pozzolans and ground
Type I(SM) slag-modified slag
portland cement contains less 2.3.1—A pozzolan is generally
than 25 percent slag and its defined as a siliceous or
properties are close to those of siliceous-and-aluminous material
Type I cement. Optional heat of which in itself possesses little or
hydration requirements can be no cementitious value but will, in
applied to Type IS, and I(SM), finely divided form and in the
similar to those applied to Type presence of moisture, chemically
IP, I(PM), and P. react with calci-um hydroxide at
2.2.7—Low-alkali cements are ordinary temperatures to form
defined by ASTM C 150 as compounds possessing
portland cements containing not cementitious properties.
more than 0.60 percent alkalies Pozzolans are ordinarily
calculated as the percentage of governed and classified by ASTM
Na2O plus 0.658 times the C 618, as natural (Class N), or fly
percentage of K2O. These ash (Classes F or C). There are
cements should be spec-ified some pozzolans, such as the
when the cement is to be used in Class C fly ash, which contain
concrete with aggre-gate that significant amounts of
may be deleteriously reactive. compounds like those of portland
The use of low-alkali cement may cement. The Class C fly ashes
not always control highly reactive likewise have cementitious
noncrystal-line siliceous properties by themselves which
aggregate. It may also be may contribute significantly to the
advisable to use a proven strength of concrete.
pozzolan to insure control of the
Pozzolans react chemically with the
alkali-aggregate re-action.
calcium hydroxide or hydrated lime
liberated during the hydration of
portland ce-ment to form a stable
strength-producing cementitious com-
pound. For best activity the siliceous
ingredient of a pozzolan must be in an
amorphous state such as glass or
opal. Crystalline siliceous materials,
such as quartz, do not combine
readily with lime at normal
temperature unless they are ground
into a very fine powder. The use of fly
ash in con-crete is discussed in ACI ashes may contain such a high CaO
226.3R, and the use of ground gran- content that, while possessing good
ulated blast-furnace slag is discussed cementitious properties, they may be
in ACI 226.1R. un-suitable for controlling alkali-
2.3.2—Natural pozzolanic aggregate reaction or for im-proving
materials occur in large depos-its sulfate resistance of concrete.
throughout the western United Additionally, the Class C fly ash will be
States in the form of obsid-ian, less helpful in lowering heat genera-
pumicite, volcanic ashes, tuffs, tion in the concrete.
clays, shales, and diatomaceous
2.3.4—Pozzolans in mass concrete
earth. These natural pozzolans
may be used to reduce portland
usually require grinding. Some of
cement factors for better economy, to
the volcanic materials are of lower internal heat generation, to
suitable fine-ness in their natural improve workability, and to lessen the
state. The clays and shales, in po-tential for damage from alkali-
addition to grinding, must be aggregate reactivity and sul-fate
activated to form an amorphous attack. It should be recognized,
state by calcining at temperatures however, that properties of different
in the range of 1200 to 1800 F pozzolans may vary widely. Some
(650 to 980 C). pozzolans may introduce problems
2.3.3—Fly ash is the flue dust from into the concrete, such as increased
burning ground or powdered coal.
Suitable fly ash can be an excellent
pozzolan if it has a low carbon
content, a fineness about the same as
that of portland cement, and occurs in
the form of very fine, glassy spheres.
Because of its shape and texture, the
water requirement is usually reduced
when fly ash is used in con-crete.
There are indications that in many
cases the pozzolanic activity of the fly
ash can be increased by cracking the
glass spheres by means of grinding.
However, this may reduce its
lubricating qualities and increase the
water requirement of the concrete. It is
to be noted that high-silica Class F fly
ash-es are generally excellent
pozzolans. However, some Class C fly
207.1R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
in reducing the expansion of
drying shrinkage as well as reduced concrete containing re-active
durability and low early strength. aggregates. The amount of this
Before a pozzolan is used it should be reduction varies with the
tested in combination with the project
chemical makeup and fineness
cement and aggregates to es-tablish
of the pozzolan and the amount
that the pozzolan will beneficially
employed. For some pozzolans,
contribute to the quality and economy
the reduction in ex-pansion may
of the concrete. Compared to portland
exceed 90 percent. Pozzolans
cement, the strength development
reduce expansion by consuming
from pozzolanic action is slow at early
alkalies from the cement before
ages but continues at a higher level
for a longer time. Early strength of a
they can enter into deleterious
portland cement-pozzolan concrete
reactions with the aggregates.
would be expected to be lower than Where alka-li-reactive
that of a portland cement concrete aggregates are used, it is
designed for equivalent strength at considered good practice to use
later ages. Where some portion of both a low-alkali cement and a
mass concrete is required to attain pozzolan of proven corrective
strength at an earlier age than is ability. Alkali-aggregate reactions
attainable with the regular mass are discussed in ACI 221R.
concrete mixture, the increased Some experiments conducted by
internal heat generated by a substitute the Corps of Engineers (Mather 1974)
indicate that for interior mass
earlier-strength concrete may be concrete, where stresses are
accommo-dated by other means. moderately low, a much higher
Where a pozzolan is being used, it proportion of pozzolan to cement may
may be necessary temporarily to be used when there is an economic
forego the use of the poz-zolan and advantage in doing so and the
otherwise accommodate the increased desired strength is obtained at later
ages. For example, the results of
internal heat generated by the use of
laboratory tests indi-cate that an air-
straight portland cement. How-ever, if entrained mass concrete, containing
there is a dangerous potential from 3 3
94 lb/yd (53 kg/m ) of cement plus
alkali-aggregate reaction, the
fly ash in an amount equivalent in
pozzolan should be used, while volume to 188 lb (112 kg) of cement
expedited strength increase is has produced a very workable
achieved by additional cement mixture, for which the water content
content. was less than
3 3
100 lb/yd (60 kg/m ). The one-
Pozzolans, particularly natural
year compressive strength of
types, have been found ef-fective wet-screened 6 x 12-in. (150 x
300-mm) cylinders of this
concrete was on the order of The development of new types of
3000 psi (21 MPa). For such a pozzolans, such as rice hull ash
mixture the mass temperature and silica fume, may find a
rise would be exceedingly small. promising place in future mass
For gravity dams of moderate concrete work.
height, where the mate-rial would 2.3.5—Finely ground granulated iron
be precooled such that the blast-furnace slag may also be used
concrete as it reaches the forms as a separate ingredient with portland
will be about 15 F (8 C) below the ce-ment as cementitious material in
mean annual or rock mass concrete. Require-ments on
temperature, there is the finely ground slag for use in concrete
possibility that neither longitu- are specified in ASTM C 989. If used
dinal nor transverse contraction with Type I portland cement, pro-
joints would be required. The portions of at least 70 percent finely
maximum temperature of the ground slag of total ce-mentitious
interior of the mass due to material may be needed with an active
cement hydration might not be slag to produce a cement-slag
appreciably greater than the combination which will have a heat of
mean annual temperature. hydration of less than 60 cal/g (250
The particle shapes of concrete kJ/kg) at 7 days. The ad-dition of slag
aggregates and their effect on will usually reduce the rate of heat
workability has become less important generation due to a slightly slower
because of the im-proved workability rate of hydration. Finely ground slag
that is obtainable through the use of also produces many of the beneficial
poz-zolans, and air-entraining and properties in concrete that are
other chemical admixtures. achieved with suitable pozzolans,
such as reduced permeability, control
of expansion from reactive aggregate,
sulfate resistance, and improved
workability. However, fine-ly ground
slag is usually used in much higher
percentages than pozzolan to achieve
similar properties.
