Sweeteners Final

Sweeteners
1. INTRODUCTION
Of all the five primary tastes- salty, sweet, sour, pungent and bitter- sweetness is often said to be
the most popular. According to ancient Chinese philosophy it is the ‘mother’ of all the others.
Humans have an inborn preference for sweets, which seems to have helped our ancestors select
the most nutritionally dense foods, and sweet foods were very often non-poisonous as well
It has been said that if you could taste the soul, it would be sweet. Sweetness is associated with
affection, used in terms of endearment and very often the choice comfort food.
Though a balanced range of all five tastes in our diet is essential, there is no denying the love of
sweets. Fortunately there are many whole food and natural sweeteners available to both help
satisfy that inborn sweet tooth and maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Agave Syrup is low-glycemic* sweetener made from the blue or wild agave cactus
(Agave tequilana) of Mexico, from the same cactus family from which tequila is made. It is
approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose. A light sweetener, less viscous and more flavour
neutral than honey, agave is at least 1.5x sweeter than regular white sugar.
Barley Malt Syrup is made from sprouting and cooking barley, then allowing enzymes to
break down the proteins and carbohydrates. This results in a thick, dark sweetener that is 30%
complex carbohydrates and at least 65% malt sugar, maltose, a complex sugar that is absorbed
more slowly into the bloodstream than table sugar. It has a malt-like flavour and is about half as
sweet as refined white sugar.
Brown Rice Syrup is made by culturing rice with enzymes that break down its starches.
This results in a mild tasting sweetener that is 50% complex carbohydrate and 45% maltose, a
complex sugar that is absorbed more slowly into the bloodstream than table sugar. It also
contains about 3% glucose. Brown Rice syrup is half as sweet as white sugar.
Honey is a viscous liquid made by bees from the nectar of flowers. Made up of the
simple sugars fructose and glucose, it is absorbed quickly into the bloodstream. Honey contains
about 39% fructose, 31% glucose and small amounts of a wide array of vitamins, minerals, amino
acids, enzymes and antioxidants. Honey should not be given to children under 18 months,
BHABHA PHARMCY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, BHOPAL Page 1
Sweeteners
because it can carry the dormant spores of Clostridium botulinum (botulism). These spores are
harmless to those with mature gastrointestinal tracts such as older children and adults. Honey is
one of the oldest sweeteners known to man and for centuries has been used as medicine
Pasteurized Honey has been heated to temperatures above 160 degrees F. Raw honey is
completely unprocessed and unheated and can contain pollen, propolis and honeycomb. It is
believed that honey looses its beneficial properties when heated.
Maple Syrup is 65% sucrose and is made by boiling down the sap of sugar maple trees.
Canada makes more than 80 percent of the world's maple syrup. The syrup is graded based upon
its colour and flavour: Canada #1 grades are lightest and sweetest: Extra Light, Light and
Medium. Canada #2 Amber is darkest. The mineral content of the grades is the same except for
calcium, which is more abundant in the darker syrups. . Native North Americans were the first to
discover 'sinzibuckwud', the Algonquin word for maple syrup, meaning literally 'drawn from
wood'. Look for Organic maple syrup, which is free of formaldehyde, chemical foaming agents
and mould inhibitors.
Molasses is made from the dark, syrupy "leftovers" from the cane sugar-refining process.
It is 70% sucrose and contains most, if not all, of the redeeming nutrient value of the original
sugar cane plant. Barbados Molasses is made from the first extraction of sugar crystals and is
very sweet and lighter in colour and flavour and contains little nutritive value compared to the
Blackstrap variety. Blackstrap Molasses is the liquid from last extraction of the sugar refining
process (there are three extractions) has a very strong flavour, is rich in iron, calcium, potassium
and B vitamins, as well as other micronutrients.
Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is a member of the chrysanthemum family and is native to

parts of South America and China. It has been used as a sweetener and flavour enhancer there for
centuries there, and widely in Japan as a sweetening additive for the past 30 years. In its extract
form, it can be up to 300 times sweeter than sugar, but has no calories, no carbohydrates, does not
promote tooth decay, does not trigger a rise in blood sugar, and does not feed yeast and other
microorganisms.

Sweeteners
Stevia has numerous health properties. Stevia aids in digestion and in regulating blood
glucose levels, as it benefits the pancreas. It contains vitamins C, A & thiamine, and contains the
minerals chromium, cobalt, magnesium, manganese, selenium & silicon. Other reported effects
are that it helps to: minimize hunger sensations and cravings for fatty foods, increase energy,
decrease hypertension without affecting normal blood pressure, and shorten recovery time in
illness and addiction.
Stevia is found in 3 main forms: Green Stevia Powder (tends to have a strong licorice
flavour), White Stevia Extract Powder, and a liquid extract made from the white concentrate. A
liquid working solution can also be made at home from the white extract powder. To make the
solution, dissolve 1 teaspoon white stevia powder into 3 tablespoons filtered water and store in
fridge in a dropper bottle.
Recipe Equivalencies: Note: results may vary

Stevia Powder – Green 8 - 10 times sweeter than sugar
1½ - 2 tablespoons stevia = 1 cup sugar
Stevia Extract Powder – White - 200 - 250 times sweeter than sugar
approximately ¼ teaspoon stevia extract powder = 1 cup sugar
Liquid Stevia Extract -8 drops = 1 teaspoon sugar
Home-made Working Solution 1 teaspoon solution = 1 cup sugar
Stevia sweetened baked goods may not brown very much, so be sure to test doneness by other
means. For baking, use either slightly less liquid or slightly more flour than in recipes used in
sugar.
Sugar Alcohols include Isomalt, Maltitol, Mannitol, Sorbitol, Xylitol and Erythritol
(‘Organic Zero’). These are derived from fruits, vegetables, and fibrous plants, such as trees and
sugar cane. They have up to half the calories of sugar and are often used in “sugar-free” products.
Sugar alcohols, except for maltitol, have a very low glycemic* index, making them suitable for
some diabetics (consult your physician). In large quantities, some sugar alcohols may have a
laxative effect.
Baking with Sugar Substitutes

Sweeteners
Substitutions in Baking
Substitute per Calories
1 Cup sugar per teaspoon
Agave Syrup ¾ Cup 20
Barley Malt Syrup 1 to 1 1/3 Cups 20
Brown Rice Syrup 1 to 1 1/3 Cups 13
Honey 7/8 Cup 22
Molasses 1 Cup 19
Maple Syrup ¾ Cup 17
Xylitol 1 Cup 10
• When replacing sugar with a liquid sweetener in baking, reduce other liquid
ingredients by ¼ Cup for each cup of sugar substituted, and reduce oven
temperature by 25°.
• Table sugar contains 16 calories per teaspoon.
Comparative Sweetness of Sugars

Based on Fructose = 10 reference units
Sugar Sweetness Natural Source
Fructose 10 fruit and from sucrose sources such as corn
(sucrose is composed of fructose and glucose)
Sucrose 6 fruit, tubers, seeds, grain, sugar cane
Glucose 4 fruit, grain, plants
Maltose 2 malted whole gains
Lactose 1 milk products
FromHealing with Whole Foods by Paul Pitchford

Sweeteners
Sugar
Sugar cane (Saccharum sp.) is a perennial grass, native of Southeast Asia and has been
used as a sweetener for over 5000 years. Sugar cane is a very efficient producer of pure sucrose
and has become the major source of the world’s sugar supply. Today the largest producer of
Sugar Cane, by far is Brazil.
Sugar cane stalks are juiced, and then processed to produce the many sugar products on the
market, from the unrefined Rapadura, to the very refined white sugar. All sugar products have a
high glycemic index*, though some are more nutritive than others. All natural sugar products
have been produced in a Sugar Mill, where refined sugars are further processed at a Refinery.
Bagasse is the biomass remaining after sugarcane stalks are crushed to extract their juice. Sugar
Mills can produce up to 30% of their own power by burning the bagasse as biofuel. Bagasse is
also used in the production of tree-free paper.
Rapadura is a pure organic sugar made from the first step of sugar cane processing. The
whole, pure juice is evaporated, crystallized and filtered through a stainless steel sieve to make
this powdered, whole food sweetener. It contains all the nutrients from the whole sugar cane, and
has a strong molasses taste..

Sweeteners

Sweeteners
Evaporated Cane Juice is milled from the original sugar cane juice. In this process the
juice is clarified in a natural lime solution. From this stage it is concentrated by evaporation,
washed, crystallized and then cured. Evaporated cane juice is light in colour and flavour, as the
act of crystallization separates the majority of molasses, leaving up to 2% in the finished product.
Sucanat is also made from this first juicing of the sugar cane. It is a pure, whole food
product made by heating the clarified first pressed cane juice in large vats and stirring by hand
with big wooden paddles. It is the process of dehydration, aeration and granulation (as opposed to
evaporation), which produces this dark, rich tasting, dry, free-flowing sugar. Sucanat is 13%
molasses and 87% sugar.
Turbinado sugar is made from the unwashed evaporated cane juice, which is then spun in
a turbine (hence the name Turbinado), to produce the large sparkling golden crystals.
Demerara sugar, sometimes called Raw Sugar is much like Turbinado, except it is spun in a
centrifuge. This sugar takes its name from the Demerara colony of Guyana, which was the
original source of this type of sugar.
Brown Sugar is soft, moist and fine grained. Traditionally it is refined white sugar with molasses
added back to it. Some natural foods brands of Brown Sugar add molasses to evaporated cane
juice sugar, creating a richer more whole food product.
White sugar, by definition, must be 99.8 % pure sucrose; this is a highly refined product
stripped of all the fiber, vitamins, minerals and trace nutrients which naturally occur in the suagr
cane. White sugar is a product of a sugar refinery. The sugar-refining industry often uses bone
char (calcinated animal bones) for decolourizing the sugar.

