Running head: LAB 2: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND PH 1

Lab 2: Biological Molecules and pH

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LAB 2: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND PH 2

Lab 2: Biological Molecules and pH

Objective

The experiment aims at describing the three types of chemical bonds and determining the

pH of a solution. The experiment further aims at studying the types of biologically important

molecules as well as the name and structure of their functional groups. Finally, the experiment

aims at assessing the tests which detect different types of biologically important molecules.

Background

All living organisms have the elements of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Organic

molecules are formed through the combinations of the three elements through different bonds.

Three types of bonds currently determine the organic molecules formed by the elements. The

bonds are ionic, covalent, and the hydrogen bonds. Covalent bonds form the strongest bonds

between element while hydrogen bonds are among the weakest bonds. Ionic bonds are

commonly observed in organic molecules and are formed where an elements gives up their

outermost electrons to another element to form an ion.

Carbon is the most abundant and one of the most important element of the organic

molecules. Carbon bonds covalently with hydrogen to form hydrocarbons. Examples of

hydrocarbons include methane, CH4, which is also the simplest hydrocarbon. A structure of

methane is given as;

Other hydrocarbons with single bonds between the carbons include ethane, propane, butane,

pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, and nonane, decane. They are also called alkanes. A

hydrocarbon with two bonds between the carbons is referred to as an alkene. An example of an
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alkene is ethane. Hydrocarbons with triple bonds between the carbons are referred are referred to

as alkynes such as ethyne. Alkanes are saturated while alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons can easily bond to other hydrogen atoms. The part of an organic

molecule that participates in chemical reactions is referred as a functional group. The presence of

functional groups in organic molecule of large organisms leads to complex molecules called

polymers. Some well-known polymers include sugars, lipids, and proteins. Sugars consists of

monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides such glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch, and

cellulose. Reducing sugars are carbohydrates which have free aldehyde groups. The presence of

sugars is tested using the Benedict’s solution. Iodine test is used to distinguish polysaccharides

from the rest of the carbohydrates. Lipids consists of fats which have hydrocarbon functional

groups. Fats can either be saturated or unsaturated. Sudan III test is used to test for the presence

of fats. Finally, proteins are formed by amino acids which are bonded by peptide bonds to form

long chains. The Biuret reagent is used to test for the presence of proteins in food. The presence

of enzymes in proteins tested by observing the changes of the solution during the Biuret reagent

test.

Materials

All the materials were obtained as described in the laboratory 2 manual.

Methods

Constructing Functional Groups

Using the atom and bond library, the functional groups provided, the functional groups of

COOH, COH (double bond), and COH *(single bond). The glucose molecule was also

constructed.

Biochemical Analysis Activity

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The solutions of the food items were prepared prior to performing the biological analysis

tests. The food items were corn syrup, onion juice, water, sugar, corn starch, chicken soup,

gelatin, and four unknown samples. Seven test tubes were selected to perform the three

biochemical analysis experiments. Benedict’s test was performed on the sugar, corn syrup, water,

and the four unknown samples. The iodine test was then performed on the onion juice,

cornstarch, and the unknown samples. The Biuret test was performed on the chicken soup,

gelatin, water and the four unknown samples.

Catalase Activity

Hydrogen peroxide was used to test for the presence of a catalyst in the liver and lunch

meat in accordance with the test protocols given in the manual.

Measuring pH Activity

The pH of baking soda, white vinegar, shampoo, lemon juice, and water was determined

using a pH strip.

Results, Discussion and Conclusion

The results, discussion, and the conclusion of this lab were presented through questions

given in the “Assessing Your Learning” section. The answers to the “Assessing Your Learning”

section are given below.

Answer to Question One

The functional group or molecule are identified as;

a. COOH – Carboxyl group/acid. Aldehyde group

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b. COH – Hydroxyl group, alcohol group

c. COH – Hydroxyl group, alcohol group

Answer to Question Two

According to the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars, the following substances were

found to be:

a. corn syrup – Positive for reducing sugars

b. table sugar – Positive for reducing sugars

c. unknown 1 – Negative for reducing sugars

d. unknown 2 – Negative for reducing sugars

e. unknown 3 – Negative for reducing sugars

f. unknown 4 – Positive for reducing sugars

Answer to Question Three

After using iodine for starch test, the following substance were found to be;

a. onion juice – Negative for starch

b. water – Negative for starch

c. cornstarch – Positive for starch

d. unknown 1 – Negative for starch

e. unknown 2 – Positive for starch

f. unknown 3 – Negative for starch

g. unknown 4 – Negative for starch

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Answer to Question Four

According to the Sudan III test results shown in the image below, the substances were found

