Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

A numerical investigation of nacelle anemometry for a HAWT using actuator disc

and line models in CFX
Rolf-Erik Keck a, b, *
a
Rotor Systems, Vestas Wind systems A/S, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
b
Wind Energy Department, Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to control a horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) in an optimal manner, one needs accurate
Received 24 May 2011 measurements of the oncoming wind conditions. The method currently used by large wind power
Accepted 2 April 2012 manufacturers is to measure wind speed and direction on top of the nacelle behind the rotor. In order for
Available online 24 May 2012
such measurements to give correct readings, a correction for the effect of rotor disturbance on the
oncoming wind field is needed. This requires use of so-called nacelle transfer functions (NTF). An NTF is
Keywords:
an empirical function that relates the undisturbed wind field to the measured wind speed and direction
Wind power
at the nacelle. Currently, the NTF is obtained through a series of costly and time consuming field
Actuator line
Actuator disc
measurement campaigns. The use of numerical methods, such as the one presented in this article, could
CFD both reduce the time needed to acquire an NTF and provide a means to improve NTF accuracy.
Nacelle transfer function In this article, two different numerical models based on actuator disc and line techniques are
Nacelle anemometry implemented in Ansys CFX. The models are benchmarked against the Blade Element Momentum model
(BEM) and against field measurements taken at the nacelle anemometer location of a Vestas V90 turbine.
The overall agreement between the CFX actuator models and the reference data sources is found to be
very satisfactory. The conclusion of the study is that the proposed models, in their current form, are
suitable tools for research and development activities targeting nacelle anemometry or near wake
aerodynamics. With some further development to include inflow turbulence and non-axial induction,
the models have the potential to be used for generating a numerical NTF.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The ability to measure incoming wind speed and wind direction
accurately is very important for the operations of a wind turbine. The
wind turbine controller uses wind measurements both to maintain
loads at an acceptable level and to optimise power output. Power
output regulation is accomplished by controlling blade pitch, gener-
ator speed and nacelle yaw position according to operating targets.
The current method for measuring incoming wind fields is to
utilize an anemometer mounted on the nacelle behind the rotor.
The measurements are filtered by low-pass filters to reduce the
influence of blade passages. Finally, an empiric correction, called
the nacelle transfer function (NTF), is applied.
The NTF is a turbine specific, calibrated function that relates the
free wind field as measured by a separate metrological mast to the
wind conditions measured on top of the nacelle. The NTF
* Wind Energy Department, Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy,
Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
E-mail address: roeke@vestas.com.
compensates for the average disturbance that the rotor imposes on
the incoming air. The procedure is described in IEC standard 61400-
12-2 for wind turbines power performance based on nacelle
anemometry [1].
In its current form, the NTF is a function of wind speed alone. The
NTF neglects the influence of other free stream properties, such as
turbulence intensity, wind shear or non-axial inflow angle. However,
Zahle and Sørensen [2] recently published results from a computa-
tional fluid dynamics (CFD) based investigation, concluding that
inflow angle to the rotor is a very important parameter for the nacelle
anemometer’s ability to measure wind speed and wind direction
correctly. The aim of the research described in this article is to create
and validate a numerical approach that enables investigations of the
effects of other free stream properties and operational settings of the
wind turbine on the NTF. Such a numerical model could be used in
design studies to select a suitable placement for the nacelle
anemometer. Finally, the research will serve as a proof of principle for
the hypothesis that actuator based CFD models can aid in finding the
NTF by partially or completely replacing field measurement with
numerical simulations.