Sweeteners
Glycemic Index (also GI) is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on their effect on blood
glucose levels. It compares available carbohydrates gram for gram in individual foods providing
a numerical, evidence-based index of post-meal blood sugar. Carbohydrates that break down
rapidly during digestion have the highest glycemic index. Carbohydrates that break down slowly,
releasing glucose gradually into the blood stream, have a low glycemic index.
Terminology
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)
Carbohydrates 99.98 g
Sugars 99.91 g
Dietary fiber 0g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g
Water 0.03 g
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.019 mg (1%)
Calcium 1 mg (0%)
Iron 0.01 mg (0%)
Potassium 2 mg (0%)
Sugars, brown
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)
Carbohydrates 97.33 g
Sugars 96.21 g

Sweeteners
Dietary fiber 0g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g
Water 1.77 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.008 mg (1%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.007 mg (0%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.082 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6 0.026 mg (2%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 1 μg (0%)
Calcium 85 mg (9%)
Iron 1.91 mg (15%)
Magnesium 29 mg (8%)
Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)
Potassium 346 mg (7%)
Sodium 39 mg (2%)
Zinc 0.18 mg (2%)
Popular
The term sugar usually refers to sucrose, which is also called "table sugar" or
"saccharose." Sucrose is a white crystalline disaccharide. It is often obtained from sugar cane or
sugar beet.[23] Sucrose is the most popular of the various sugars for flavoring, as well as properties
(such as mouthfeel, preservation, and texture) of beverages and food.
Chemical
"Sugar" can also be used to refer to water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates with varying
sweetness. Sugars include monosaccharides (e.g.,glucose, fructose, galactose), disaccharides
(e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose), trisaccharides, and oligosaccharides,[24] in contrast to complex

Sweeteners
carbohydrates such as polysaccharides. Corn syrup, dextrose, crystalline fructose, and maltose,
for example, are used in manufacturing and preparing food.
Baking weight/mass volume relationship

Grainier, raw sugar.
Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion
of moisture.
The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
 Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz
 Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz
 Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz
Bulk density
 Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL
 Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
 Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
 Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

Purity standards
The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for
the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers
indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.[26]
Chemistry
Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the
body.

Sweeteners
Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such
asmonosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple
sugars," the most important being glucose. Almost all sugars have the formula CnH2nOn (n is
between 3 and 7). Glucose has themolecular formula C6H12O6. The names of typical sugars end
with "-ose," as in "glucose", "dextrose", and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer to
any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain
either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the
reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or
more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water
(H2O) per bond.
Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides,
creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as
starch). Enzymes must hydrolyse or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such
compounds become metabolised. After digestion and absorption. the principal monosaccharides
present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses
and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group
remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution
exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-
chain form.
Natural polymers of sugars
Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis plants

produce glucose, which has the formula C6H12O6, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve
in the form of other carbohydrates such as starch, or (as in cane and beet) as sucrose (table sugar).
Sucrose has the chemical formula C12H22O11. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of
glucose, is a readily degradable chemicalenergy stored by cells, convertible to other types of
energy.
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose used by plants as structural component.
DNA and RNA are built up of the sugars ribose and deoxyribose. The sugar in
DNA, deoxyribose, has the formula C5H10O4.

Sweeteners
1. Artificial sweeteners.
. A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually
with lessfood energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are
not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners.
An important class of sugar substitutes are known as high-intensity sweeteners. These are
compounds with sweetness that is many times that of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result,
much less sweetener is required, and energy contribution often negligible. The sensation of
sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably different
from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet
sensation.
If the sucrose (or other sugar) replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a
bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks labeled as "diet" or "light,"
which contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table sugar
replacements that mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture
sensation.
In the United States, six intensely-sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use.
They are saccharin, aspartame, sucralose,neotame, acesulfame potassium, and stevia. There is
some ongoing controversy over whether artificial sweetener usage poses health risks. The US
Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives
must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list of

Sweeteners
additives.[2] To date, the FDA has not been presented with scientific information that would
support a change in conclusions about the safety of the six approved high-intensity sweeteners.
The safe conclusions are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including
hundreds of toxicological and clinical studies.
There is also an herbal supplement, stevia, used as a sweetener. Controversy surrounds

lack of research on stevia's safety and there was a battle over its approval as a sugar substitute.
The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially-synthesized compounds.
However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are
found in berries, fruit, vegetables, and mushrooms. It is not commercially viable to extract these
products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the
appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol,
and glucose to sorbitol. Still other natural substitutes are known, but are yet to gain official
approval for food use.
Some non-sugar sweeteners are polyols, also known as "sugar alcohols." These are, in
general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range
of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is 'fine-tuned' by mixing with high-intensity
sweeteners. As with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a
complex proprietary process.
Food industry usage of artificial sweeteners
The food and beverage industry is increasingly replacing sugar or corn syrup with
artificial sweeteners in a range of products traditionally containing sugar.
Artificial sweeteners cost the food industry only a fraction of the cost of natural sweeteners, in
spite of the extremely high profit margins for manufacturers of artificial sweeteners. So it is not
surprising that the food industry is promoting its "diet" or "light" products heavily, thus moving
the customers over to its even more profitable artificially-sweetened products.
According to market analysts Mintel, a total of 3,920 products containing artificial

sweeteners were launched in the U.S. between 2000 and 2005. In 2004 alone, 1,649 artificially-
sweetened products were launched. According to market analysts Freedonia, the United
Statesartificial sweetener market is set to grow at around 8.3% per year to $189 million in 2008.

Sweeteners
Aspartame is currently the most popular artificial sweetener in the U.S. food industry, as
the price has dropped significantly since theMonsanto Company patent expired in 1992.
However, sucralose may soon replace it, as alternative processes to Tate & Lyle's patent seem to
be emerging. According to Morgan Stanley, this can mean that the price of sucralose will drop by
30%.
Reasons for use
Sugar substitutes are used for a number of reasons, including:
 To assist in weight loss — some people choose to limit their food energy intake by replacing
high-energy sugar or corn syrup with other sweeteners having little or no food energy. This
allows them to eat the same foods they normally would, while allowing them to lose weight
and avoid other problems associated with excessive caloric intake.
 Dental care — sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by
the microflora of the dental plaque.
 Diabetes mellitus — people with diabetes have difficulty regulating their blood sugar levels.
By limiting their sugar intake with artificial sweeteners, they can enjoy a varied diet while
closely controlling their sugar intake. Also, some sugar substitutes do release energy, but are
metabolized more slowly, allowing blood sugar levels to remain more stable over time.
 Reactive hypoglycemia — individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an excess of

insulin after quickly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream. This causes their blood glucose
levels to fall below the amount needed for proper body and brain function. As a result, like
diabetics, they must avoid intake of high-glycemic foods like white bread, and often choose
artificial sweeteners as an alternative.
 Avoiding processed foods — individuals may opt to substitute refined white sugar with less-
processed sugars, such as fruit juice or maple syrup. (See List of unrefined sweeteners).
 Cost — many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar.