2.4—Chemical admixtures
2.4.1—A full coverage of
admixtures is contained in ACI
212.3R. The chemical admixtures
that are important to mass
concrete are classified as follows: poorly graded aggre-gates and those
(1) air-entraining; (2) wa-ter- of undesirable shapes. It facilitates the
reducing; and (3) set-controlling. plac-ing and handling of mass
2.4.2—Accelerating admixtures concrete. Each one percent of
are not used in mass con-crete entrained air permits a reduction in
because high early strength is not mixing water of from 2 to 4 percent,
necessary in such work and with some improvement in workability
because accelerators contribute and with no loss in slump. Durability,
to undesirable heat development as measured by the resistance of
in the concrete mass. concrete to deterioration from freezing
and thawing, is great-ly improved if
2.4.3—Chemical admixtures can
the spacing of the air bubble system is
provide important bene-fits to
such that no point in the cement
mass concrete in its plastic state
matrix is more than 0.008 in. (0.20
by increasing work-ability and/or
mm) from an air bubble.
reducing water content, retarding
initial setting, modifying the rate of 2.4.6—Entrained air generally will
and/or capacity for bleeding, reduce the strength of most concretes. Where
reducing segregation, and the cement content is held constant and advantage is
taken of the reduced water requirement, air
reducing rate of slump loss.
2.4.4—Chemical admixtures can
provide important bene-fits to
mass concrete in its hardened
state by lowering heat evolution
during hardening, increasing
strength, lowering cement
content, increasing durability,
decreasing permeabil-ity, and
improving abrasion/erosion
resistance.
2.4.5—Air-entraining admixtures are
materials which pro-duce minute air
bubbles in concrete during mixing—
with re-sultant improved workability,
reduced segregation, lessened
bleeding, lowered permeability, and
increased resistance to damage from
freezing and thawing cycles. The
entrainment of air greatly improves the
workability of lean concrete and
permits the use of harsher and more
207.1
MASS CONCRETE R-9
Set-controlling admixtures can be
entrainment in lean mass concrete used to keep the con-crete plastic
has a negligible effect on strength and longer in massive blocks so that
may slightly increase it. Among the successive lay-ers can be placed and
factors that influence the amount of air vibrated before the underlayer sets.
entrained in concrete for a given Water-reducing admixtures are used to
amount of agent are: grading and reduce the mixing water requirement,
particle shape of the aggre-gate,
to increase the strength of the
richness of the mix, presence of other
concrete or to produce the same
admixtures, mix-ing time, slump and
strength with less cement. Admixtures
temperature of the concrete. For a
given quantity of air-entraining from the first three families of materials
admixture, air content increases with above generally will reduce the water
increases in slump up to 6 in. (150 requirement up to about 10 percent,
mm) and decreases with increases in will re-tard initial set at least 1 hr (but
amount of fines, temperature of not reduce slump loss), and will
concrete, and mixing time. If fly ash is increase the strength an appreciable
used that contains activated car-bon, amount. When a re-tarder is used, the
an increased dosage of air-entraining strength after 12 hr is generally
admixture will be required. Most compara-ble to that of concrete
specifications for mass concrete now containing no admixture. Depending
require that the quantity of entrained
upon the richness of the concrete,
air, as determined from con-crete
1
composition of cement, temperature
samples wet sieved through the 1 /2- and other factors, use of chemical
in. (37.5-mm) sieve, be about 5 admixtures will usually result in
percent, although in some cases as significant increases in 1-, 7-, 28-day,
high as and later strengths. This gain in
8 percent. Requirements for strength cannot be explained by the
air-entraining admixtures are amount of the water reduction or by
contained in ASTM C 260. the degree of change in the water-
2.4.7—Water-reducing and set- cement ratio; the chemicals have a fa-
controlling admixtures generally vorable effect on the hydration of the
consist of one or more of these cement. Admixtures of the carboxylic
compounds: (1) li-gnosulfonic acid family augment bleeding. The
acid; (2) hydroxylated carboxylic high-range water-reducing family of
acid; (3) poly-meric admixtures does not have a well-
carbohydrates; or (4) established record in mass concrete
naphthalene or melamine types construction, al-though these
of high-range water reducers. admixtures were used in some mass
concrete in Guri Dam in Venezuela,
and have been used in reinforced
mass concrete foundations. However, natural grains, manufactured grains
in view of their strong plasticizing obtained by crushing larger size rock
capability, they may hold a promising particles, or a mixture of the two. Fine
role in adding workability to special aggre-gate should consist of hard,
mass concreting applications where dense, durable, uncoated parti-cles.
workability is needed. Requirements Fine aggregate should not contain
for chemical ad-mixtures are harmful amounts of clay, silt, dust,
contained in ASTM C 494. mica, organic matter, or other
impurities to such an extent that,
2.5—Aggregates either separately or together, they
2.5.1—Coarse and fine aggregate as render it impossible to attain the
well as terms relating to aggregates required properties of concrete when
are defined in ASTM C 125. Additional employing normal proportions of the
infor-mation on aggregates is ingredients. Del-eterious substances
contained in ACI 221R. are usually limited to the percentages
2.5.2—Fine aggregate is that by weight given in Table 2.5.2. For
fraction “almost entirely” passing bridge piers, dams, and oth-er
the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. It may hydraulic structures, the maximum
be composed of allowable percentage of the
deleterious substance should be 50
percent lower for face concrete in the
zone of fluctuating water levels. It can
be 50 percent higher for concrete
constantly immersed in water and for
concrete in the interior of massive
dams.
Each point represents an average of two gradings. When natural gravel is used,
18 x 36-in. (450 x 900-mm) and two 24 x
48-in. (600 x 1200-mm) concrete it is economically de-sirable to depart
cylinders tested 1 yr for both Grand from theoretical gradings to
Coulee and Clear Creek aggregates. approximate as closely as workability
Maximum Size Aggregate, mm permits the average grading of material
in the deposit. Where there are
extreme excesses or deficien-
9.5 3 14 18 a 150
70 19 8 75 60 90 )
0
(4 65 67 65 5550
15 40 70 00 90
50
)
00
)
psi
a
(kg/mCement Content, lb per cubic yard 3
65 6
5 )
0 .8 5670
(3 MP
86 (
) 4
4
60 55 60 63 5430
10 60 20 s
0 i 58
(3 0
p ) 50
56 0 a
60 P
) 4
M
1.
55 (
4
0
(3 5
26 ( 50
) 7
3580
3. 0 p
9 si
50 MP
41 46 55
0 50
90 50 a) 20
(2 90
97 50
( 0
) 3 0 pi
4.