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2012.04.004
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84
Two models have been implemented in CFX to investigate the
opportunity to perform numerical studies on the flow field around
a rotor and nacelle of a HAWT. Both models are based on a volume
force representation of the rotor, also known as the actuator force
approach. The basic idea behind the actuator methods is to repre-
sent the influence of the rotor on the velocity field by distributed
volume forces. The volume forces are calculated based on local
inflow conditions at the “blade sections” and on tabulated values of
the drag and lift coefficients of the wind turbine blades. This
technique eliminates the need to resolve the boundary layer on the
blades, and therefore the computational effort is drastically
reduced compared with a full physical representation of the wind
turbine rotor.
The first model is based on a time averaged actuator disc tech-
nique. The actuator disc model is based on volume forces being
distributed over a stationary permeable disc domain, thus repre-
senting the time averaged influence of the rotor. For a thorough
description of the actuator disc technique, see Mikkelsen [3]. The
second model is a transient actuator line model. The main differ-
ence between the models is that the actuator line model consists of
three rotating sources containing volumes representing three
individual blades. This enables the actuator line model to resolve
the transient flow field around the individual blades. Detailed
information about the actuator line method is given by Mikkelsen
[3] and Troldborg [4]. The total forces acting on the flow field of
both methods are the same. However, since the domains in which
the forces are applied are different, the local forces acting on the
flow are much larger in the actuator line method. This generates
a more realistic wake with strong tip and root vortices, which will
not be present in the actuator disc model.
Both the actuator disc and line models are widely used in
academia to investigate wake properties and rotor induction.
Comparative studies between actuator disc and full rotor CFD
models were presented by Réthoré et al. [5] and Johansen et al. [6].
Their results show that the actuator disc method is capable of
capturing the time averaged effect of the rotor in a realistic manner,
while maintaining a computational effort two orders of magnitude
lower compared with a full physical representation of the rotor.
Examples of other relevant investigations using actuator disc
models are the studies by Smaili and Masson [7], where the nacelle
anemometry of a wind turbine was modelled, Ivanell [8], who
modelled wake effects in the Horns reef wind park in Denmark, and
Madsen et al. [9], who used an actuator disc method to investigate
the induction of the BEM model.
The Technical University of Denmark are continuously devel-
oping a high fidelity large eddy simulation (LES) based actuator line
model. The actuator line model was first put forward by Sørensen
and Shen [10]. Mikkelsen [3] implemented the model in the in-
house flow solver Ellipsys 3D (see Sørensen [11]) and used the
method to model coned and yawed rotors. In its current form, the
DTU actuator line model has a two-way coupling to FLEX5 [12],
which enables modelling of the structural response of all compo-
nents in the fluid-structure interaction. It also contains a controller
that allows the turbine model to realistically react to changes in the
oncoming wind. A further development was added by Mikkelsen
et al. [13] with the inclusion of a method for introducing an arbi-
trary mean wind shear as a distributed volume force in the whole
computational domain. The ability to model atmospheric turbu-
lence together with the actuator line model was improved by
Troldborg et al. [14]. The method introduces turbulence to the
velocity field by fluctuating volume forces at a plane perpendicular
to the flow direction located a short distance upstream of the wind
turbine. The DTU actuator line model has been used in numerous
research investigations of different aspects of wake modelling.
Mikkelsen [15] investigated the influence of de-rating strategies on
73
power output in normal turbine spacings with the aim of finding an
improved operations mode for parks. Ivanell [8] investigated the
stability of the tip vortices by means of a highly resolved actuator
line model. Troldborg [4] made comprehensive studies to charac-
terise the wind turbine wake deficit and turbulence in various
operational conditions.
The described DTU actuator line model has been developed for
research investigations of turbine wake development, rather than
detailed studies of the flow field close to the rotor. To enable
accurate studies of nacelle anemometry, it is necessary to include
a physical representation of the nacelle geometry in the simula-
tions. Due to the mesh requirements, it is computationally costly to
include such boundaries in an LES model. A possible solution would
be to run the model in Reynolds averaged NaviereStokes (RANS)
mode. This, however, would have the limitation that any incoming
velocity fluctuations would decay relatively quickly and be trans-
formed in the turbulent kinetic energy, resulting in unrealistically
smooth inflow and far-wake velocity distributions. As a conse-
quence, the ability of the controller and rotor induction to react to
the oncoming turbulence is heavily reduced. A further limiting
factor for broad industrial use of the DTU model is its imple-
mentation into the in-house flow solver Ellipsys 3D, and its being
coupled to an induction model inside the code.
The models proposed in this work attempt to bridge that gap.
They are implemented in CFX, a widely used commercial flow
solver. Furthermore, they are designed in such a way that any
standalone induction model can be used to prescribe the
momentum source terms in the simulations without modifications
to the CFX models. As they target a resolved flow field near the rotor
and nacelle, while sacrificing far-wake accuracy, they are based on
the RANS formulation to maintain low computational effort. The
implemented models thus have the same limitations as discussed
for the DTU model in RANS mode, in terms of the inability to
accurately account for the effect on turbine control and induction as
a consequence of turbulent fluctuations. This is the main motiva-
tion behind the ability to apply the pre-calculated induction in the
models without significantly reducing the models capability to
accurately model the flow field around the rotor. If LES simulations
were to be used instead, a key feature would be to control the
induction by using a realistic turbine controller and let it be
dependent on local fluctuations, as is the case in the DTU model.
2. Computational setup
In this work, CFD calculations based on the RANS equations with
a standard keu shearestress transport (SST) closure for turbulence
have been conducted in CFX to model the nacelle anemometry for
a Vestas V90 wind turbine. For a description of the general.
keu SST model, see Menter [16]. The implementation of the
k-omega SST model in CFX and the model coefficients used can be
found in the CFX manuals [17] and [18], respectively. Only two
components of the wind turbine are included in the simulations:
a slightly smoothed physical representation of the nacelle and the
rotor. The rotor is modelled using an actuator disc or line technique,
which will be described in detail later in this paper. The other
components are assumed to be of little significance to the flow field
at the nacelle anemometer located on top of the nacelle. Further-
more, the simulations were conducted with an infinite domain
approach. Consequently, neither ground effects nor wind shear are
included. The absence of a shear profile results in a flow without
generation of turbulent kinetic energy inside the domain. Since
a relatively coarse mesh has been used due to the computational
constraints of the project, the dissipation of the inflow turbulence
was relatively high. Therefore, only laminar inflow cases could be
studied. The turbulence formulation is still important as the
74 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84
turbulence generated from the rotor and the nacelle has to be
captured to yield a realistic flow field at the nacelle anemometer. All
simulations were carried out using the CFX 2nd-order-accurate
high-resolution differencing scheme for the advection term. The
boundary conditions used for the CFD model were: (1) “inlet with
prescribed velocity and direction” for the inflow boundary, (2)
“opening with relative static pressure equal to zero” and “no turbulent
gradients” at the outflow boundary, and (3) a “no-slip” condition
was used for the nacelle.
For the actuator line method, a time step equivalent to one
degree of rotor rotation was used. This is equivalent to 0.01038 s at
the maximal rotor RPM. In actuator line calculations the CFL
number is not a restrictive constraint. The rotation of the actuator
lines themselves over the computational cells is a much stricter
requirement. Typically, the tip of the blades moves a factor of 6e8
faster than the free wind speed. To achieve the highest accuracy,
one should not exceed a time step resulting in the actuator line
passing more than one cell per step. In the current study this
requirement has been violated due to computational constraints. It
was considered more important to have a fine mesh and to better
resolve the flow field in the nacelle region, both to capture the
velocity gradients and to resolve turbulent structures (primarily tip
and root vortices). The time step was therefore selected based on
a time step study. A number of time steps were tested and evalu-
ated based on the convergence of the flow field through the rotor
(see Figs. 1 and 2). Some solution dependence was still observed
with the selected time step. Its influence, however, on the solution
by further reducing the time step was not deemed large enough to
justify the increased computational time. The actuator disc model is
based on steady state results and thus no physical time step needs
to be specified.
2.1. Domain settings
A spherical fluid domain was selected to minimise the amount
of computational cells required, and to enable future studies of
non-axial inflow conditions. Inside the main domain a smaller disc
shaped domain was added to host the forcing terms as high reso-
lution is needed in the area due to large velocity gradients (see
Fig. 3). In order to avoid speed-up due to blockage effect, a study of
the appropriate domain size was conducted (see Fig. 4). The
blockage effect refers to the effect that occurs when the cross
section of the simulated object is too large in relation to the cross
section of the model domain. Based on the domain size study an
outer spherical domain of eight rotor diameters was used in the
simulations.
The inner disc shaped domain was one rotor diameter in
diameter, with a thickness of 0.4 m in flow direction. As described
by Troldborg [4], the thickness of the domain where the volume
forces are applied was found to be an important parameter for the
rotor induction. According to the BEM theory, the forces should be
applied over an infinitesimally thin disc. This is, however, not
Fig. 1. The axial velocity distribution in the rotor cross section for simulations where the time step varies from 2.5, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 of rotation per time step from left to right.
possible in CFD calculations due to numerical stability issues. The
use of a thin forcing domain may cause numerical oscillations.
Using an excessively wide forcing domain, however, will result in
reduced rotor induction. The dimensioning factor is the number of
cells across the disc. The thinnest disc possible to maintain a stable
and correct induction is therefore a function of the mesh element
size in the force containing rotor domain. Based on the parameter
test conducted on the influence of rotor volume thickness, it was
concluded that a thickness of 0.33 m was the thinnest disc that
would yield stable results on the computational grid (see Fig. 5).
2.2. Computational mesh
The computational meshes for both models are based on an
unstructured tetrahedral approach. A series of grid sensitivity
studies were performed to evaluate how various aspects of the
mesh affect the flow field close to the rotor. Rotor thickness, domain
size, global mesh density, various local refinements as well as time
step dependence and simulation time to reach steady results were
tested. All investigations were performed in at least three different
fidelity classes to enable analysis of the trend for the examined
mesh properties.
Based on the mesh investigations, the following principles were
applied when generating the computational mesh