Sweeteners
Health issues
Controversy over health
A 2005 study by the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio showed
that increased weight gain and obesity was associated with increased use of diet soda in a
population based study. The study did not establish whether increased weight leads to increased
consumption of diet drinks or whether consumption of diet drinks could have an effect on weight
gain.
Animal studies have indicated that artificial sweeteners can cause body weight gain. A sweet taste
induces an insulin response, which causes blood sugar to be stored in tissues (including fat), but
because blood sugar does not increase with artificial sugars, there is hypoglycemia and increased
food intake the next time there is a meal. After a while, rats given sweeteners have steadily
increased calorie intake, increased body weight, and increased adiposity (fatness). Furthermore,
the natural responses to eating sugary foods (eating less at the next meal and using some of the
extra calories to warm the body after the sugary meal) are gradually lost.
List of sugar substitutes
The three primary compounds used as sugar substitutes in the United States
are saccharin (e.g., Sweet'NLow), aspartame (e.g., Equal,NutraSweet)
and sucralose (e.g., Splenda, Altern). Maltitol and sorbitol are often used, frequently in
toothpaste, mouth wash, and in foods such as "no sugar added" ice cream. Erythritol is gaining
momentum as a replacement for these other sugar alcohols in foods as it is much less likely to
produce gastrointestinal distress when consumed in large amounts. In many other
countries xylitol, cyclamate and the herbal sweetener stevia are used extensively.
Natural sugar substitutes
1. Brazzein — protein, 800× sweetness of sucrose (by weight)
2. Curculin — protein, 550× sweetness (by weight)
3. Erythritol — 0.7× sweetness (by weight), 14× sweetness of sucrose (by food energy),
0.05× energy density of sucrose
4. Glycyrrhizin — 50× sweetness (by weight)

Sweeteners
5. Glycerol — 0.6× sweetness (by weight), 0.55× sweetness (by food energy), 1.075×
energy density, E422
6. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates — 0.4–0.9× sweetness (by weight), 0.5×–1.2×

sweetness (by food energy), 0.75× energy density
7. Inulin
8. Isomalt — 0.45–0.65× sweetness (by weight), 0.9–1.3× sweetness (by food energy), 0.5×
energy density, E953
9. Lactitol — 0.4× sweetness (by weight), 0.8× sweetness (by food energy), 0.5× energy
density, E966
10. Luo han guo - 300× sweetness (by weight)
11. Mabinlin — protein, 100× sweetness (by weight)
12. Maltitol — 0.9× sweetness (by weight), 1.7× sweetness (by food energy), 0.525× energy
density, E965
13. Malto-oligosaccharide
14. Mannitol — 0.5× sweetness (by weight), 1.2× sweetness (by food energy), 0.4× energy
density, E421
15. Miraculin — protein, does not taste sweet by itself, but modifies taste receptors to make
sour things taste sweet temporarily
16. Monatin — naturally-occurring sweetener isolated from the plant Sclerochiton ilicifolius
17. Monellin — protein, 3,000× sweetness (by weight)
18. Pentadin — protein, 500× sweetness (by weight)
19. Sorbitol — 0.6× sweetness (by weight), 0.9× sweetness (by food energy), 0.65× energy
density, E420
20. Stevia — 250× sweetness (by weight) - extracts known as rebiana, Truvia, PureVia;
mainly containing rebaudioside A, a steviol glycoside
21. Tagatose — 0.92× sweetness (by weight), 2.4× sweetness (by food energy), 0.38× energy
density
22. Thaumatin — protein, 2,000× sweetness (by weight), E957

Sweeteners
23. Xylitol — 1.0× sweetness (by weight), 1.7× sweetness (by food energy), 0.6× energy
density, E967
Artificial sugar substitutes

Note that because many of these have little or no food energy, comparison of sweetness
based on energy content is not meaningful.
1. Acesulfame potassium — 200× sweetness (by weight), Nutrinova, E950, FDA Approved
1988
2. Alitame — 2,000× sweetness (by weight), Pfizer, Pending FDA Approval
3. Aspartame — 160–200× sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, E951, FDA Approved 1981
4. Salt of aspartame-acesulfame — 350× sweetness (by weight), Twinsweet, E962
5. Cyclamate — 30× sweetness (by weight), Abbott, E952, FDA Banned 1969
6. Dulcin — 250× sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
7. Glucin — 300× sweetness (by weight)
8. Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone — 1,500× sweetness (by weight), E959
9. Neotame — 8,000× sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, FDA Approved 2002
10. P-4000 — 4,000× sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
11. Saccharin — 300× sweetness (by weight), E954, FDA Approved 1958
12. Sucralose — 600× sweetness (by weight), Kaltame, Splenda, Tate & Lyle, E955, FDA
Approved 1998

Sweeteners
A. Acesulfame potassium
Acesulfame potassium
IUPAC name[hide]
potassium 6-methyl-2,2-dioxo-oxathiazin-4-olate
Other names[hide]
Acesulfame K Ace K
Identifiers
CAS number 55589-62-3
PubChem 23683747
ChemSpider 11262939
EC number 259-715-3
SMILES [show]
InChI [show]
InChI key WBZFUFAFFUEMEI-

UHFFFAOYAZ
Properties
Sweeteners
Molecular formula C4H4KNO4S
Molar mass 201.242
Appearance white crystalline powder
Density 1.81 g/cm3
Melting point 225 °C, 498 K, 437 °F

Solubility in water 270 g/L at 20 °C
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for

materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame
K orAce K (K being the symbol for potassium), and marketed under the trade
names Sunett andSweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive
code) E950. It was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst
AG (nowNutrinova). In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the potassium salt of 6-
methyl-1,2,3-oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder with molecular
formula C4H4KNO4S and a molecular weight of 201.24.
Properties
Acesulfame K is 180-200 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar), as sweet as aspartame,
about half as sweet as saccharin, and one-quarter as sweet as sucralose. Like saccharin, it has a
slightly bitter aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. Kraft Foods has patented the use
of sodium ferulate to mask acesulfame's aftertaste. Acesulfame K is often blended with other
sweeteners (usually sucralose or aspartame). These blends are reputed to give a more sugar-like
taste whereby each sweetener masks the other's aftertaste, and/or exhibits asynergistic effect by
which the blend is sweeter than its components.
Unlike aspartame, acesulfame K is stable under heat, even under moderately acidic or basic
conditions, allowing it to be used in baking, or in products that require a long shelf life.
Incarbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener, such as

Sweeteners
aspartame or sucralose. It is also used as a sweetener in pharmaceutical products,[especially
chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable.
Safety concerns
As with other artificial sweeteners, there is concern over the safety of acesulfame
potassium. Although studies of these sweeteners show varying and controversial degrees of
dietary safety, the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) has approved their
general use. Critics say acesulfame potassium has not been studied adequately and may
be carcinogenic, although these claims have been dismissed by the US FDA and by equivalent
authorities in the European Union.
Some potential effects associated with acesulfame have appeared in animal studies. Acesulfame
K has been shown to stimulate dose-dependent insulin secretion in rats, though
no hyperglycemia was observed.
Rodent studies have shown no increased incidence of tumors in response to administration of

acesulfame K. Research conducted by theNational Toxicology Program fed rats acesulfame K for
9 months, making up as much as 3% of their total diet (which would be equivalent to a human
consuming 1,343 12-oz cans of artificially sweetened soda every day). There was no sign that
these (or lower) levels of acesulfame K increased the rats' risk of cancer or
other neoplasms. Further research in terms of food safety has been recommended
B. Alitame
Alitame
IUPAC name[hide]

Sweeteners
(3S)-3-amino-4-[ [(1R)-1-methyl-2-oxo-2-[(2,2,4,4-
tetramethyl-3-thietanyl)amino]ethyl]amino]-4-
oxobutanoic acid
Other names[hide]
L-alpha-Aspartyl-N-(2,2,4,4-tetramethyl-3-
thietanyl)-D-alaninamide
Identifiers
CAS number 80863-62-3
PubChem 64763
SMILES [show]
Properties
Molecular formula C14H25N3O4S
Molar mass 331.431

Infobox references
Alitame is an artificial sweetener developed by Pfizer in the early 1980s and currently
marketed in some countries under the brand name Aclame.[ Like aspartame, alitame is anaspartic
acid-containing dipeptide. Most dipeptides are not sweet, but the unexpected discovery of
aspartame in 1965 led to a search for similar compounds that shared its sweetness. Alitame is one
such second-generation dipeptide sweetener. Neotame, developed by the owners of the
NutraSweet brand, is another.
Alitame has no distinct advantages over aspartame. It is about 2000 times sweeter thansucrose,
about 10 times sweeter than aspartame, and has no aftertaste. Its half-life under hot or acidic
conditions is about twice as long as aspartame's, although some other artificial sweeteners,
including saccharin and acesulfame potassium, are more stable yet. Unlike aspartame, alitame
does not contain phenylalanine, and can therefore be used by people with phenylketonuria.