5 s
45 M
P
0 a)
(2 4
5 00
67 3
) 1. p
( 0 si
M
40 P
0 4 a
)
(2 0
37 0
) ( 7 0ps
2.6 i
M
35 P
a
0 35 )
(2 ( 00
08 2. p s
) 41M i
3 Pa
30 ( 00 )
0
0 2 . 0p
(1 7 si
M
78 P
) 2 a)
5
0
25 (1 0
7. ps
0 2 i
(1 2 MPa
(0 )
48 1 0
) 3. 0
p
8Ms
+ Pi
ci ef e material rather than co size of the accumulated undersize of
e er to produce ar the larger sizes. However, finish
s a unworkable concrete. se screening at the batching plant, on
in bl The problem of waste a horizontal vibrating screens and with
a e usually does not g- no intermedi-ate storage, is strongly
p to occur when the gr recommended for mass concrete
ar w aggregate is crushed e coarse aggregates. With finish
ti a stone. With modern g screening there is little difficulty in
c st two- and three-stage at limiting undersize to 4 percent of the
ul e crushing it is normally e cobbles, 3 percent of the intermediate
ar a possible to adjust the si sizes, and 2 percent of the fine coarse
si p operation so that a nc aggregates. Undersize is defined as
z or work-able grading is e that passing a test screen having open-
e, ti obtained. Unless th ings five-sixths of the nominal minimum
it o finish screening is at size of the aggregate fraction.
is n employed, it is well to is Undersize larger than this five-sixths
pr of reduce the amount of th fraction has no measurable effect on
th the finest size of e the concrete (Tuthill 1943).
1
3 1 /2
1 (37.5) 0-10 90-100
3/ / 1 / 3 6
8 4 2 1 (25) 0-5 20-45 100
Maximum Size Aggregate, in. 3
/4 (19) 1-10 90-100
Fig. 2.5.6—Effect of aggregate 3
/ (9.5)
8 0-5 30-55
size and cement content on No. 4
compressive strength at one (4.75) 0-5
year (adapted from Higginson,
Wallace, and Ore 1963) Table 2.5.9— Ranges in each size
fraction of coarse aggregate that
Table 2.5.8— Grading have produced workable
requirements for coarse concrete*
aggregate
Percentage of cleanly separated coarse
Percent by weight passing aggregate fractions
designated test sieve Maximu Fine
Test m Cobbles Coarse Medium
3 Fine 1 3 3
1 /2- /4 3/4-
3
/8-No.
sieve /4 - No.
size, Cobbles Coarse Medium 4 in. size in 6-3 in. 3-11/2 in. in. /8 4
sq. (19 - concret (75- (37.5- (19- (9.5-
mesh, 6-3 in. 3-11/2 in. 11/ - 3/ in. 4.75 e, (150-75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
2 4 mm
(150 - 75 75 - 37.5 37.5 - 19 in. (mm) mm) mm) mm) ) mm)
in. (mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)
12-
7 (175) 100 6 (150) 20-30 20-32 20-30 20 8-15
6 (150) 90-100 3 (75) 20-40 20-40 15- 10-15
4 (100) 20-45 100 25
1
1 /2 30-
3 (75) 0-15 90-100 (37.5) 40-55 35 15-25
2 (50) 0-5 20-55 100 30-
3
/ (19) 70 20-45
4
*U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981.
2.5.10—In some parts of the world
“gap” gradings are used in mass
concrete. These are gradings in which
the material in one or more sieve sizes
is missing. In United States practice,
continuous gradings are normally used.
Gap gradings can be used
economically where the material
occurs naturally gap-graded. But
comparisons which can be made
between con-cretes containing gap-
graded aggregate and continuously
graded aggregate indicate there is no
advantage in purposely producing gap
gradings. Continuous gradings produce
more workable mass concrete with
somewhat lower slump, less wa-ter,
and less cement. Continuous gradings
can always be pro-duced from crushing
operations. Most natural aggregate
deposits in the United States contain
material from which ac-ceptable
continuous gradings can be
economically prepared.
2.6—Water
2.6.1—Water used for mixing
concrete should be free of
materials that significantly affect
the hydration reactions of portland
cement (Steinour 1960). Water
that is fit to drink may generally be
regarded as acceptable for use in
mixing concrete. Potability will
preclude any objectionable
content of chlorides. However,
chloride content tests should be
made on any questionable water if
embedded metals are present.
Limits on total chloride for various
constructions are con-tained in
ACI 201.2R. When it is desirable
to determine whether a water
contains materials that
significantly affect the strength
development of cement,
comparative strength tests should
be made on mortars made with
water from the proposed source
and with distilled water. If the
average of the results of these
tests on specimens containing the
water being evaluated is less than
90 percent of that obtained with
speci-mens containing distilled
water, the water represented by
the sample should not be used for
mixing concrete. If a potential
water source lacking a service
record contains amounts of im-
purities as large as 5000 ppm or
more, then, to insure durable
concrete, tests for strength and
volume stability (length change)
may also be advisable.
207.1R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
less than for a concrete
2.6.2—Waters containing up to containing angular aggregates.
several parts per million of ordinary Trial mixes using the required
mineral acids, such as hydrochloric water-cementitious material ratio
acid or sulfuric acid, can be tolerated and the observed water
as far as strength development is con- requirement for the job materials
cerned. Waters containing even small will demonstrate the
amounts of various sugars or sugar
cementitious material content
derivatives should not be used as
that may be safely used to
setting times may be unpredictable.
provide the required workability
The harmfulness of such waters may
(Portland Cement Association
be revealed in the comparative
1979; Ginzburg, Zinchenko, and
strength tests.
Skuortsova 1966).
2.7—Selection of proportions 2.7.3—The first step in arriving at
2.7.1—The primary objective of the actual batch weights is to select
the maximum aggregate size for each
proportioning studies for mass
part of the work. Criteria for this
concrete is to establish economical selection are given in Section 2.5.
mixes of proper strength, durability, The next step is to assume or
and impermeability with the best determine the total water content
combi-nation of available materials needed to provide required slump
1
that will provide adequate workability which may be as low as 1- /2 in. (38
for placement and least practical rise mm) to 2 in. (50 mm). In tests for
in temper-ature after placement. Trial 1
slump, aggre-gate larger than 1 /2 in.
mix methods are generally used (38 mm) must be removed by prompt-
following procedures in ACI 211.1, ly screening the wet concrete. For 6-
Appendix 5. in. (150 mm) maximum-size
aggregate, water contents for air-
2.7.2—Selection of the water- entrained, minimum-slump concrete
cement ratio or water-ce- may vary from about 120 to 150
mentitious material ratio will 3 3
lb/yd (71 to 89 kg/m ) for natural
establish the strength, dura-bility, aggregates, and from 140 to 190
and permeability of the concrete. 3 3
There also must be sufficient fine lb/yd (83 to 113 kg/m ) for crushed
aggregates. Corresponding wa-ter
material to provide proper
requirements for 3 in. (76 mm)
placeability. Ex-perience has maximum-size aggregate are
shown that with the best shaped approximately 20 percent higher.