Surface mesh of nacelle (max. cell size w 0.05 m) and struc-
tured boundary layer refinement including 12 prism layers. The
first layer is 0.025 mm thick and every subsequent layer
increases in thickness by a factor of two. This corresponds to
a yþ in the order of unity and 12 computational cells within the
first 100 mm of the boundary layer.

Coarse far-field (max. cell size w 3 m) required to maintain
computational effort at a reasonable level. This is a limitation of
the current model that only allows for laminar inflow calcula-
tions as the turbulence from the inflow is dissipated well
before reaching the rotor.

Highly refined rotor disc domain (max. cell size w 0.05 m)
required to maintain a thin force domain for correct induction
without inducing numerical oscillations as described above. A
refined near-rotor region extending one rotor radius in front of
and one behind the rotor, as well as a 1.25 rotor radius in the
radial direction (max. cell size w 0.3 m). Fig. 6 shows the grid
dependence due to rotor volume and near wake refinements.
The red line corresponds to the mesh density used for the
models in this article.

Highly refined near-wake region to ensure maximum resolution
and accuracy in the main region of interest (max. cell size w 0.1 m).
This region is slightly longer for the actuator line model as the
strong root vortices have some influence on the solution.

Refined far-wake region (max. cell size w 1.5 m).

Highly refined tip region for the actuator line calculations to
capture the effects of tip vortex shedding (max. cell
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84 75

Fig. 2. The influence of time step on the average velocity field through the rotor disc. Based on these results it is concluded that a time step corresponding to 1 of rotation is
sufficient for the study.

size w 0.15 m, see Fig. 7). The effect of the tip vortex propagates
all the way down to the surface region of the nacelle, therefore
it is necessary to include it in the simulation.
The final meshes contained 4.45 million cells for the actuator
disc model and 7.82 million cells for the actuator line model. The
final result can be seen in Fig. 8. A sensitivity study was also carried
out to test the simulation time required for the actuator line models
to reach steady results (see Fig. 9). As an initial condition, the
simulations used converged results from an actuator disc compu-
tation. On the basis of the study, it was concluded that at least four
complete rotor revolutions should be modelled before the sampling
of data is started. For the actuator disc model, the convergence was
assured by studying the residual error.
3. Actuator method description
The basic idea of the actuator method is to represent the
influence of the rotor on the fluid as source terms in the governing
NaviereStokes equations. In the proposed models, the magnitude
and distribution of these source terms are calculated by the
following sequence:
1. pre-calculate the axial and tangential induction as a function of
radial position based on standalone BEM calculations (or any
other induction model)
2. calculate the forces as a function of radial position based on the
induction, blade properties and rotor speed
3. define the force containing domain in CFX using predefined
step functions in CFX expression language (CEL)
4. divide the total force at a given radial position by the corre-
sponding rotor disc volume
The first two steps, i.e., when the forces are calculated, are the
same in both models. The only difference lies in defining the
volumes in which the forces should be applied. There are two main
limitations of using pre-calculated rotor induction in the proposed
manner. Firstly, as the forces are calculated before running the CFD
simulations, they are uncoupled from the velocity field in the
simulations. Secondly, the applied volume forces will be axis-
symmetric, i.e., only vary based on radial distance to the rotor
centre. The main effect of decoupling the forces and the velocity
field is that the models lose their ability to react to fluctuating
inflow velocity. This is, however, not an issue for the models dis-
cussed as they are based on the RANS equations, and by that they
already suffer from this limitation as they only resolve the mean
flow. Even after turbulence is added to the simulation (thus far the
model is setup for laminar inflow), the turbulence will be repre-
sented as turbulence kinetic energy not as realised turbulent fluc-
tuations, as in an LES simulation. Therefore it will still not influence
the induction of the rotor. The issue of axis-symmetric induction,
however, needs to be solved before severe non-axial inflow