Sweeteners
Alitame has approved for use in Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and China. Danisco has
withdrawn its petition for using alitame as a sweetening agent or flavoring in food in USA.
C. Saccharin
Saccharin is an artificial sweetener. The basic substance, benzoic sulfimide, has effectively
no food energy and is much sweeter than sucrose, but has an unpleasant bitter or
metallicaftertaste, especially at high concentrations. It is used to sweeten products such as drinks,
candies, biscuits, medicines, and toothpaste.
Saccharin

Sweeteners
IUPAC name[hide]
1,1-Dioxo-1,2-benzothiazol-3-one
Other names[hide]
Benzoic sulfimide
Ortho sulphobenzamide
Identifiers
CAS number 81-07-2
PubChem 5143
SMILES [show]
Properties
Molecular formula C7H5NO3S
Molar mass 183.18 g mol−1
Appearance White crystalline solid
Density 0.828 g/cm3
Melting point 228.8-229.7 °C

Solubility in water 1 g per 290 mL


Sweeteners
Properties
Saccharin is unstable when heated but it does not react chemically with other food
ingredients. As such, it stores well. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are often used to
compensate for each sweetener's weaknesses and faults. A 10:1 cyclamate:saccharin blend is
common in countries where both these sweeteners are legal; in this blend, each sweetener masks
the other's off-taste. Saccharin is often used together with aspartame in diet soda, so that some
sweetness remains should the fountain syrup be stored beyond aspartame's relatively short shelf
life. Saccharin is believed to be an important discovery, especially fordiabetics, as it goes directly
through the human digestive system without being digested. Although saccharin has no food
energy, it can trigger the release of insulin in humans and rats, apparently as a result of its taste,
as can other sweeteners like aspartame
In its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as an artificial sweetener is
usually its sodium salt. The calcium salt is also sometimes used, especially by people restricting
their dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble: 0.67 grams per milliliter water at
room temperature.
Chemistry
Saccharin has the chemical formula C7H5NO3S and it can be produced in various ways.
The original route starts with toluene, but yields from this starting point are low. In 1950, an
improved synthesis was developed at the Maumee Chemical Company of Toledo, Ohio. In this
synthesis, anthranilic acid successively reacts with nitrous acid, sulfur dioxide, chlorine, and
then ammonia to yield saccharin. Another route begins with o-chlorotoluene. It is also known as
ortho sulfobenzoic acid.
Saccharin is an acid with a pKa of about 2.
Saccharin can be used to prepare exclusively disubstituted amines from alkyl halides via
a Gabriel synthesis.
Government regulation
Starting in 1907, the USDA began investigating saccharin as a direct result of the Pure
Food and Drug Act. Harvey Wiley, then the director of the bureau of chemistry for the USDA,
viewed it as an illegal substitution of a valuable ingredient (sugar) by a less valuable ingredient.
In a clash that had career consequences, Wiley told then President Theodore Roosevelt that
Sweeteners
"Everyone who ate that sweet corn was deceived. He thought he was eating sugar, when in point
of fact he was eating a coal tar product totally devoid of food value and extremely injurious to
health." But Roosevelt himself was a consumer of saccharin, and in a heated exchange, Roosevelt
angrily answered Wiley by stating, "Anybody who says saccharin is injurious to health is an
idiot." The episode proved the undoing of Wiley's career.
In 1911, the Food Inspection Decision 135 stated that foods containing saccharin were
adulterated. However in 1912, Food Inspection Decision 142 stated that saccharin was not
harmful.
More controversy was stirred in 1969 with the discovery of files from the FDA's
investigations of 1948 and 1949. These investigations, which had originally argued against
saccharin use, were shown to prove little about saccharin being harmful to human health. In 1972
the USDA made an attempt to completely ban the substance. However, this attempt was also
unsuccessful and the sweetener is widely used in the United States; it is the third-most popular
after sucralose and aspartame.
In the European Union saccharin is also known by the E number (additive code) E954.
The current status of saccharin is that it is allowed in most countries, and countries like Canada
are considering lifting their previous ban of it as a food additiveThe concerns that it is associated
with bladder cancer were proved to be without foundation in experiments on primates.[
Cancer concerns
Studies in laboratory rats during the early 1970s linked saccharin with the development of
bladder cancer, resulting in the United States Congress mandating that all food containing
saccharin bear a warning label.
In 2000, the warning labels disappeared because scientists learned that rats have a unique
combination of high pH, high calcium phosphate, and high protein levels in their urine. One or
more of the proteins that is more prevalent in male rats combines with calcium phosphate and
saccharin to produce microcrystals that damage the lining of the bladder. Over time, the rat's
bladder responds to this damage by over-producing cells to repair the damage, and this leads to
tumor formation. This does not occur in humans, so there is no bladder cancer risk.
The delisting of saccharin led to legislation, which was signed into law on December 21,
2000, repealing the warning label requirement for products containing saccharin.

Sweeteners
D. Neotame
Neotame
IUPAC name[hide]
(3R)-3-(3,3-Dimethylbutylamino)-4-[[(1R)-2-
methoxy-2-oxo-1-(phenylmethyl)ethyl]amino]-4-
oxobutanoic acid[citation needed]
Other names[hide]
E961
Identifiers
[
CAS number citation needed] 165450-17-
9[citation needed]
PubChem 3081923
SMILES [show]
Properties
Molecular formula C20H30N2O5
Molar mass 378.46 g/mol

Sweeteners

Infobox references
Neotame is an artificial sweetener made by NutraSweet that is between 7,000 and 13,000
times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). In the European Union it is known by the E
number E961[citation needed]
. Neotame is moderately heat stable and extremely potent. Neotame is
rapidly metabolized and completely eliminated and does not accumulate in the body.
The major metabolic pathway is hydrolysis of the methyl ester by esterases that are
present throughout the body, which yields de-esterified neotame and methanol. Because only
trace amounts of neotame are needed to sweeten foods, the amount of methanol derived from
neotame is much lower than that found in common foods, such as fruit and vegetable juices. It
has the characteristic aftertaste common to artificial sweeteners.
The product is attractive to food manufacturers as its use greatly lowers the cost of
production compared to using sugar or high fructose corn syrup (due to the lower quantities
needed to achieve the same sweetening) while also benefitting the consumer by providing fewer
"empty" sugar calories and a lower impact on blood sugar.
It is chemically similar to the artificial sweetener aspartame, but is used at vastly lower levels and
is more stable. Chemically, it has a 3,3-dimethylbutyl group attached to theamino group of
the aspartic acid portion of the molecule. Peptidases, which would typically break the peptide
bond between the aspartic acid and phenylalanine moieties, are effectively blocked by the
presence of the 3,3-dimethylbutyl moiety, thus reducing the production of phenylalanine, thereby
making its consumption by those who suffer fromphenylketonuria safe.
Neotame was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for general use in
July 2002, but is not yet widely used in food products. Neotame also is approved for use in
Australia and New Zealand. Neotame is assigned the International Numbering System(INS) food
additive code 961
Controversies
Although over 100 studies were conducted on neotame to prove its safety prior to FDA
approvalthe controversy relating to aspartame has caused a stir among opponents of artificial

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sweeteners. However, neotame (along with sucralose) are the only two artificial sweeteners
ranked as "safe" by the consumer advocacy group Center for Science in the Public Interest
Dulcin
Dulcin
IUPAC name[hide]

Sweeteners
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea
Other names[hide]
Sucrol; Valzin
Identifiers
CAS number 150-69-6
PubChem 9013
SMILES [show]
Properties
Molecular formula C9H12N2O2
Molar mass 180.20 g/mol

Infobox references
Dulcin is an artificial sweetener about 250 times sweeter than sugar discovered in 1884
byJoseph Berlinerbau. It was first mass produced about seven years later. Despite the fact that it
was discovered only five years after saccharin, it never enjoyed the latter compound’s market
success. Still, it was an important sweetener of the early 20th century and had an advantage over
saccharin in that it did not possess a bitter aftertaste.
Early medical tests marked the substance as safe for human consumption, and it was considered
ideal for diabetics. However, an FDA study in 1951 raised many questions about its safety
resulting in its removal from the market in 1954 after animal testing revealed
unspecifiedcarcinogenic properties.
Dulcin is also known by the names sucrol and valzin.
Phyllodulcin, a chemically unrelated compound, is naturally produced in the leaves ofHydrangea

serrata, a native shrub in Japan and eastern Asia Its leaves are used to make a herbal tea that is
regionally popular.

Sweeteners
1. NATURAL SWEETENERS
Barley Malt Syrup Sprouted barley. Maltose, Best used in combination with other
glucose, complex sweeteners (use no more than 40%
carbohydrates; 65 percent barley malt). Wonderful in spice cakes,
maltose, 30 percent complex gingerbread and baked beans. I like it
carbohydrate, 3% protein. in cookies too. Substitute 1&1/3 cups
Dark brown, thick and sticky; barley malt for every 1 cup white sugar
strong distinctive flavor, like called for. Reduce liquid in recipe by
molasses. Half as sweet as 1/4 cup and add 1/4 teaspoon baking
white sugar. soda per cup barley malt used.
Purchase only 100% barley malt, not
barley/corn malt syrup. Store
refrigerated. Organic available.
Blackstrap Molasses 70 percent sucrose. The dark, Excellent sweetener in quick-breads

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syrupy "leftovers" from the (such as zucchini bread), cookies,
sugar-refining process. cakes, and pies. I sometimes use half
Marginally qualifies as a molasses and half honey, brown rice
natural sweetener, but it does syrup, or barley malt syrup when
contain most, if not all, of the baking.
redeeming value of the
original cane plant--such as
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
pantothenic acid, calcium,
iron, magnesium, potassium,
and chromium, as well as other
micronutrients. Very strong
flavor. A source of iron.
Brown Rice Syrup Brown rice and various Baked goods made with rice syrup tend
enzymes. Maltose, glucose, to be hard or very crisp. Use brown
complex carbohydrates; 50 rice syrup in cookies, crisps, granola,
percent maltose and 37 percent pies, puddings. Do not use in cakes or
complex carbohydrate. Amber any type of bread-- produces a gooey
colored syrup with mild center. Substitute 1&1/3 cups for every
"butterscotch" flavor. Half as 1 cup white sugar called for in recipe.
sweet as white sugar. Reduce liquid by 1/4 cup and add 1/4
teaspoon baking soda per cup rice
syrup used. Store refrigerated.
Organic available.
Date Sugar Ground, dehydrated dates. Use in crisps, crunches, as sprinkle or
Sucrose, glucose, fructose, topping. Substitute like amounts for
complex carbohydrates. white sugar. Have read that you should
Contains folic acid. Mahogany dissolve in a small amount of water
color, coarse granules, kinda before adding to batters, but I have
moist. never done this. Use in combination
with other sweeteners. Burns easily.
Purchase date sugar made from
unsulfured, organically grown dates.