aggregates of 6 in. (150 mm) However, for strengths above 4000
maximum size, the quantity of psi (28 MPa) at 1 year the 3-in. (75
cement-size material required for mm) maxi-mum-size aggregate may
be more efficient. (See Figure 2.5.6).
workability is about 10 percent
2.7.4—The batch weight of the
cement is determined by dividing the aggregate to total aggregate by
total weight of the mixing water by the absolute volume may be as low
water-cement ratio or, when as 21 percent. With crushed
workability governs, it is the mini-mum aggregates the ratio may be in
weight of cement required to the range 25 to 27 percent.
satisfactorily place the concrete (see 2.7.5—When a pozzolan is included
2.7.2). With the batch weights of in the concrete as a part of the
cement and water determined and cementitious material, the mixture
with an assumed air content of 3 to 5 proportioning procedure does not
percent, the remainder of the material change. Attention must be given to the
is aggregate. The only remaining following matters: (a) water
decision is to select the relative requirement may change, (b) early-
proportions of fine and coarse age strength may become critical, and
aggregate. The optimum proportions (c) for maxi-mum economy the age at
depend on aggregate grading and which design strength is attained
particle shape, and they can be finally should be greater. Concrete
determined only in the field. For 6-in. containing most pozzolans gains
(150-mm) aggregate concrete strength somewhat more slowly than
containing natural sand and gravel, concrete made with only portland
the ratio of fine cement. However, the load on mass
concrete is generally not applied until
the concrete is relatively old.
Therefore, mass concrete containing
pozzolan is usually de-signed on the
basis of 90-day to one-year strengths.
While mass concrete does not require
strength at early ages to per-form its
design function, most systems of
construction re-quire that the forms for
each lift be anchored to the next lower
lift. Therefore, the early strength must
be great enough to prevent pullout of
the form anchors. Specially designed
form anchors may be required to allow
safe rapid turnaround times for the
forms, especially when large amounts
of poz-zolan are used or when the
concrete is lean and precooled.
2.8—Temperature control
2.8.1—The four elements of an
effective temperature control program, any or all
of which may be used for a par-ticular mass concrete
project, are: (1) cementitious material content control,
where the choice of type and amount of ce-mentitious
materials can lessen the heat-generating poten-tial of the
concrete; (2) precooling, where cooling of ingredients
achieves a lower concrete temperature as placed in the
structure; (3) postcooling, where removing heat from the
concrete with embedded cooling coils limits the temper-
ature rise in the structure; and (4) construction
management, where efforts are made to protect the
structure from exces-sive temperature differentials by
knowledgeable employ-ment of concrete handling,
construction scheduling, and construction procedures. The
temperature control for a small structure may be no more
than a single measure, such as restricting placing
operations to cool periods at night or during cool weather.
On the other extreme, some projects can be large enough
to justify a wide variety of separate but complementary
control measures that additionally can in-clude the prudent
selection of a low-heat-generating cement system including
pozzolans; the careful production control of aggregate
gradings and the use of large-size aggregates in efficient
mixes with low cement contents; the precooling of
aggregates and mixing water (or the batching of ice in place
of mixing water) to make possible a low concrete tempera-
ture as placed; the use of air-entraining and other chemical
admixtures to improve both the fresh and hardened
proper-ties of the concrete; using appropriate block
dimensions for placement; coordinating construction
schedules with sea-sonal changes to establish lift heights
and placing frequen-cies; the use of special mixing and
placing equipment to quickly place cooled concrete with
minimum absorption of ambient heat; evaporative cooling
of surfaces through water curing; dissipating heat from the
hardened concrete by cir-
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -13
limiting factor in reaching this low
culating cold water through cementitious material level is usually
embedded piping; and insulat-ing the need to use some minimum
surfaces to minimize thermal amount of cement-sized particles
differentials between the interior solely to provide workability in the
and the exterior of the concrete. concrete. Without the use of
It is practical to cool coarse supplemental workability agents—
aggregate, somewhat more dif-ficult to such as pozzolans, air-entraining, or
cool fine aggregate, and practical to other chemical admixtures—a mass
batch a portion or all of the added concrete project can ex-perience a
mixing water in the form of ice. As a continuing struggle to maintain
re-sult, placing temperatures of 50 F workability while holding to the low
(10 C) and lower are prac-ticable and cementitious material content that
sometimes specified. Lower best protects against cracking. The
temperatures are obtainable with ASTM specification for Type
more difficulty. Injection of liquid II portland cement contains an option
nitrogen into mix water has also been which makes it possi-ble to limit the
effectively used to lower con-crete heat of hydration to 70 cal/g (290
temperature for mass concrete work. kJ/kg) at 7 days. Use of a pozzolan as
In most cases a placing temperature a replacement further delays and
of less than 65 F (18 C) can be reduces heat generation. This delay is
achieved with liquid nitrogen injection. an advantage—except that when
Cooled concrete is advanta-geous in cooling coils are used, the period of
mixture proportioning since water postcooling may be extended. If the
requirement de-creases as mixture is proportioned so that the
temperature drops. Specified placing cementitious materials content is
limited to not more than 235
temperatures should be established 3 3
by temperature studies to determine lb/yd (139 kg/m ), the
what is required to satisfy the design. temperature rise for most con-
cretes will not exceed 35 F (19
Guidance in cooling systems for mass
C). A complete discussion of
concrete can be found in ACI 207.4R. temperature control is given in
Chapter 5.
2.8.2—The chief means for limiting
temperature rise is controlling the type CHAPTER 3—
and amount of cementitious materials. PROPERTIES
The goal of concrete proportioning
studies is to reach a ce-mentitious 3.1—General
material content no greater than is 3.1.1—The design and construction
necessary for the design strength. The of massive concrete structures,
especially dams, is influenced by site
topography, foundation properties of the concrete. Within
characteristics, and the availability of recent years an increasing
suitable materials of construction. utilization has been made of finite
Economy, second only to safety element computer pro-grams for
requirements, is the most important thermal analysis (Polivka and
single parameter to con-sider. Wilson 1976; U.S. Army Corps of
Economy may dictate the choice of Engineers 1994). Determination
type of structure for a given site. of tensile strain capacity has also
Proportioning of the concrete is in turn lead to a better understanding of
gov-erned by the requirements of the the potential for cracking under
type of structure and such properties rapid and slow loading condi-
as the strength, durability, and thermal tions (Houghton 1976).
properties. For large structures
3.1.2—The specific properties of
extensive investigations of concrete which should be known are
aggregates, admixtures, and
compressive strength, tensile
pozzolans are justified. Concrete strength, modu-lus of elasticity,
mixture investigations are necessary
Poisson’s ratio, tensile strain capacity,
to determine the most economi-cal creep, volume change during drying,
proportions of selected ingredients to
adiabatic temperature rise, thermal
produce the desired coefficient of expansion, specific heat,
thermal conductivity and diffusivity,
permeability, and durability.
Approximate values of these
properties based on computa-tions or
past experience are often used in
preliminary evalu-ations. Useful as
such approximations may be, the
complex heterogeneous nature of
concrete and the physical and chem-
ical interactions of aggregate and
paste are still not suffi-ciently known
to permit estimation of reliable values.