Fig. 3. The domain setup of the CFX model. The left figure shows the whole spherical fluid domain with inlet boundary, facing to the left, connecting in a circle to the outlet
boundary, facing right. In the middle of the figure the dark circular disc is representing the rotor volume. The right figure shows a close up on the rotor domain, the dark circular
disc, with the nacelle, the green body, piercing through. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
76 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84

Fig. 4. The influence of domain size on the average velocity field through the rotor disc. Based on these results it is concluded that a domain size of eight rotor diameters should be
applied to avoid blockage effects.

conditions can be run with high accuracy. One appropriate method
to incorporate such effects could be to apply the same correction to
the induction vectors as are applied to the BEM calculation to
account for non-axial flow (see Larsen et al. [19]). Another method
could be to multiply the actuator forces by a factor based on
azimuthal position inside the CFD simulation. This functionality has
not been implemented into the current model. So far only axis-
symmetric induction is applied.
The main benefit of the proposed method is that the complexity
of the implementation procedure in CFX, and the usage of the
actuator disc models are both drastically reduced. With the current
method, CFX does not have to be coupled to any specific induction
model, nor does large amounts of profile data have to be stored in
CFX before running the models. Since no coupling between CFX and
a second program is required, it is sufficient to describe the actuator
model using the CEL programing functionality in CFX. This also
makes it easy to change induction model if desired, as the proposed
models will be directly compatible with any induction model
available. The only information required by the models are vectors
contacting the azimuthally averaged induction, the blade proper-
ties and rotor RPM. This means that the model could be used by
many research groups or companies without the need to make any
modifications.
3.1. Step 1 e calculating the induction
The axial and azimuth induction (a and a’), as a function of radial
position, are calculated prior to the CFD calculations by any
induction model using the same inflow conditions as in the CFX
simulations, and they are then exported to CFX. The results pre-
sented in this article are calculated with a static BEM formulation
for rotor induction and contains the Prandtl tip and Glauert’s high
induction corrections. A thorough description of the standard BEM
method and these corrections can be found in Hansen [20].
3.2. Step 2 e recalculating the induction to forces
The forces are calculated inside CFX based on the same method
as in the standard BEM formulation (Hansen, [20]). The main
reason to export the induction factors, rather than the forces
themselves to CFX, is to enable a future non-axial inflow correc-
tion to be applied directly to the induction factors, if desired. The
forces acting on the air are calculated based on the rotor induction
factors, tabulated 2D airfoil data and the rotational speed of the
rotor.
3.3. Step 3 e defining the force containing domain in CFX
The actuator volumes are defined in CFX by using the internal
CEL. The method creates a new variable, “StepRotor” e in the CFD
simulations, which defines the nodes where rotor forces should
be included as a source term in RANS equations. “StepRotor” is
defined in CFX by using the predefined logical step functions. The
step functions take one input expression; if the input is negative,
it returns the value zero, and, if it is positive, it returns the value
one.

Fig. 5. The azimuthal average velocity distribution over the rotor for the various rotor volume thicknesses. The dashed line represents the BEM values from AERO (Vestas in-house
BEM solver). A rotor thickness of at least 0.33 m should be applied in order to yield a stable induction field.
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84
Fig. 6. The influence of near field and rotor mesh resolution on the average velocity field through the rotor disc. Grid dependence was observed even at the highest tested resolution
(red line). The largest deviation was seen in the tip region, radial position 40e45 m. The conclusions of the near field and rotor mesh investigation was therefore to run the
simulations on the highest tested mesh resolution, but to include a further grid refinement in the tip region. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Ex:
StepRotorX ¼ stepðxÞ$step ðXDisc  xÞ
StepRotorX will, in this case, be equal to zero for all negative
values of coordinate x, since the first term on the left hand side will
be zero. StepRotorX will also be zero for all values of x greater than
XDisc, since the second term is still zero.
By defining geometrical functions in the x, y and z directions, it is
possible to define any arbitrary shape of force containing domain.
3.3.1. Step functions for the actuator disc model
Assuming that the rotor centre is at the origin of the coordinate
system, the step functions needed to define a cylindrical volume of
radius RTurbine and thickness XDisc may be expressed as:

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
 ffi
StepRotorRad ¼ step RTurbine  y2 þ z2
StepRotorX ¼ stepðxÞ$stepðXDisc  xÞ
StepRotor ¼ StepRotorRad$StepRotorX
Through eqs (1)e(3) above, the variable “StepRotor” is now
assigned the value of one, where the logical requirements for
actuator disc location are fulfilled, and zero outside of the defined
disc. CFX automatically creates a smooth edge between the
domains with and without force to ensure numerical stability.
The next step is to define the volume of the force containing
domain (i.e., the actuator volume). For the actuator disc model,
the volume of the forcing domain for any given radial position is
a circular shell segment of thickness dr and depth equal to the
rotor thickness, given by eq (4):
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
Volume force domainðrÞ ¼ 2 $p$ y2 þ z2 $dr$XDsic
Before using eqs (10) and (11) to calculate the volume forces to
apply in the actuator volume, it is advisable to include a correction
to reduce the numerical effects of the computational grid. Often in
actuator disc calculations, the computational mesh is rather
coarse, which can lead to significant numerical effects. “Rotor
Volume Normalisation” ensures that CFX is using the correct
77
volume to calculate the volume forces. This is calculated as the
ratio of theoretical rotor disc volume to actual actuator disc
volume, where the forces are actually applied in CFX. The
correction is thus based on the actual computational grid, and it
greatly reduces the errors associated with having a coarse,
unstructured computational mesh that does not capture the
geometry of the desired actuator disc volume accurately. The rotor
volume normalisation correction should be applied to the calcu-
lated forces from “Step 2”, FN and FT, before the volume forces are
calculated by eqs. (12) and (13):
R2 $p$XDisc
Rotor Volume Nomalization ¼ RRRTurbine (5)
StepRotor dV
3.3.2. Step functions for the actuator line model
The system of step functions to define the actuator lines requires
a third mathematical set since the individual blades need to be
(1) described. Moreover, the rotation of the blades should be described
directly by the CEL expressions to save computational time and
improve accuracy. The alternative approach available in CFX would
(2) be to let the whole inner domain, containing the actuator forces,
rotate by using predefined CFX domain settings. The rotating
domain approach is easier to implement, but it leads to greatly
(3) increased memory requirements, longer computational time and
a lower accuracy of the results.
In order to create the general equations defining the volume
occupied by a rotating blade, a transient blade orientation angle is
introduced (see eq. (6)). The first part of the equation, bStart,
represents the initial orientation of the blade. The second term
represents the rotation of the entire rotor, uRotor. The subscript i
refers to the different blades.
uRotor $2$p
bBlade orientation;i ¼ bStart;i þ (6)
60$t
The two sets in the flow and radial directions are the same as in
(4) the actuator disc model (see eqs. (8) and (9)). A third condition is
needed for the in-plane definition of the blade volume. The third
set is defined by the offset of the leading edge from the centre of the
rotor and the actual chord distribution of the blade. The first logical
requirement on any coordinate pair is that the angle towards the
centre of the rotor must be smaller than the blade orientation
angle. This condition is tested by “StepRotorBeta”, as given by
eq. (7):
78 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84

Fig. 7. Axial velocity in an XY cut-plane though the centre of the computational domain. Flow is going from left to right and the rotor (turquoise body) and nacelle (white body) are
thus seen from the side. The effect of tip refinement can clearly be seen when comparing results calculated on the baseline grid, left figure, to the same grid containing local
refinements in the tip region, right figure. The right figure also includes a six degree upward inflow angle, but for this comparison this should be disregarded. (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

 

StepRotorBetai ¼ step bðy; zÞ  bBlade orientation;i (7)
StepRotorChordi ¼ step CðrÞ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
The second logical requirement is the location of the coordinate
 y2Transformed;i þ z2Transformed;i (10)
pair and the fact that it cannot be further away from the leading
edge than a chord length in normal direction. To find the normal
distance from the leading edge, while taking the leading edge offset
The form of the “StepRotor” variable can now be defined by
from the centre of rotation into account, a coordinate trans-
combining the equations using the results of eqs. (1), (2), (7) and
formation is used, as shown in eqs. (8) and (9):
(10) in the same manner as in eq. (3). The volume of the force
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi   containing domain at a given radial position for the actuator line
yTransform;i ¼ y  y2 þ z2 $sin bBlade orientation;i model is given by eq. (11):
 
 L$edge offset$sin bBlade orientation;i þ 90+ (8)
Volume force domainðrÞ ¼ 3$CðrÞ$dr$XDisc (11)

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi   The “Rotor Volume Normalisation” correction used for the actu-
zTransform; i ¼ z  y2 þ z2 $cos bBlade orientation;i ator disc model is not included in the actuator line, since a global
 
 L$edge offset$cos bBlade orientation;i þ 90+ volume correction would lead to a redistribution of forces over the
rotor. It could be possible to develop it as a local rotor volume
(9)
correction, which would work for the actuator line model. No
correction was needed, however, since the mesh used in this study
The distance to the leading edge of the actuator line volume can was fine enough. The total force applied by both models was
be tested against the chord length by using the transformed coor- calculated and compared. The deviations between the models were
dinates as shown in eq. (10): negligible.

Fig. 8. The computational meshes used for the actuator disc (left) and actuator line (right) simulations. The “inclined” mesh refinements are due to a tilted inflow direction in
accordance with the turbine models rotor tilt. The meshes are similar apart from the refinements in the tip and root region included in the actuator line mesh. These refinements are
designed to capture the strong vortex structures generated by the actuator line.
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84 79

Fig. 9. Investigation of number of revolutions needed for the actuator line model to reach steady results. The plotted lines represent azimuthally average axial velocity after one to
six rotor revolutions. There is a clear trend in the figure the resulting velocity field though the rotor converges towards about 3% higher than the velocity seen after one revolution.
The largest change takes place within the first three revolutions. Based on the study it was decided that sampling should be started after three full revolutions, resulting in the first
recorded revolution corresponding to the light blue line above. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

3.4. Step 4 e calculating the volume forces magnitude of the force to be applied is calculated by the second
term in the equations.
The distribution of volume forces is calculated by simply
dividing the axial and tangential force at any radial position, FN(r)
and FT(r), with the volume of the corresponding force containing 4. Results & discussion
domain:
The forces exerted on the flow by the two methods are shown in
FN ðrÞ order to illustrate the difference between the models (see Fig. 10).
FN Volume ðrÞ ¼ StepRotor$ (12) The azimuthally averaged forces applied by both models are the
Volume force domainðrÞ
same at all radial positions, but the domain in which forces are
FT ðrÞ applied is much smaller in the actuator line model. This yields
FT Volume ðrÞ ¼ StepRotor$ (13) much stronger force gradients, which create a more realistic flow
Volume force domainðrÞ
field with clear tip and root vortices, as well as an unsteady velocity
From the first term in the equations, note that the forces are only field with rotor added turbulence due to transient fluctuations (see
applied at nodes where the “StepRotor” variable is non-zero. The Fig. 11).