to be:

a. oil (O) – Positive for lipids

b. butter (B) – Positive for lipids

c. flour (F) – Negative for lipids

d. unknown 1 – Positive for lipids

e. unknown 2 – Negative for lipids

f. unknown 3 – Positive for lipids

g. unknown 4 – Negative for lipids

Answer to Question Five

After the Biuret test for protein, the following substances were found to be;

a. chicken soup – Positive for protein

b. water – Negative for protein

c. gelatin – Negative for protein

d. unknown 1 – Positive for protein

e. unknown 2 – Positive for protein

f. unknown 3 – Positive for protein

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g. unknown 4 – Positive for protein

Answer to Question Six

The results from the catalysts test were found to be;

a. Liver

Catalase present? Yes

b. Roast Beef

Catalase present? Yes

c. Student supplied meat (Chicken meat):

Catalase present? Yes

Answer to Question Seven

The pH for the following substances is listed as:

a. baking soda - 9

b. white vinegar - 2

c. shampoo - 4

d. lemon juice - 2

e. distilled water - 7

Answer to Question Eight

The purpose of using water as a sample in some of the tests performed was to act as a

control. The controls allows the experimenter to understand the changes in the other

samples.

Answer to Question Nine

The four unknown samples were coconut flour, potato starch, egg whites, and dried milk.

After the biochemical testing, the number corresponding to each unknown are:
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a. unknown 1 – Egg whites

b. unknown 2 – Potato Starch

c. unknown 3 – Flax seed meal

d. unknown 4 – Dried milk

Answer to Question Ten

The biochemical testing as used in this lab is commercially used in food testing. The

biochemical testing is hereby used to check for chemical and microbiological contaminants to

ensure the safety of food supply.

Answer to Question Eleven

The three types of bonds are ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds. The ionic bonds are

formed when elements give the outermost electrons to another element to form ions. An

example of a compound with ionic bond is sodium chloride. Covalent bonds occur when

two elements share electrons. An example of a compound with covalent bond is hydrogen

gas. Hydrogen bonds are formed when hydrogen bond weakly with other elements. An

example of a compound with hydrogen bond is water.

Answer to Question Twelve

Monosaccharides have only one single unit of sugar. Disaccharide are formed when two

monosaccharides combine through the dehydration process. Polysaccharide results when

several monosaccharides are joined together to form polymers.

Answer to Question Thirteen

Three factors that can affect the observance of a particular enzyme in a test performance

are:

- Temperature
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- pH levels

- The denaturing ability of the enzyme

Answer to Question Fourteen

While working part-time in a lab, the lab technician is asked to grab a jar that contains

carbohydrates. Two jars are on the counter, each labeled with their chemical formula.

One is labeled C5H10O5, and the other is C3H9O3.

a. Which one is the carbohydrate? – C5H10O5

b. What was the lab technician’s decision based upon? The decision of the lab technician

was based by the fact that sugars have about 5 or 6 carbon molecules. Only C5H10O5

has 5 or 6 carbon molecules.

c. What type of sugar is it? Pentose

Answer to Question Fifteen

Many commercial food products are sweetened with table sugar. What is the chemical

composition (technical name) of table sugar? Sucrose

Answer to Question Sixteen

a. How are monosaccharides made from a disaccharide? Two monosaccharide combine

after losing a water molecule through dehydration and thereby bonds with the

carbon element in each other.

b. What is this reaction called? Dehydration

Answer to Question Seventeen

At a restaurant, the chef is cooking with butter and lard. While the fats sit on the

counter, it is noticed that the butter begins to melt, but the lard doesn't. Based on what is

known about fats, which product most likely contains the most hydrogen atoms? Provide
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an explanation for this. The product that most likely contains the most hydrogen

atoms would be the lard because it is an saturated fat. We know this because it did it

stayed a solid at room temperature. Another example of this is cheese.

Answer to Question Eighteen

Name two body structures that are composed of protein. (2 points)

a. Stomach

b. Pancreas

APPLICATION QUESTION

The most important thing a non scientist could take away from this lab is the information

regarding chemical reactions. This is important for many people because a lot of us don't know

what chemicals can be mixed with what. For example, I didn't know that when hydrogen gas and

oxygen gas are combined, an explosion is the result. As for everyday life, this is good to know

for people's safety. If you are a mom, and you are cleaning, you can be aware of what chemicals

you should keep apart. If you are elderly and have a tank of oxygen, there are certain things you

should stay away from to prevent explosions, and accidents.

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References