Sweeteners
Store in a tightly closed jar.
Evaporated White 33 percent or more complex Fruitsource is especially good to use
Grape Juice and carbohydrate. Yellowish- when Sucanat is too dark colored for
Brown Rice Syrup white, granulated sweetener; use in a recipe. I often use half Sucanat
(Fruitsource, and half Fruitsource, when I wish to
manufactured avoid having too strong of a"fruit"
byFruitsource taste, such as when making cookies,
Confections, Inc.) brownies, cakes, etc. Substitute like
amounts for white sugar in recipes.
Store airtight, away from all moisture,
or it will turn to granite! I buy small
amounts and replace as needed.
Evaporated Whole Sugar cane, water removed. This is the sweetener I use most at
Cane Juice Minerals and molasses are home, because of its rich flavor,
(Rapadura, Sucanat) retained. Sucrose and invert relatively low cost, and ease of
* Buyer Beware of sugars*. Amber-colored coarse substitution. Use in virtually anything

false claims! granules, mild molasses-like calling for refined sugar. Replace
"Evaporated whole taste. WARNING: Just in: refined sugars with like amounts. Add
cane juice" is a term Sucanat may notbe truly 1/4 tsp. baking soda per cup Sucanat.
used loosely on "evaporated" whole cane juice Be sure to purchase organic. Any
labels. Florida as it once was; have been pesticides and chemicals used on the
Crystals, turbinado, informed that method has been cane will be concentrated during
and raw sugar switched to "crystallization" processing. Store in tightly covered
definitely do not which requires theadding container.
qualify! back of molasses to an
essentially refined product.
Rapadura, manufactured
by Rapunzel, continues to be
100% organic and is obtained
through an evaporation
process.
Honey Extracted from flower nectar Use in all baked goods. Honey has a
by bees. Fructose, glucose, very distinctive taste that takes getting
sucrose. Color and taste used to for some people, but once you
Sweeteners
depend upon flower source. start cooking with it, it grows on you.
20% to 60% sweeter than Once source I have says use 2/3 to 3/4
white sugar; use less! as much honey as white sugar in
recipes, but the other says only 1/2 as
much. I tend to use half and have been
satisfied. Reduce liquid by 1/4 cup, but
if there is no liquid to reduce, add 3-4
tablespoons of flour for each 1/2 honey
used. Also add 1/8 teaspoon baking
soda per half cup of honey. Reduce
oven 25 degrees and adjust baking
time. Buy only pure, raw honey, as
some honey has sugar added to it
and/or has been cooked. Some vegans
don't use honey as bees are sometimes
killed after season. Don't give honey to
children under age 2, as it can
transmit botulism. Honey can
adversely affect blood sugar levels.
Maple Syrup From sap of maple trees (not Use in all baked goods; wonderful in
the imposters in grocery cakes and pies. Substitute 2/3 to 3/4
stores!); about 40 gallons of cup maple syrup for 1 cup white sugar.
sap produce 1 gallon of syrup; Reduce liquid in recipe by 3 T. and add
60% sucrose plus invert 1/4 tsp. baking soda per cup maple
sugars; dark brown with maple syrup. Great on whole-grain pancakes
flavor; high in potassium and and waffles. Buy only pure U.S.
calcium. organic. Some maple producers still
use illegal formaldehyde pellets and
other additives during processing.
Store refrigerated.
Maple Syrup Dehydrated maple syrup. 93% Use in all baked goods. This stuff is
Granules (Maple sucrose, 1% to 3% invert quite expensive, but I think it is
Sugar) sugars. Light brown granules perhaps the most richly flavorful of the

Sweeteners
with maple flavor. bunch. Substitute straight across for
white or brown sugar called for in
recipes. Add 1/8 teaspoon baking soda
per cup maple sugar. Store in tightly
closed container. Organic available.
Mixed Fruit Juice Peach, pear, grape, and Use in all baked goods and desserts,
Concentrate pineapple juice most common. especially spice, carob, and chocolate
Sucrose, some natural cakes. Substitute 2/3 cup for 1 cup
fructose. Generally amber white sugar. Reduce liquid 1/3 cup per
colored and fruity tasting. cup and add 1/4 teaspoon baking soda
per cup concentrate. Reduce oven 25
degrees and adjust baking time. Some
concentrates are more acidic than
others. Store in refrigerator, but use at
room temperature.
Stevia A perennial shrub of the aster Grade A Paraguayan Stevia is the best,
Stevioside family; available in whole or but hard to locate in the United States.
broken leaves, coarse ground, Chinese and other non-Paraguayan
powder extract, or liquid Stevia may have an unpleasant
extract; 8-300 times sweeter aftertaste (bitter or grassy-tasting).
than table sugar (depending on (Emperor's Herbologist Stevioside is
quality and whether it is leaf or exceptional and has no unpleasant
extract) but with 0 calories; aftertaste.) For use in baking, the
sweetening attributes are the leaves are best dried and finely ground
glycosides (Steviosides, with a mortar and pestle. Dried stevia
Rebaudiosides and a keeps its flavor for months. Use one
Dulcoside). teaspoon in place of one cup of sugar.
Another source says to use 1-1.5 T. of
green Stevia powder to replace 1 cup
of sugar, or 1/4 tsp. white Stevia
extract powder to replace 1 cup sugar.
To make your own liquid solution,
dissolve 1 tsp. white Stevia powder in 3

Sweeteners
T. pure water and pour concentrate
into a small bottle with a dropper;
store in fridge. Approximately 1 tsp. of
concentrate equals 1 cup of sugar. You
will have to experiment in converting
recipes, adjusting liquid and dry
ingredients to make up for the lack of
bulk that Stevia provides. Ground
Stevia may be sprinkled lightly over
cooking vegetables and meats, cereals
and salads; significantly enhances the
flavor and nutritional value of the
food.

Sweeteners
5. Review:
i) Four of the Best Artificial Sweeteners and Sugar Substitutes
Apr 7, 2008 Alina Bradford
Sweeteners - Alina Bradford
Abstract
We've all heard of Equal and Sweet'N Low, but there are many other artificial sweeteners
and sugar substitutes out there that can dramatically lower the calories in foods, without
lowering the taste. Here are four of the best sweeteners on the market today, and
information on what makes them so special.
Partida Organic Agave Nectar
Partida Organic Agave Nectar is a 100% organic sweetener that is made from the tropical
blue agave plant. Though this sweetener isn't calorie free, it contains less calories than
sugar, with only 60 calories per tablespoon, so it is great for low calorie cooking.
Partida Organic Agave Nectar was originally meant to flavor cocktails, but it can be used
for many other recipes. It tastes very much like honey, though it is slightly more runny in
consistency. This sweetener is best in teas, coffees, oatmeal or any other food in which
you might put a liquid sweetener like honey or syrup.
Calorie Calculator Know what is your recommended calorie intake per day,
Sweet Fiber is an unusual sweetener that is great for those wanting to add more fiber to
their diet. It is the first no-calorie sweetener to contain fiber. Three packets of Sweet Fiber
contains 10% of a person's daily requirement of fiber and is 100% natural.
This sweetener tastes a lot like powdered sugar, but doesn't have a strange aftertaste. It is
a great choice for baking things like Low Calorie Banana Pudding Cake
NutraSweet
If you crave a calorie-free sweetener that has the granular texture of white cane sugar,
Surprisingly, NutraSweet doesn't have a bitter taste. It is as close as you can get to real
sugar, so it's great for things like fruit or recipes where you just need that gritty sugar
texture.
Great Value Calorie Free Sweetener

Sweeteners
Great Value Calorie Free Sweetener is a great choice for those looking for a great sugar-
free sweetener that doesn't cost a lot of money.
The taste is comparable to Equal, but with less aftertaste. The only catch to Great Value
Calorie Free Sweetener is that you can only buy it at Wal-Mart stores.
A Note About Sweeteners that Are Not FDA Approved

There are some sweeteners on the market that are not approved by the FDA. This means
that the product has not had sufficient testing to see if it is safe for humans.
One popular sweetener that has a lot of press, but not an FDA approval is the herb stevia.
You should be cautious when buying products that contain this, and other types of
sweeteners, that have not been tested for your safety.
ii) Artificial Sweetener Linked to GI Problems

Bauditz J, Norman K, Biering H, et al. Severe weight loss caused by chewing gum. BMJ.
2008;336:96-97.
Abstract
Sorbitol, an artificial sweetener frequently used in sugar-free chewing gum and candy, is
now associated with chronic diarrhea and functional bowel problems which can lead to
severe weight loss. Two recent German case studies were the focus of this, and were
published in the January 12 issue of BMJ.
Very few people who chew sugar-free gum or eat sugar-free candy will experience severe
gastrointestinal problems or weight loss, since one would have to consume 20 to 50 grams
of sorbitol for it to have this effect. That amounts to about 16 to 20 pieces of gum daily.
However, even in small amounts, sorbitol can cause symptoms such as gas, bloating, and
abdominal cramping to occur.
Both patients in the case report had been suffering from unexplained persistent diarrhea
and weight loss. Once detailed dietary histories were taken, it was uncovered that both
patients consumed very large amounts of sorbitol. In both cases, once the sorbitol was
eliminated from their diets, the diarrhea went away and they began to regain weight.