Fig. 10. The distribution of the axial force being put on the incoming flow field by the actuator models seen from an upstream position. The left figure depicts the force by the
actuator disc model and right figure show the forces field the actuator line model.
80 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84

Fig. 11. a: The axial velocity distribution around the individual blade volume of the actuator line model as seen from an upstream position. b: The 3 dimensional vorticity field
around the turbine with bound vortices that dissipates quickly and clear tip and root vortex systems that propagate down stream.

The velocity field near the rotor has been validated by
comparing the result of the CFX actuator disc and line calculations
with BEM calculations and field measurements. The BEM calcula-
tions were used to give a reference velocity field at the rotor
position that could be compared to the centre plane of the actuator
model volume. The field data are used as a reference point of the
velocity at the nacelle anemometer position. All figures shown are
based on the same ambient conditions: axial inflow direction,
laminar inflow and mean wind speeds varying from 4 to 16 m/s.
Note that the default 5% turbulence intensity is applied at the
inflow boundary in CFX, but for reasons discussed above the
turbulence dissipates well before reaching the rotor. The inflow to
the rotor should therefore be considered laminar in all cases.
In Fig. 12 the azimuthally averaged axial and tangential velocity
distribution at the rotor plane extracted from the actuator disc
model is compared with the BEM reference data. It is important to
remember that the two velocity fields that are compared should
resemble each other closely, since they are based on the same axial
and tangential forces, but they should not by necessity be identical.
In fact, the velocity fields can never be identical as long as the same
loading is applied to both models, since the BEM includes the
Prandtl tip correction, which modifies the induction values. To
highlight the difference, consider that the BEM velocity field is
given explicitly by the induction factors, including the tip correc-
tion, and the free stream velocity. The velocity field through the
three-dimensional actuator models depends on the resulting
pressure field in the CFD calculations. The pressure field can be
considered to generate an “implicit induction”, but it is not a func-
tion of the explicit BEM induction factors alone. The basis is instead
the RANS equations, including a momentum source representing
the forces exerted by the rotor on the air. The realised velocity field
in the actuator models thus includes more effects from the flow
field, such as radial flow and pressure effects due to wake rotation,
since the flow is realistically modelled.
The agreement between BEM and the actuator disc model is
found to be very good for the axial velocity distribution for the
inner 90% of the rotor. Some larger discrepancies are seen in the
outermost 10% of the rotor span, where the actuator disc yields
higher velocities than BEM. These differences can plausibly be
attributed to the influence of the tip correction in the BEM induc-
tion. A secondary effect could also be the more realistic modelling
of radial flow due to pressure influence which causes more air to
travel through the rotor in the tip region, thus resulting in a higher
velocity. The same shape for the realised velocity field of an actu-
ator disc was also found in the work presented by Johansen et al.
[6]. These results might seem contradictory to the results found by
Mikkelsen et al. [21] and Madsen et al. [9], where it was concluded
that higher “explicit” axial induction in the outboard region for
actuator disc models is required to maintain a given axial force. The
“explicit” induction discussed by Mikkelsen and Madsen, however,
are introduced to find the correct angle of attack, as well as the CL
and CD coefficients inside the actuator models. Therefore, the two

Fig. 12. Depict the axial (left) and tangential (right) velocity distribution as a function of radial position in the rotor plane for the actuator disc model (solid line) and the BEM solver
(dashed line). The colours indicate ambient wind speed ranging from 4 to 16 m/s. Overall the velocity field though the rotor volume found with the actuator disc model has a good
agreement to BEM reference data. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84 81

Fig. 13. Depict the axial (left) and tangential (right) velocity distribution as a function of radial position in the rotor plane for the actuator line model (solid line) and the BEM solver
(dashed line). The colours indicate ambient wind speed ranging from 4 to 16 m/s. The time averaged results from the actuator line model shows good agreement to BEM reference
data. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