For this reason, it is again
emphasized that extensive laboratory
and field investigations must be
conducted to assure a safe structure
at lowest cost. In addition, the
moisture condition of the specimens
and structure, and the loading rate
required, must be known, as these and type of pozzolan, (3) surface
factors may dramatically affect some texture and shape of the aggregate,
concrete properties. Specimen size (4) the mineralogic makeup and
and orientation ef-fects on mass strength of the aggregate, (5)
concrete test properties can also be aggregate grading, and (6) the
significant. improve-ment of strength by
admixtures above that attributable to a
3.1.3—A compilation of concrete reduction in water-cementitious
proportion data on rep- material ratio.
resentative dams is given in Table 3.2.2—High strengths are
3.1.3 (Price and Higgin-son 1963; usually not required in mass
Ginzburg, Zinchenko, and concretes except in thin arch
Skuortsova 1966; ICOLD 1964; dams. Concrete proportioning
Harboe 1961; U.S. Bureau of should determine the minimum
Reclamation 1958; Houghton and cement content for adequate
Hall 1972; Houghton 1970; strength to give greatest
Houghton 1969). Reference will economy and minimum
be made to concrete mixes temperature rise. Cement
described in Table 3.1.3 in requirements for adequate
discussions of properties reported workability and du-rability rather
in Tables 3.2.1, 3.3.2, 3.4.2, than strength frequently govern
3.5.1, 3.7.1, and 3.8.1. the portland cement content.
3.2—Strength
3.2.1—The water-cementitious
material ratio to a large extent governs
the quality of the hardened portland
cement binder. Strength,
impermeability, and most other
desirable properties of concrete are
improved by lowering the water-
cementitious material ratio. A study of
compressive strength data given in
Table 3.2.1 shows a considerable
variation from the direct relationship
between water-cementitious ma-terial
ratio and strength. Factors, totally or
partially indepen-dent of the water-
cementitious material ratio, which
affect the strength are: (1) composition
and fineness of cement, (2) amount
207.1R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -15
207.1R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3.3—Elastic properties
3.3.1—Concrete is not a truly
elastic material, and the graphic
stress-strain relationship for
continuously increasing load is
generally in the form of a curved
line. However, the modulus of
elasticity is for practical purposes
considered a constant within the
range of stresses to which mass
concrete is usually subjected.
3.3.2—The moduli of elasticity of
concrete representative of various
dams are given in Table 3.3.2. These
6
values range from 2.8 to 5.5 x 10 psi
4
(1.9 to 3.8 x 10 MPa) at 28 days and
6
from 3.8 to 6.8 x 10 psi (2.6 to 4.7 x
4
10 MPa) at one year. Usually,
concretes having higher strengths
have higher values of elastic modulus
and show a general correlation of
increase in modulus with strength,
although modulus of elas-ticity is not
directly proportional to strength, since
it is influ-enced by the modulus of
elasticity of the aggregate. In the past,
data from concrete modulus of
elasticity tests showed relatively high
coefficient of variation resulting from
at-tempts to measure small strains on
a heterogeneous mixture
207.1R-18 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3.5—Volume change
3.5.1—Volume changes are caused
by changes in mois-ture content of the
concrete, changes in temperature,
chemi-cal reactions, and stresses from
applied loads. Excessive volume
change is detrimental to concrete.
Cracks are formed in restrained
concrete as a result of shrinkage or
contraction and insufficient tensile
strength or strain capacity. Cracking is
a weakening factor that may affect the
ability of the con-crete to withstand its
design loads and may also detract
from durability and appearance.
Volume change data for some mass
concretes are given in Table 3.5.1.
Various factors in-fluencing cracking of mass concrete are
discussed in Carl-son, Houghton, and Polivka (1979).
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -19
207.1R
150 1.73 0.248 0. 6 66 10.8 1.038 3
0
Limestone 4 4.
50 1.55 0.226 0. 5 10 9.67 0.946 2
and 0
4 3.
Yellowtai
l 100 — 4.3 1.52 0.239 152.5 0. 2 38 — 7.7 9.46 1.000 2444 9
andesite 0
3 3.
150 1.48 0.252 0. 9 66 9.20 1.054 6
Natural 0
quartz
6 6.
Libby 100 6.5 6.0 2.24 0.220 152 0. 7 36 11.7 10.8 13.9 0.920 2435 2
gravel
0
Dworsh Granite 4 3.
ak gneiss 100 — 5.5 1.35 0.220 154 0. 0 36 — 9.9 8.41 0.920 2467 9
ACI COMMITTEE
Quartzite 0
Ilha and 4 4.
Solteira 100 — 6.9 1.73 0.220 159 0. 9 36 — 12.5 10.8 0.920 2552 6
basalt
0
2 2.
Itaipu Basalt 100 — 4.3 1.06 0.233 158 0. 9 36 — 7.8 6.61 0.975 2537 7
Theodor 50 1.71 0.234 0. 0 10 10.7 0.979 4.
1 1
*1 /2 in. (37.5 mm) max and 4 /2 in. (114 mm) max refer to maximum size of aggregate in concrete.
†Procedure for calculating
2 2
thermal conductivity is described in CRD-44 (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1949).
**Diffusivity is often expressed in ft /day (m /day) for convenience in calculations.
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -21
(U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981).
pacity rather than to strength. There-fore, low water-cementitious
When this is done, the aver-age material ratio and good consol-idation
modulus of elasticity (sustained and curing are the most important
E) can be omitted from the factors in producing concrete with low
testing and computation permeability. Air-entraining and other
requirements (ACI 207.2R; chemical admixtures permit the same
Houghton 1976). Tensile strain workability with reduced water content
capacity may be predicted using and therefore contribute to re-duced
compressive strength and the permeability. Pozzolans usually reduce
modulus of elasticity (Liu and the permeabil-ity of the concrete.
McDonald 1978). Thermal tensile Permeability coefficients for some
strain capacity of the concrete is mass concretes are given in Table
measured directly in tests on 3.5.1.
concrete made during the design
stages of the project. Thermal
ten-sile strain developed in mass 3.7—Thermal properties
concrete increases with the 3.7.1—Thermal properties of
magnitude of the thermal concrete are significant in connection
coefficient of expansion, thermal with keeping differential volume
differential and rate of change at a minimum in mass
temperature change, and degree concrete, extracting excess heat from
of restraint (ACI 207.2R). the concrete, and dealing with similar
operations involving heat transfer.