Sweeteners
Primary care providers should take a detailed dietary history of food containing sorbitol
for all patients who present with unexplained persistent gastrointestinal symptoms and/or
weight loss. This could solve the problem quickly and eliminate the need for unnecessary
and expensive diagnostic tests and lab work.
iii) REVIEW ARTICLE

Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review1,2,3
Vasanti S Malik, Matthias B Schulze and Frank B Hu
1 From the Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA (VSM and
FBH); the Department of Epidemiology, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-
Rehbruecke, Nuthetal, Germany (MBS); and the Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine,
Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (FBH)
Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), particularly carbonated soft drinks, may be a
key contributor to the epidemic of overweight and obesity, by virtue of these beverages'
high added sugar content, low satiety, and incomplete compensation for total energy. Whether an
association exists between SSB intake and weight gain is unclear. We searched English-
language MEDLINE publications from 1966 through May 2005 for cross-sectional, prospective
cohort, and experimental studies of the relation between SSBs and the risk of weight gain (ie,
overweight, obesity, or both). Thirty publications (15 cross-sectional, 10 prospective, and 5
experimental) were selected on the basis of relevance and quality of design and methods.
Findings from large cross-sectional studies, in conjunction with those from well-powered
prospective cohort studies with long periods of follow-up, show a positive association between
greater intakes of SSBs and weight gain and obesity in both children and adults. Findings from
short-term feeding trials in adults also support an induction of positive energy balance and weight
gain by intake of sugar-sweetened sodas, but these trials are few. A school-based
intervention found significantly less soft-drink consumption and prevalence of obese and
overweight children in the intervention group than in control subjects after 12 mo, and a recent
25-week randomized controlled trial in adolescents found further evidence linking SSB intake to
body weight. The weight of epidemiologic and experimental evidence indicates that a greater
consumption of SSBs is associated with weight gain and obesity. Although more research is
needed, sufficient evidence exists for public health strategies to discourage consumption of
sugary drinks as part of a healthy lifestyle.

Sweeteners
iv) Artificial sweeteners: a systematic review of metabolic effects in

youth.
Brown RJ, de Banate MA, Rother KI.
National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, MD 20892, USA. brownrebecca@mail.nih.gov
Abstract
Epidemiological data have demonstrated an association between artificial sweetener use and
weight gain. Evidence of a causal relationship linking artificial sweetener use to weight gain and
other metabolic health effects is limited. However, recent animal studies provide intriguing
information that supports an active metabolic role of artificial sweeteners. This systematic review
examines the current literature on artificial sweetener consumption in children and its health
effects. Eighteen studies were identified. Data from large, epidemiologic studies support the
existence of an association between artificially-sweetened beverage consumption and weight gain
in children. Randomized controlled trials in children are very limited, and do not clearly
demonstrate either beneficial or adverse metabolic effects of artificial sweeteners. Presently, there
is no strong clinical evidence for causality regarding artificial sweetener use and metabolic health
effects, but it is important to examine possible contributions of these common food additives to
the global rise in pediatric obesity and diabetes.
v) Fructose: metabolic, hedonic, and societal parallels with ethanol.

Lustig RH.
Division of Endocrinology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0434, USA.
rlustig@peds.ucsf.edu
Comment in:
• J Am Diet Assoc. 2010 Sep;110(9):1300-1.
• J Am Diet Assoc. 2010 Sep;110(9):1296-9.
Abstract
Rates of fructose consumption continue to rise nationwide and have been linked to rising rates of
obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Because obesity has been equated with
addiction, and because of their evolutionary commonalities, we chose to examine the metabolic,
hedonic, and societal similarities between fructose and its fermentation byproduct ethanol.
Elucidation of fructose metabolism in liver and fructose action in brain demonstrate three
Sweeteners
parallelisms with ethanol. First, hepatic fructose metabolism is similar to ethanol, as they both
serve as substrates for de novo lipogenesis, and in the process both promote hepatic insulin
resistance, dyslipidemia, and hepatic steatosis. Second, fructosylation of proteins with resultant
superoxide formation can result in hepatic inflammation similar to acetaldehyde, an intermediary
metabolite of ethanol. Lastly, by stimulating the "hedonic pathway" of the brain both directly and
indirectly, fructose creates habituation, and possibly dependence; also paralleling ethanol. Thus,
fructose induces alterations in both hepatic metabolism and central nervous system energy
signaling, leading to a "vicious cycle" of excessive consumption and disease consistent with
metabolic syndrome. On a societal level, the treatment of fructose as a commodity exhibits
market similarities to ethanol. Analogous to ethanol, societal efforts to reduce fructose
consumption will likely be necessary to combat the obesity epidemic.
ii) Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mediated effects of glucose on

vacuolar H+-ATPase assembly, translocation, and acidification of
intracellular compartments in renal epithelial cells.
Sautin YY, Lu M, Gaugler A, Zhang L, Gluck SL.
Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Box 100224, University of Florida, 1600 SW
Archer Rd., Gainesville, FL 32610-0224, USA. sautiyy@medicine.ufl.edu
Abstract
Vacuolar H+-ATPases (V-ATPases) are a family of ATP-driven proton pumps. They maintain
pH gradients between intracellular compartments and are required for proton secretion out of the
cytoplasm. Mechanisms of extrinsic control of V-ATPase are poorly understood. Previous studies
showed that glucose is an important regulator of V-ATPase assembly in Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Human V-ATPase directly interacts with aldolase, providing a coupling mechanism
for glucose metabolism and V-ATPase function. Here we show that glucose is a crucial regulator
of V-ATPase in renal epithelial cells and that the effect of glucose is mediated by
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). Glucose stimulates V-ATPase-dependent acidification of
the intracellular compartments in human proximal tubular cells HK-2 and porcine renal epithelial
cells LLC-PK1. Glucose induces rapid ATP-independent assembly of the V1 and Vo domains of
V-ATPase and extensive translocation of the V-ATPase V1 and Vo domains between different
membrane pools and between membranes and the cytoplasm. In HK-2 cells, glucose stimulates
polarized translocation of V-ATPase to the apical plasma membrane. The effects of glucose on
V-ATPase trafficking and assembly can be abolished by pretreatment with the PI3K inhibitor
Sweeteners
LY294002 and can be reproduced in glucose-deprived cells by adenoviral expression of the
constitutively active catalytic subunit p110alpha of PI3K. Taken together these data provide
evidence that, in renal epithelial cells, glucose plays an important role in the control of V-
ATPase-dependent acidification of intracellular compartments and V-ATPase assembly and
trafficking and that the effects of glucose are mediated by PI3K-dependent signaling.
iii) Methylglyoxal--a test for impaired biological functions of

exotrophy and endoecology, low glucose level in the cytosol and
gluconeogenesis from fatty acids (a lecture)]
[Article in Russian]
Titov VN, Dmitriev LF, Krylin VA, Dmitriev VA.
Abstract
In philogenesis, due to the failure to store a great deal of carbohydrates in vivo as glycogen, all
animal species began synthesizing from glucose palminitic fatty acid and depositing it as
triglycerides. During biological dysfunction of exotrophy (long starvation, early postnatality,
hibernation), cells also accomplish a reverse synthesis of glucose from fatty acids under aerobic
conditions. Under physiological conditions, acetyl-CoA that is converted to malate and pyruvate
in the glyoxalate cycle is a substrate of glyconeogenesis. Under pathological conditions of
hypoxia and deficiency of macroerges, gluconeogenesis occurs without ATP consumption
through the methylglyoxal pathway when used as a substrate of ketone bodies via the pathway:
butyric acid (butyrate) --> beta-hydroxybutyrate --> acetoacetate --> acetone --> acetol -->
methylglyoxal --> S-D-lactol-glutathione --> D-lactate --> pyruvate --> D-lactate. Under
physiological conditions, this gluconeogenesis pathway does not function. We believe that with
low glucose levels in the cell cytosole (glycopenia), under pathological conditions of hypoxia and
due to failure to mitochondria to oxidize fatty acids, gene expression and gluconeogenesis occur
through the methylglyoxal pathway. At the same time, the cytosol, intercellular environment, and
plasma shows the elevated levels of methylglyoxal and D-lactate that it is converted to by the
action of glyoxalases I and II. Under pathological conditions, glycopenia develops in starvation,
diabetes, and metabolic acidosis, neoplasms, renal failure, and possibly, metabolic syndrome. The
chemical interaction of methylglyoxal with the amino acid residues of lysine and arginine results
in the denaturation of circulating and structurized proteins via carbonylation--glycosylation.