conclusions are not in any way contradictory to each other, since
they do not refer to the same circumstances. The explanation lies in
the difference between “implicit induction”, where the realised
velocity field includes complex contributions from the three-
dimensional flow field, as compared to “explicit induction”,
which is used inside the actuator models and includes a tip
correction. The tangential velocity distribution also agrees rela-
tively well, only displaying some deviations at around 0.2 rotor
radius from the rotor centre.
The same comparison with BEM was made for the actuator line
model. Note that in order to be comparable with BEM the actuator
line model is averaged twice, both over azimuthal position and
time. Fig. 13 shows that the outcome of the comparison is fairly
similar to the actuator disc model. The axial velocity distribution
more or less coincides with BEM, except in the tip region. The
tangential velocity of the actuator line model is closer to the BEM
model at the high tangential inductions at 20% spanwise position,
compared to the actuator disc model. It can also be seen that the
actuator line model gives a slightly higher wake rotation in the
outboard part of the rotor compared to BEM.
The velocity field in the nacelle anemometer region is charac-
terised by large flow structures associated with the root and bound
vorticity of the passing blades (see Fig. 14). These cause both the
velocity and the horizontal direction at the anemometer positions
to vary cyclically with the passing of the blades (see Fig. 15). The
transient behaviour of the flow field at the nacelle anemometer
position shows good comparison both with the numerical results
presented by Zahle and Sørensen [2] and with field data obtained
from an unpublished high frequency measurement campaign from
a site in Gotland (see Fig. 16). It should be noted that the results
presented from the field campaign have been normalised so that
the mean of the nacelle wind speed is equal to one, and the mean of
the nacelle wind direction is equal to zero. If a realistic offset
between the free wind and the nacelle measurements is included,
according to the turbine specific NTF values, with roughly 3% wind
speed and 3 directional offset for the turbine model, the model
predictions compare very well with the measurement data.
This type of velocity field is only captured with the actuator line
model. The actuator disc produces a “smooth” time averaged
rotating wake. However since the information obtained by the
anemometer in operation is low-pass filtered before being used by
the controller, it is sufficient if the average level of wind speed and
direction change is captured by the models. In order to validate the
actuator disc model, the average wind field at the nacelle
anemometer position was compared with field data.
Table 1 shows the ratio of time averaged nacelle wind speed to
ambient wind speed for the actuator models together with
a reference measurement data column. The reference data consist
of the average nacelle response from a field measurement
campaign and the manufacturer NTF corrections. The field data
used come from an unpublished Vestas measurement campaign
in Bökingharde, Germany. It should be noted that the field
campaign was conducted with uncalibrated anemometers. This
should be considered to be a source of uncertainty in the order of
0.5 m/s for mean wind speed measurement. The uncertainty for
the NTF correction measurements are in the order of 0.1 m/s,
giving the combined uncertainty of 0.36 m/s for the reference
data column.

Fig. 14. aed: A top-view of the transient velocity field behind rotor the actuator line model for four different rotor positions. The difference in rotor position between two slides is
32 . The rotor is the rotating white body in the lower part of the figures. The anemometer positions are indicated by the black dots and the instantaneous directions are given by the
arrows. The velocity field is visualized by a contour-plot on a 2D plane just under the nacelle anemometers.
82 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84

Fig. 15. Velocity (left) and horizontal direction (right) at the main anemometer as a function of rotor position, i.e. at the left black dot of Fig. 9aed. The results have been averaged
over six revolutions.

Overall, the magnitude of the speed-up seen in the models
corresponds well to the reference data. However, the level of
measurement uncertainty is in the same order of magnitude as the
speed-ups seen by the nacelle anemometer, thus rendering the
comparison of absolute levels unreliable. What can be concluded is
that the trends of the nacelle anemometer wind speed in the
actuator models show the expected development. From a theoret-
ical stand point, the ratio of the nacelle wind speed to ambient
wind speed for a pitch regulated turbine is expected to be around
one for low wind speeds, increase slightly to a maximum when
rated power is first reached, and finally asymptotically go towards
unity as the wind turbine pitches to maintain rated power at higher
wind speeds.
Table 2 shows the time averaged horizontal directional offset
measured at the nacelle anemometer for axial inflow conditions. In
this table, the actuator models are only compared to the manu-
facturer NTF values of the turbine model. The field data from
Bökingharde were excluded, since it was difficult to ensure that the
turbines experienced axial inflow conditions. It is expected that the
actuator disc model will capture the effect of the wake rotation (or
swirl) quite well. It will not, however, be able to capture the effects
of root and blade vortices being shed and transported from the
rotor down stream. At higher wind speeds, where wake rotation
dominates the wind direction offset, the models predict similar
results. At these wind speeds, the velocity field generated with the
time averaged physics of the actuator disc model is a reasonable
representation of the averaged flow field. Also, the average of the
transient velocity field generated with the actuator line model at
the nacelle anemometer position compares well with the reference
data. At lower wind speeds, there are large deviations between the
models, and, surprisingly, the actuator disc compared better with
field data than the actuator line model. The actuator line model
predicts a negative horizontal mean angle. Similar effects were also
found by Zahle and Sørensen [2], where low free stream velocities
generated negative mean horizontal angles for a larger portion of
the nacelle region. This effect is attributed to the advection of the
complex system of structured vortices generated by the root
section of the blade. At low wind speeds, this effect seems to be
stronger than the wake rotation for the actuator line calculations.
One possible explanation could be that the nacelle flow field is
dominated to a greater extent by unsteady vortex structures. These
vortex structures, and their transient behaviour, may not be
captured sufficiently by the actuator models to predict the average
wind direction at the anemometer. The shedding of the root and
bound vortices could also appear in a more stable manner in the
simulations as laminar flow conditions are used. Even though the
field data comes from flat, low turbulence sites, some turbulence is
always present. This could cause a more pronounced local region of
clockwise rotation at the nacelle anemometer due to stable vortex
structures in the simulations.
Based on the limited validation performed above, the developed
models show potential for numerical investigations of NTF and
nacelle anemometry. In their current form, the models could be
used for running parametric investigations of the effect of other
factors that could influence the NTF apart from wind speed, such as
horizontal and vertical inflow angles and low noise operations of

Fig. 16. Velocity (left) and horizontal direction (right) at the main anemometer as a function of rotor position from a measurement campaign in Gotland. Both signals are presented
in normalized form, i.e. the wind speed has been divided by the mean wind speed at the anemometer and the wind direction is centred around zero degree offset. The scatter
indicates individual measurements and the solid line is the binned mean value.
 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84 83