3.5.6—Volume changes can These properties are specific heat,
also result from chemical re- conductivity, and diffusivity. The main
actions, which can be potentially factor affecting the thermal properties
disruptive. These reactions are of a concrete is the mineralogic
discussed in 3.9.4.
composition of the aggregate (Rhodes
1978). Since the selection of the
3.6—Permeability
aggregate to be used is based on
3.6.1—Concrete has inherently low other considerations, little or no control
permeability to water. With properly can be exercised over the thermal
proportioned mixtures that are properties of the concrete. Tests for
compacted by vibration, permeability thermal properties are conducted only
is not a serious problem. Permeabili-ty for providing constants to be used in
of concrete increases with increasing behavior studies as described in
water-cementitious material ratios Chapter 5. Specification requirements
for cement, pozzolan, percent sand,
and water content are modifying 3.8—Shear properties
factors but with negligible effect on 3.8.1—Although the triaxial
these properties. Entrained air is an shear strength may be deter-
insulator and reduces thermal mined as one of the basic design
conductivity, but other consid-erations
parameters, the designer usually
which govern the use of entrained air
is required to use an empirical
relationship between the shear
outweigh the significance of its effect
and compressive strength of
on thermal properties. Some rock
concrete. Shear prop-erties for
types, such as granite, can have a
rather wide range of ther-mal some concretes containing 11/2-
properties depending upon their in. (37.5 mm) max-imum-size
source. Quartz aggre-gate is aggregates are listed in Table
particularly noted for its high value of
3.8.1. These include compressive
thermal conductivity. Thermal property
strength, cohesion, and
coefficient of internal friction,
values for some mass con-cretes are
which are related linear functions
given in Table 3.7.1. Thermal
deter-mined from results of
coefficient of expan-sion is discussed
triaxial tests. Linear analysis of
in Section 3.5.4.
triaxial results gives a shear
strength slightly above the value
ob-tained from standard push-off
tests. Past criteria have stated
that the coefficient of internal
friction can be taken as 1.0 and
cohesion as 10 percent of the
compressive strength (U.S. Bu-
reau of Reclamation 1976). More
recent investigation has
concluded that assuming this
level of cohesion may be un-
conservative (McLean & Pierce
1988).
3.8.2—The shear strength
relationships reported can be
linearly analyzed using the Mohr
envelope equation
Y = C + X tan f
in which C (unit cohesive strength or * 0 9
0.63 322 0.33
cohesion) is defined as the shear Dwor- 180† * 0 22.2 1080 7.4 0.46 5
strength at zero normal stress. Tan f, 0.70 242 0.39
shak 180† * 0 16.7 950 6.6 0.43 3
which is the slope of the line, 0.59 292 0.24
represents the coefficient of internal 200‡ * 0 20.1 720 5.0 0.84 7
fric- *W/C+P.
All test specimens 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm)
1
with dry, 1 /2 in. (37.5
Table 3.8.1— Shear properties mm) maximum-size aggregate
except † designates 3 x 6 in. (75 x 150
of concrete** mm) test specimens sealed to prevent
Compres 3
drying with /4 in. (19
sive mm) maximum-size aggregate and ‡
Cohesio
strength n designates 18 x 36 in. (450 x 900 mm)
Age, test specimens sealed to prevent drying,
Ss/S with 6 in. (150
Tan mm) maximum-size aggregate.
Dam days W/C psi MPa psi MPa ø c§
§Cohesion divided by compressive strength.
0.52 525 0.22 **Triaxial tests.
28 . 0 36.2 1170 8.1 0.90 3
453 0.22
28 0.58 0 31.2 1020 7.0 0.89 5
381 0.21
Grand 28 0.64 0 26.3 830 5.7 0.92 8
Coule 475 0.21
e 90 0.58 0 32.8 1010 7.0 0.97 3
492 0.18
112 0.58 0 33.9 930 6.4 1.05 9
850 0.22
365 0.58 0 58.6 1880 13.0 0.91 1
0.55 225 0.22
Hungr 104 * 0 15.5 500 3.4 0.90 2
y 0.55 304 0.22
144 * 0 21.0 680 4.7 0.89 4
Horse 0.60 175 0.22
622 * 0 12.1 400 2.8 0.86 9
0.62 280 0.21
Monti- 28 * 0 19.3 610 4.2 0.93 8
0.92 412 0.23
cello 40 * 0 28.4 950 6.6 0.85 1
574 0.19
28 0.50 0 39.6 1140 7.9 1.05 9
492 0.21
28 0.60 0 33.9 1060 7.3 0.95 5
545 0.20
Shast 90 0.50 0 37.6 1090 7.5 1.05 0
a 659 0.20
90 0.50 0 45.4 1360 9.4 1.01 6
500 0.20
90 0.60 0 34.5 1040 7.2 1.00 8
612 0.20
245 0.50 0 42.2 1230 8.5 1.04 1
CHAPTER 4—
CONSTRUCTION
4.1—Batching
4.1.1—Proper batching of mass
concrete requires little that is
different from the accurate,
consistent, reliable batch-ing that
is essential for other classes of
concrete. ACI 221R covers the
processing, handling, and quality
control of ag-gregate. ACI 304R
discusses the measuring, mixing,
trans-porting, and placing of
concrete.
4.1.2—The desirability of restricting
the temperature rise of mass concrete by limiting
the cement content of the mix creates a continuing
construction problem to maintain work-ability in the plastic
concrete. Efficient mixes for mass con-crete contain
unusually low portions of cementing materials, sand, and
water. Thus the workability of these mixes for con-ventional
placement is more than normally sensitive to varia-tions in
batching. This problem can be lessened by the use of
efficient construction methods and modern equipment.
Usu-ally the production of large quantities of mass concrete
is like an assembly-line operation, particularly in dam
construction, where the performance of repetitive
functions makes it eco-nomically prudent to employ
specialty equipment and effi-cient construction methods.
Consistency in the batching is improved by: (1) finish
screening of coarse aggregate at the batching plant,
preferably on horizontal vibrating screens without
intermediate storage, (2) refinements in batching
equipment, such as full-scale springless dials which register
all stages of the weighing operation, (3) automatic weighing
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -23
accuracy check. Provisions should be
stant reading of approximate moisture made for preventing batching of
content of sand, (6) graphic or digital admixture while the discharge valve is
recording of the various weighing and open. Interlocks should also be
mix-ing operations, and (7) equipment provided that will prevent inadvertent
capable of instant automat-ic selection over-batching of the admixture.
and setting of at least 11 different Particularly with air-entraining and
batch ingredients in as many different water-reducing admixtures, any
mix proportions. In large central plant irregularities in batch-ing can cause
mixers, the large batches commonly troublesome variation in slump and/or
used for mass concrete also tend to air con-tent. When several liquid
minimize the effect of variations. admixtures are to be used, they
4.1.3—Since greater use is made in should be batched separately into the
mass concrete of such special- mixer. The use of com-paratively
purpose ingredients as ice, air- dilute solutions reduces gumming in
entraining, water-re-ducing and set- the equip-ment. For continuing good
controlling admixtures, and fly ash or operation, equipment must be
other pozzolans, the dependable, maintained and kept clean. Timed-
accurate batching of these materi-als flow systems should not be used.
has become a very important aspect Also, it is important to provide winter
of the concrete plant. For most protection for storage tanks and
efficient use of ice, its temperature related delivery lines where
must be less than 32 F (0 C) and it necessary.
must be brittle-hard, dry, and finely
broken. For maximum efficiency ice 4.1.5—Batching tolerances
should be batched by weighing from a frequently used are shown in
well-insulated storage bin, with quick Table 4.1.5.