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6. RESULT
When i were studying on Sweeteners then found sweeteners have both types of effect on our
Heath positive effect and negative effect. Some properties of sweeteners are good for health and
some properties are harm full.
After studying the result is following like :
Sucralose is the newest nonnutritive sweetener on the market. It is most well known for its claim
to be made from sugar. It is as sold as Splenda and is 600 times sweeter than sucrose (table
sugar). It provides essentially no calories and is not fully absorbed. In 1998, it was approved for
limited use, and in 1999, it was given approval for use as a general-purpose sweetener. It is
currently found in over 4,500 products, including foods that are cooked or baked.

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The FDA reviewed studies in human beings and animals and determined that sucralose did not
pose carcinogenic, reproductive, or neurological risk to human beings. The Acceptable Daily
Intake (ADI) for sucralose was set at 5 mg/kg of body weight/day. To determine your ADI, divide
your weight in pound by 2.2 and then multiply it by 50. For example, if you weighted 200 lbs.,
your weight in kg would be 91 (200 divided by 2.2) and your ADI for sucralose would be 455 mg
(91 x 5).
Saccharin has been around for over 100 years and claims to be the best researched sweetener.
Saccharin is also known as Sweet and Low, Sweet Twin, Sweet'N Low, and Necta Sweet. It does
not contain any calories, does not raise blood sugar levels and is 200 to 700 times sweeter than
sucrose (table sugar).
Out of the five FDA approved nonnutritive sweeteners, saccharin is often chosen to be the safest
one. The FDA's guidelines on the use of saccharin for beverages are not to exceed 12 mg/fluid
ounce, and in processed food, the amount is not to exceed 30 mg per serving. The Acceptable
Daily Intake (ADI) for saccharin is 5 mg/kg of body weight. To determine your ADI, divide your
weight in pounds by 2.2 and then multiply it by 5. For example, if you weighed 180 lbs., your
weight in kg would be 82 (180 divided by 2.2) and your ADI for saccharin would be 410 mg (5 x
82). Saccharin is used in tabletop sweeteners, baked goods, jams, chewing gum, canned fruit,
candy, dessert toppings, and salad dressings. It also is useful in cosmetic products, vitamins, and
pharmaceuticals.
There was a great deal of controversy surrounding the safety of saccharin back in the '70s. In
1977, research showed bladder tumors in male rats with the ingestion of saccharin. The FDA
proposed a ban on saccharin based on the Delaney Clause of the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act, enacted in 1958. This clause prohibits the addition to the human food supply of
any chemical that had caused cancer in humans or animals. Congress intervened after public
opposition to the ban and allowed saccharin to remain in the food supply as long as the label
carried this warning: "Use of this product may be hazardous to your health. This product contains
saccharin which has been determined to cause cancer in laboratory animals." Further research
was required to confirm the tumor findings.
Since then, more than 30 human studies have been completed and found that the results found in
rats did not translate to humans, making saccharin safe for human consumption. The original
study published in 1977 has since been criticized for the very high dosages, that were hundreds of

Sweeteners
times higher than "normal" ingestion for humans, that were given to the rats. In 2000, the
National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the National Institutes of Health concluded that saccharin
should be removed from the list of potential carcinogens. The warning has now been removed
from saccharin-containing products.
Aspartame was discovered in 1965 and approved by the FDA in 1981 for dry uses in tabletop
sweeteners, chewing gum, cold breakfast cereals, gelatins, and puddings. It was able to be
included in carbonated beverages in 1983. In 1996, the FDA approved its use as a "general
purpose sweetener," and it can now be found in more than 6,000 foods.
Aspartame is also known as Nutrasweet, Equal, and Sugar Twin. It does provide calories, but
because it is 160 to 220 times sweeter than sucrose, very small amounts are needed for
sweetening so the caloric intake is negligible. The FDA has set the Acceptable Daily Intake
(ADI) for aspartame at 50 mg/kg of body weight. To determine your ADI, divide your weight in
pounds by 2.2 and then multiply it by 50. For example, if you weighed 200 lbs., your weight in
kg would be 91 (200 divided by 2.2) and your ADI for aspartame would be 4550 mg (50 x 91).
The amount of aspartame in some common foods is:
• 12 oz. diet soda—up to 225 mg of aspartame
• 8 oz. drink from powder—100 mg of aspartame
• 8 oz. yogurt—80 mg of aspartame
• 4 oz. gelatin dessert—80 mg of aspartame
• ¾ cup of sweetened cereal—32 mg of aspartame
• 1 packet of Equal—22 mg of aspartame
• 1 tablet of Equal—19 mg of aspartame
Aspartame has been approved for use in over 100 countries. An editorial in the British Medical
Journal states that the "evidence does not support links between aspartame and cancer, hair
loss, depression, dementia, behavioral disturbances, or any of the other conditions appearing in
Web sites. Agencies such as the Food Standards Agency, European Food Standards Authority, and
the Food and Drug Administration have a duty to monitor relations between foodstuffs and health

Sweeteners
and to commission research when reasonable doubt emerges. Aspartame's safety was convincing
to the European Scientific Committee on Food in 1988, but proving negatives is difficult, and it is
even harder to persuade vocal sectors of the public whose opinions are fuelled more by anecdote
than by evidence. The Food Standards Agency takes public concerns very seriously and thus
pressed the European Scientific Committee on Food to conduct a further review, encompassing
over 500 reports in 2002. It concluded from biochemical, clinical, and behavioral research that
the acceptable daily intake of 40 mg/kg/day of aspartame remained entirely safe—except for
people with phenylketonuria."
Aspartame sugar substitutes cause worrying symptoms from memory loss to brain tumours. But
despite US FDA approval as a 'safe' food additive, aspartame is one of the most dangerous
substances ever to be foisted upon an unsuspecting public.
Aspartame is the technical name for the brand names, NutraSweet, Equal, Spoonful, and Equal-
Measure. Aspartame was discovered by accident in 1965
DIKETOPIPERAZINE (DKP)
DKP is a by-product of aspartame metabolism. DKP has been implicated in the occurance of
brain tumors. Olney noticed that DKP, when nitrosated in the gut, produced a compound which
was similar to N-nitrosourea, a powerful brain tumor causing chemical. Some authors have said
that DKP is produced after aspartame ingestion. I am not sure if that is correct. It is definately
true that DKP is formed in liquid aspartame-containing products during prolonged storage.
G.D. Searle conducted animal experiments on the safety of DKP. The FDA found numerous
experimental errors occured, including "clerical errors, mixed-up animals, animals not getting
drugs they were supposed to get, pathological specimens lost because of improper handling," and
many other errors.(12) These sloppy laboratory procedures may explain why both the test and
control animals had sixteen times more brain tumors than would be expected in experiments of
this length.
In an ironic twist, shortly after these experimental errors were discovered, the FDA used
guidelines recommened by G.D. Searle to devlop the Industry-wide FDA standards for Good
Laboratory Practies.(11)