Table 1 modified or even when a completely new rotor is used (as long as
Time averaged nacelle transfer function (wind speed at nacelle/free wind speed) for the diameter does not increase significantly). Furthermore, the time
the actuator models and comparable field data.
stepping is controlled based on the rotor RPM setting, and it is
Wind speeds Actuator disc Actuator line Measured reference therefore automatically modified based on the turbine input. All
[m/s] [e] [e] data [e]
these factors make the model easy to use with limited CFD back-
4 0.998 0.982 1.030 ground. The fact that any induction model can be used means that
8 1.018 1.025 1.044
the standard tool of the department, research institute or company
10 1.021 1.037 1.025
12 1.024 1.032 1.040 can be used to prescribe the rotor forces.
16 1.009 1.008 0.980 As the models are based on simplified rotor representations,
they have computational requirements that are at least one order of
magnitude lower compared to a similar model with full physical
Table 2 rotor representation where the boundary layer on the blades needs
Time averaged nacelle yaw angle, positive in counter clockwise direction as seen to be resolved. Since the models are still capable of capturing the
from above. average flow field in the nacelle region, and the dynamic behaviour
Wind speeds Actuator Actuator Measured reference if the actuator line model is used, they are proposed as suitable
[m/s] disc [e] line [e] data [e] tools for research and development activities targeting nacelle
4 0.073 1.545 2.43 anemometry. The effects of free stream conditions and turbine
8 3.106 1.463 5.66 operational settings on the NTF are promising areas to address with
10 3.681 2.924 4.96
the implemented models, as well as using them to serve as a basis
12 3.612 2.808 2.77
16 4.394 3.659 3.60 for an optimisation of the nacelle anemometer position.
Currently the implemented actuator models are limited to
laminar inflow conditions and axis-symmetric induction. Further
improvements to include inflow turbulence and non-axial induc-
the wind turbine, etc. This could lead to great advances in the tion would enable the model to be used to study the effect of inflow
ability to accurately measure the wind conditions in the field and turbulence and severe non-axial flow conditions.
thereby enable improved operations of the wind turbines.
This work should be considered as a proof of principle, and Nomenclature
further improvements are required before field measurements can
be replaced by the CFD models for this application. The effect of Variable & constants:
atmospheric turbulence, thermal stratification and shear, as well as bStart, i Starting direction of blade i [deg]
terrain effects, should be accounted for in the model. To realistically bBlade direction, i Direction of blade i [deg]
model the turbine response to the oncoming wind, the turbulence B Number of blades [e]
needs to be resolved by an LES type model, and a controller is C Airfoil chord length [m]
required. These issues could all be resolved by extending the FN Normal force in rotor coordinate system [N/m]
domain, including a realistic topography and a refinement of the FT Tangential force in rotor coordinate system [N/m]
computational mesh. Currently, however, computational qpitchþtwist Total airfoil pitch and twist angle [deg]
constraints require that some cost-effective techniques are imple- r Radial coordinate [m]
mented in order to capture these effects. To obtain both ground RTurbine Constant describing the rotor radius [m]
effects and resolved turbulence, a hybrid RANS-LES (or DES) solu- u Angular velocity [rad/s]
tion could be of advantage. The approach taken at DTU of distrib- XDisc Constant describing the rotor disc thickness [m]
uted volume forces to capture shear and mechanical turbulence x, y, z Coordinates in CFX simulations [m]
(see Troldborg [14] and Mikkelsen [15]) is a promising and
computationally inexpensive method. These approaches, however, Internal functions
are only suitable for modelling neutral atmospheric conditions, StepRotorRad defines the set of nodes where the radial condition
which limits their use. An alternative could be to couple the CFD of the force containing domain is fulfilled, i.e., the
calculation to a meteorological model, such as WRF-LES, to get node being closer to the centre line than the RTurbine.
realistic inflow conditions and stability information, or it could be StepRotorX defines the set of nodes where the thickness
to include the energy equation and model buoyancy effects as well condition of the force containing domain is
as shear generated turbulence using large precursor calculations. fulfilled, i.e., the x coordinate of the node being
greater than zero and smaller than XDisc.
5. Conclusions StepRotorChord defines the set of nodes where the condition of the
rotational plane of the rotor for the actuator line
Two models designed for simulations of the flow field around model is fulfilled based on distance from the
the nacelle of an operating HAWT based on a simplified rotor leading edge, i.e., any pair of y, z coordinates that
representation via actuator methods have been implemented into are closer to the leading edge of the blade than the
CFX. Their ability to accurately predict the wind conditions at the corresponding chord width.
nacelle under laminar, axial inflow conditions has been validated StepRotorBeta defines the set of nodes where the condition of the
against BEM and field data. rotational plane of the rotor for the actuator line
The models are implemented with the ambition that they model is fulfilled based on rotational angle, i.e., any
should be as flexible and easy to use as possible. As a consequence, pair of y, z coordinates that have a smaller
induction is calculated separately and prescribed in the CFX model rotational angle than the leading edge.
via vector input. This means that any induction model can be used StepRotor defines the set of nodes where the actuator forces
in combination with the developed models. Since no physical are applied, i.e., the intersection of StepRotorRad,
representations of the blades are included, there is no need to StepRotorX, StepRotorChord and StepRotorBeta or
change the computational mesh when the blade geometry is the actuator line model.
84 R.-E. Keck / Renewable Energy 48 (2012) 72e84
Rotor Volume Normalization ensures that CFX is using the correct
volume to calculate the volume forces.
It is calculated as the ratio of
a theoretical rotor disc volume to the
actual actuator disc volume where the
forces are actually applied in CFX.
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