discharge into the mixer along with the
other ingredients. Pozzolan and 4.2—Mixing
ground iron blast-furnace slag are 4.2.1—Mixers for mass concrete
must be capable of dis-charging low-
batched the same as cement. slump concrete quickly and with
4.1.4—Liquid admixtures are consistent dis-tribution of large
generally batched by vol-ume, aggregate throughout the batch. This
although weighing equipment has also is best accomplished with large tilting
mixers in stationary central plants. The
been used suc-cessfully. Reliable most common capacity of the mixer
admixture batching equipment is 3 3
drum is 4 yd (3 m ) but good results
available from some admixture or have been achieved with mixers as
batch plant manufacturers. Means 3 3
small as 2 yd (1.5 m ) and as large
should be provided for making a visual
3 3
as 12 yd (9 m ). Truck mixers are not
suited to the mixing and discharging of Table 4.1.5— Typical batching
low-slump, large-aggregate concrete. tolerances
Turbine-type mixers may be used for
mass concrete containing 3-in. (75- Batch weights
mm) aggregate. greater than 30 less than 30
4.2.2—Specifications for mixing time percent of percent of
range from a mini-mum of 1 min for scale capacity scale capacity
the first cubic yard plus 15 sec for Batching
each ad-ditional cubic yard (80 sec for
3 Ingredie Individu Cumulativ Individu Cumulati
first m plus 20 sec for each additional nt al e al ve
3
m ) of mixer capacity (ACI 304R and Cement ± 1 percent of
ASTM C and specified not less than
1 weight, or ± 1 required weight
94) to 1 /2 min for the first 2 yards other
cementiti
percent of
scale capacity, nor more than 4
plus 30 sec for each addi-tional yard ous whichever is percent over
1 1 3 required weight
(1 /2 min for the first 1 /2 m plus 40 materials greater
3
sec for each additional m ) of capacity Water (by
(U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981). volume
or Not Not
Blending the materials by ribbon ±1 recomme ±1 recomme
feeding during weight), nded nded
percent
±3
percent
of
scale
capacity
or ± 3
Aggregat percent
of
es,
±2 ±1 ±2 required
percent cumulativ
e
weight,
which-
ever
is less
Admixtur
es
(by
volume
or Not Not
± 3* recomme ± 3* recomme
weight), nded nded
percent
*or ± 1fl oz (30 mL),
whichever is greater.
Fig. 4.7.1(a)—Metal cover over drained fine aggregate stock pile to reduce heat
absorption
be done during the curing period to
prevent heating and to re-move heat
from the hardening concrete, including
gregate by spraying and use of steel forms, shading, and water
inundation with chilled water curing.
immediately prior to placing in the
batch plant bins. Embedded pipe cooling can be
To obtain full advantage of the low used to control the rise in concrete
placing temperature, the concrete temperature in restrained zones
should be protected from higher near foundations when maximum
ambient temper-ature conditions temperatures cannot be limited by
during the first few weeks after other, less expensive cooling
placement to reduce temperature rise measures. Embedded pipe
in the concrete and to reduce the ther- cooling is also normally required
mal differential tending to crack the to assure at least the minimum
surface later when much colder opening of contraction joints
ambient conditions may occur. During needed when in dams grouting of
placement in warm weather, joints is necessary.
absorption of heat by cold concrete
Aggregate and concrete
can be minimized by placing at night,
precooling, insulation, protection
by managing placement so that
from high ambient temperature,
minimum areas are exposed, and, if
and postcooling consider-ations
placement must be done in the sun, by
fog spraying the work area. Much can
and recommendations are
provided in ACI 207.4R.
4.8—Grouting contraction
joints
4.8.1—With increasingly effective use
of cold concrete as placed, and
especially when narrow shrinkage slots
are left and later filled with cold
concrete, some may question wheth-er
contraction joint grouting serves much
purpose for high thin-arch dams, since
a little downstream cantilever move- Fig. 4.7.1(b)—Cooling coarse
aggregate by chilled water
spray and inundation
5.3—Heat generation
5.3.1—Since one of the main
problems of mass concrete
construction is the necessity for
controlling the heat en-trapped
within it as the cement hydrates, a
short statement will be given here
of the thermal properties and
mathemat-ical relationships that
enable the engineer to estimate
rap-idly the degree of temperature
control needed for a particular
application.
Both the rate and the total adiabatic
temperature rise dif-fer among the
various types of cement. Fig. 5.3.1
shows adi-abatic temperature rise
curves for mass concretes containing
376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) of various types
of cement with a 4-1/2-in. (114 mm)
207.1R
MASS CONCRETE -31
However, in studies involving millions of
cubic yards of concrete, as in a dam,
the above remarks should be applied
only to prelimi-nary computations, and
the adiabatic temperature rise should
be determined for the exact mixture to
be used in the mass concrete starting
at the proposed placing temperature.
5.3.4—The characteristic that
determines the relative abil-ity of
heat to flow through a particular
concrete is its thermal diffusivity
which is defined as:
Fig. 5.3.1—Temperature rise of 2 K
h = -------
mass concrete Cr
where
2 2 2
h = diffusivity, ft /hr (m /hr)
shown on the curves by a factor
K = conductivity, Btu/ft×hr×F
representing the proportion of (kJ/m-hr-C)
cement.
C = specific heat, Btu/lb×F
5.3.2—When a portion of the cement
(kJ/kg-C)
is replaced by a poz-zolan, the r = density of the concrete,
temperature rise curves are greatly 3 3
lb/ft (kg/m )
modified, par-ticularly in the early
The value of diffusivity is largely
ages. While the effects of pozzolans
affected by the rock type used in
differ greatly, depending on the the concrete. Table 5.3.4 shows
composition and fineness of the diffusivities for concrete made with
pozzolan and cement used in different rock types. The higher
combination, a rule of thumb that has the value of diffusivity, the more
worked fairly well on preliminary readily heat will move through the
computa-tions has been to assume concrete. If the rock type is not
that pozzolan produces only about 50 known, an av-erage value of
percent as much heat as the cement diffusivity can be taken as 1.00
that it replaces. 2
ft /day
5.3.3—In general, chemical
admixtures affect heat gener-ation of
concrete only during the first few
hours after mixing and can be
neglected in preliminary computations.
-3 2
(3.9 x 10 m /hr) the penetration of the
2 2
(0.093 m /day) or 0.042 ft /hr daily and the annual temperature
-3 2 cycles is as shown in Fig. 5.3.5.
(3.9 x 10 m /hr), although as
can be seen from Table 5.3.4, the 5.4—Heat dissipation studies
value of diffusivity can vary 5.4.1—Studies of the dissipation
substantially from this average of heat from bodies of mass
value.
concrete can be accomplished by
5.3.5—Mass concrete can be the use of charts and graphs, by
affected by heat dissipated to or hand computation, or with finite
absorbed from its surroundings element computer programs.
(Burks 1947). If the exter-nal When the body to be analyzed can be
temperature variation can be readily approximated by a known
considered to be expressed as a geometrical shape, charts are available
sine wave, and if, as in a dam, for the di-rect determination of heat
the body of concrete is suffi- losses. For instance, Fig. 5.4.1 can be
ciently thick so that the internal used to determine the loss of heat in
temperature variation is neg- hollow and solid cylinders, slabs with
ligible compared to that of the one or two faces exposed, or solid
exposed face, the range of spheres. The ap-plication of the values
temperature variation any found on these graphs can easily be
distance in from the surface can made to a wide variety of problems
be computed from such as the cooling of dams or thick
R 2 slabs of concrete, the cooling of
x –x p ¤ h g
concrete aggregates, artificial cooling
------ = e
Ro of mass concrete by use of embedded
pipes, and the cooling of bridge piers.
where The following five examples are typical
Rx = temperature range at concrete cooling problems which can
distance x from surface Ro be solved by
= temperature range at the
surface (x = 0) Table 5.3.4— Diffusivity and
e = base of natural logarithms
(= 2.718) rock type
x = distance from surface, ft (m) Diffusivity
of concrete,
Diffusivity
2of concrete
2 -
h2 = diffusivity, ft2/hr (m2/hr) as defined Coarse
2 2 ft /hr (m
3 /hr 10
in 5.3.4 aggregate ft /day (m /day) )
g = period of the cycle of (5.4
Quartzite 1.39 (0.129) 0.058 )
temperature variation in days
Limestone 1.22 (0.113) 0.051 (4.7)
For concrete with a diffusivity of 1
2 2 2 Dolomite 1.20 (0.111) 0.050 (4.6)
ft /day (0.093 m /day), or 0.042 ft /hr
Granite 1.03 (0.096) 0.043 (4.0)
Rhyolite 0.84 (0.078) 0.035 (3.2)
Basalt 0.77 (0.072) 0.032 (3.0)
207.1R-32 Fig. 5.4.1—Heat loss from solid bodies
Fig. 5.3.5—Temperature
variation with depth
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT concrete and ambient
material, F (C)
use of Fig. 5.4.1.
For simplicity of Example 1 (See Appendix A for
presentation the examples worked in SI units)
examples are in At a certain elevation an arch
inch-pound units dam is 70 ft thick and has a mean
only; Appendix A temperature of 100 F. If exposed
presents the to air at 65 F, how long will it take
2
exam-ples to cool to 70 F? Assume h = 1.20
2
worked in SI ft /day.
(metric) units. In Initial temperature
the examples difference, qo = 100 - 65 =
35 F Final temperature
below and Fig.
difference, qm = 70 - 65 = 5
5.4.1, the F The portion of the original
following heat remaining is
notation is q --
----- 5
followed: m
--- =
- = - 0.142
3
qo 5
t = time, days
2 From Fig. 5.4.1,
h = diffusivity,
2 using the slab curve
ft per day
2 2
(m /day) h
---- 0.1
D = thickness ---t = 8
D
2
of concrete
section, ft (m) Then
qo = initial 0.18
2 2
temperatur D 0.18 (7 0)
-------
e difference t = -----------
-------
-------
------2 = -- = 740 days
between 1.20
concrete h
and
ambient Example 2
material, F A mass concrete bridge pier has a
(C) horizontal cross section of 25 x 50 ft,
qm = final and is at a mean temperature of 80 F.
temperatu Determine the mean temperature at
re various times up to 200 days if the pier
difference is exposed to water at 40 F and if the
between 2
diffusivity is 0.90 ft /day. For a
prismatic body such as this pier, where
heat is moving towards each of four
pier faces, the part of original heat
------- = ------------ = 0.00036t
remaining may be 2
D ( 50 )2
computed by
finding the part Then calculate numerical values of
remain-ing in two 0.00144t and 0.00036t for times from
infinite slabs of 10 to 200 days. See Table 5.4.1. These
values can be used with Fig. 5.4.1 to
respective
obtain the qm/qo ratios for both 25-ft
thickness equal to and 50-ft slabs. The product of these ratios
the two horizontal indicates the
dimensions of the
pier, and
multiplying the two
quantities so
obtained to get the
total heat
remaining in the
pier. For this two-
dimensional use, it
is better to find for
various times the
heat losses
associated with
each direction and
then combine them
to find the total
heat loss of the
pier.
Initial
temperatu
re
difference,
qo = 80 -
40 = 40 F
For the
25-ft
dimension
2
ht 0.90t
------- =
------------
=
0.00144t
2
D (
25)2
= =
------ ------
æ æ
æ-htö æ-htö q q
m m
D2 D2
q Temperatu
èø 25 èø 50 ö ö æ mö
Time, ------ = ------ = ------ = re,
è è
0.00144 0.00036 q ø q ø èqø
o
2 5 p
days t t o 5 o 0 ier qm F
0.8 0.6
10 0.0144 0.0036 0.73 7 4 26 66
0.8 0.4
20 0.0288 0.0072 0.61 0 9 20 60
0.7 0.4
30 0.0432 0.0108 0.53 7 1 16 56
0.7 0.3
40 0.0576 0.0144 0.46 3 4 14 54
0.6 0.2
60 0.0864 0.0216 0.35 7 3 9 49
0.5 0.1
100 0.144 0.036 0.19 7 1 4 44
0.4 0.0
200 0.288 0.072 0.05 0 2 1 41
Example 4
A 50-ft diameter circular tunnel
is to be plugged with mass ( 0.080)( 50 )
2
concrete with a diffusivity of 1.20 t = ------------------------------- = 170 days
2 1.20
ft /day. The maximum mean
temperature in the concrete is Example 5
110 F, and the surround-ing rock A closure block of concrete
is at 65 F. initially at 105 F is to be cooled to
Without artificial cooling, how 45 F to provide a joint opening of
long will it take for the 0.025 in. prior to grouting
temperature in the plug to reach contraction joints. How long will it
70 F, assuming the rock re-mains take to cool the mass by
at 65 F? circulating water at 38 F through
Initial temperature difference, qo cooling pipes spaced 4 ft 6 in.
= 110 - 65 = 45 F Final horizontally and 5 ft 0 in.
temperature difference, qm = 70 vertically. Assume concrete to be
- 65 = 5 F made with granite aggregate
having a diffusiv-ity of 1.03
qm 5 2
------ = ------ = 0.11 ft /day.
qo 4 5 Cross section handled by each
2
From Fig. 5.4.1, for a solid pipe is (4.5)(5.0) = 22 ft . The
cylinder, diameter of an equivalent
cylinder can be calculated
2 2
ht
------- = 0.080
from 22 = p D /4
2
D 2 ( 4)( 2 2) 2
D = ------------------- = 2 8 ft
p
D = 5.3 ft
Initial temperature
difference, qo = 105 - 38 =
67 F Final temperature
difference, qm = 45 - 38 = 7
F
qm 7
------ = ------ = 0.10
qo 67
Key
2
to Diagram
Q through h to axis, pivot throughl to
edge of grid and
2
S through h to axis, pivot through t to
edge of grid and
0 0
0.5 20 20
1 31 11
1.5 37 6
2 40 3
2.5 42.5 2.5
3 44.5 2.0
207.4
207.5
209R
210R
211.1
212.3
221R
224R
226.1
226.3
304R
304.2
304.4
305R
306R
309R
AST
C
C
C 150
C 260
C 494
C 595
C 618
C 684
C 989
Therefore
1.0 (2 . 6 7)
t = ----------------------- = 2 8 days
0.096