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DKP has also been implicated as a cause of uterine polyps and changes in blood cholesterol by
FDA Toxicologist Dr Jacqueline Verrett in her testimony before the US Senate.(13)
Birth Defects.
Dr Diana Dow Edwards, a researcher was funded by Monsanto to study possible birth defects
caused by the ingestion of aspartame. After preliminary data showed damaging information about
aspartame, funding for the study was cut off. A Gentetic Pediatrician at Emory University has
testified that aspartame is causing birth defects.7360-367.
In the book, While Waiting: A Prenatal Guidebook by George R. Verrilli, M.D. and Anne Marie
Mueser, it is stated that aspartame is suspected of causing brain damage in sensitive individuals.
A fetus may be at risk for these effects. Some researchers have suggested that high doses of
aspartame may be associated with problems ranging from dizziness and subtle brain changes to
mental retardation.
Cancer (Brain Cancer).
In 1981, Satya Dubey, an FDA statistician, stated that the brain tumor data on aspartame was so
"worrisome" that he could not recommend approval of NutraSweet.(14) In a two-year study
conducted by the manufacturer of aspartame, twelve of the 320 rats fed a normal diet and
aspartame developed brain tumors while none of the control rats had tumors. Five of the twelve
tumors were in rats given a low dose of aspartame.(15) The approval of aspartame was a violation
of the Delaney Amendment which was supposed to prevent cancer-causing substances such as
methanol (formaldehye) and DKP from entering our food supply. The late Dr Adrian Gross, an
FDA toxicologist, testified before the US Congress that aspartame was capable of producing
brain tumors. This made it illegal for the FDA to set an allowable daily intake at any level. He
stated in his testimony that Searle's studies were "to a large extent unreliable" and that "at least
one of those studies has established beyond any reasonable doubt that aspartame is capable of
inducing brain tumors in experimental animals...." He concluded his testimony by asking, "What
is the reason for the apparent refusal by the FDA to invoke for this food additive the so-called
Delaney Amendment to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act? .... And if the FDA itself elects to
violate the law, who is left to protect the health of the public?"(16)
In the mid-1970s it was discovered that the manufacturer of aspartame falsified studies in several
ways. One of the techniques used was to cut tumors out of test animals and put them back in the
study. Another technique used to falsify the studies was to list animals that had actually died as
surviving the study. Thus, the data on brain tumors was likely worse than discussed above. In
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addition, a former employee of the manufacturer of aspartame, Raymond Schroeder told the FDA
on July 13, 1977 that the particles of DKP were so large that the rats could dicriminate between
the DKP and their normal diet.(12)
It is interesting to note that the incidence of brain tumors in persons over 65 years of age has
increase 67% between the years 1973 and 1990. Brain tumors in all age groups has jumped 10%.
The greatest increase has come during the years 1985-1987.(17)
Diabetes.
The American Diabetes Association (ADA) is actually recommending this chemical poison to
persons with diabetes. According to research conducted by H.J. Roberts, a diabetes specialist, a
member of the ADA, and an authority on artificial sweetners, aspartame:
1) Leads to the precipitation of clinical diabetes.
2) Causes poorer diabetic control in diebetics on insulin or oral drugs.
3) Leads to the aggravation of diabetic complications such as retinopathy, cataracts, neuropathy
and gastroparesis.
4) Causes convulsions.
In a statement concerning the use of products containing aspartain by persons with diabetes and
hypoglycemia, Roberts says: "Unfortunately, many patients in my practice, and others seen in
consultation, developed serious metabolic, neurologic and other complications that could be
specifically attributed to using aspartame products. This was evidenced by:
"The loss of diabetic control, the intensification of hypoglycemia, the occurrence of presumed
'insulin reactions' (including convulsions) that proved to be aspartame reactions, and the
precipitation, aggravation or simulation of diabetic complications (especially impaired vision and
neuropathy) while using these products.
"Dramatic improvement of such features after avoiding aspartame, and the prompt predictable
recurrence of these problems when the patient resumed aspartame products, knowingly or
inadvertently."
Roberts goes on to say:

"I regret the failure of other physicians and the American Diabetes Association (ADA) to sound
appropriate warnings to patients and consumers based on these repeated findings which have
been described in my corporate-neutral studies and publications."
Blaylock stated that excitotoxins such as that found in aspartame can precipitate diabetes in
persons who are genetically susceptible to the disease.(5)
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Emotional Disorders.
A double blind study of the effects of aspartame on persons with mood disorders was recently
conducted by Dr Ralph G. Walton. Since the study wasn't funded/controlled by the makers of
aspartame, The NutraSweet Company refused to sell him the aspartame. Walton was forced to
obtain and certify it from an outside source.
The study showed a large increase in serious symptoms for persons taking aspartame. Since some
of the symptoms were so serious, the Institutional Review Board had to stop the study. Three of
the participants had said that they had been "poisoned" by aspartame. Walton concludes that
"individuals with mood disorders are particularly sensitive to this artificial sweetener; its use in
this population should be discouraged."(18) Aware that the experiment could not be repeated
because of the danger to the test subjects, Walton was recently quoted as saying, "I know it
causes seizures. I'm convinced also that it definitely causes behavioral changes. I'm very angry
that this substance is on the market. I personally question the reliability and validity of any
studies funded by the NutraSweet Company."(19)
There are numerous reported cases of low brain serotonin levels, depression and other emotional
disorders that have been linked to aspartame and often are relieved by stopping the intake of
aspartame. Researchers have pointed out that increasing in phenylalanine levels in the brain,
which can and does occur in persons without PKU, leads to a decreased level of the
neurotransmitter, serotonin, which leads to a variety of emotional disorders. Dr William M.
Pardridge of UCLA testified before the US Senate that a youth drinking four 16-ounce bottles of
diet soda per day leads to an enormous increase in the phenylalanine level.
Epilepsy/Seizures.
With the large and growing number of seizures caused by aspartame, it is sad to see that the
Epilepsy Foundation is promoting the "safety" of aspartame. At Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 80 people who had suffered seizures after ingesting aspartame were surveyed.
Community Nutrition Institute concluded the following about the survey:
"These 80 cases meet the FDA's own definition of an imminent hazard to the public health, which
requires the FDA to expeditiously remove a product from the market."
Both the Air Force's magazine Flying Safety and the Navy's magazine, Navy
Physiology published articles warning about the many dangers of aspartame including the
cumlative deliterious effects of methanol and the greater likelihood of birth defects. The articles
note that the ingestion of aspartame can make pilots more susceptible to seizures and vertigo.
Recently, a hotline was set up for pilots suffering from acute reactions to aspartame ingestion.
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Over 600 pilots have reported symptoms including some who have reported suffering grand mal
seizures in the cockpit due to aspartame.(21)
One of the original studies on aspartame was performed in 1969 by an independent scientist, Dr
Harry Waisman. He studied the effects of aspartame on infant primates. Out of the seven infant
monkeys, one died after 300 days and five others had grand mal seizures. Of course, these
negative findings were not submitted to the FDA during the approval process.(22)
Why don't we hear about these things?
The reason many people do not hear about serious reactions to aspartame is twofold:
1) Lack of awareness by the general population. Aspartame-caused diseases are not reported in
the newspapers like plane crashes. This is because these incidents occur one at a time in
thousands of different locations across the US.
2) Most people do not associate their symptoms with the long-term use of aspartame. For the
people who have killed a significant percentage of the brain cells and thereby caused a chronic
illness, there is no way that they would normally associate such an illness with aspartame
consumption. How aspartame was approved is a lesson in how chemical and pharmaceutical
companies can manipulate government agencies such as the FDA, "bribe" organizations such as
the American Dietetic Association, and flood the scientific community with flawed and
fraudulent industry-sponsored studies funded by the makers of aspartame.
Erik Millstone, a researcher at the Science Policy Research Unit of Sussex University has
compiled thousands of pages of evidence, some of which have been obtained using the freedom
of information act 23, showing:
1. Laboratory tests were faked and dangers were concealed.

2. Tumors were removed from animals and animals that had died were "restored to life" in
laboratory records.
3. False and misleading statements were made to the FDA.
4. The two US Attorneys given the task of bringing fraud charges against the aspartame
manufacturer took positions with the manufacturer's law firm, letting the statute of
limitations run out.
5. The Commissioner of the FDA overruled the objections of the FDA's own scientific board
of inquiry. Shortly after that decision, he took a position with Burson-Marsteller, the firm
in charge of public relations for G.D. Searle.
6. A Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) was conducted in 1980. There were three scientists
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who reviewed the objections of Olney and Turner to the approval of aspartame. They
voted unanimously against aspartame's approval. The FDA Commissioner, Dr Arthur Hull
Hayes, Jr. then created a 5-person Scientific Commission to review the PBOI findings.
After it became clear that the Commission would uphold the PBOI's decision by a vote of
3 to 2, another person was added to the Commission, creating a deadlocked vote. This
allowed the FDA Commissioner to break the deadlock and approve aspartame for dry
goods in 1981. Dr Jacqueline Verrett, the Senior Scientist in an FDA Bureau of Foods
review team created in August 1977 to review the Bressler Report (a report that detailed
G.D. Searle's abuses during the pre-approval testing) said:
"It was pretty obvious that somewhere along the line, the bureau officials were working up to a
7. References
1. US FDA Website Guidance

Documents http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/grasguid.html#Q1
2. FDA's response to European Aspartame

Study http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01369.html
3. Sweet on Stevia: Sugar Substitute Gains Fans, Columbia Daily Tribune, 23 March 2008
4. Sugar demand rising at expense of sweeteners, claims sugar industry
5. Sucralose breakthrough could smash Tate & Lyle monopoly
6. DeNoon, Daniel J. Reviewed by Charlotte Grayson Mathis MD. "Drink More Diet Soda,
Gain More Weight? Overweight Risk Soars 41% With Each Daily Can of Diet Soft
Drink", WebMD Medical News (2005), accessed 2007-06-25
7. Swithers SE, Davidson TL (2008). "A role for sweet taste: calorie predictive relations in
energy regulation by rats". Behav Neurosci 122 (1): 161–73. doi:10.1037/0735-
7044.122.1.161. PMID 18298259.
8. Olney JW, Farber NB, Spitznagel E, Robins LN (November 1996). "Increasing brain
tumor rates: is there a link to aspartame?". J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 55 (11): 1115–
23. doi:10.1097/00005072-199611000-00002. PMID 8939194.
9. Aspartame: Questions & Answers; Study reaffirms safety of aspartame

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10. Soffritti M, Belpoggi F, Degli Esposti D, Lambertini L, Tibaldi E, Rigano A (March
2006). "First experimental demonstration of the multipotential carcinogenic effects of
aspartame administered in the feed to Sprague-Dawley rats". Environ Health
Perspect. 114 (3): 379–85. doi:10.1289/ehp.8711. PMID 16507461. PMC 1392232.
11. FDA Should Reconsider Aspartame Cancer Risk, Say Experts: New Rat Study Links
Artificial Sweetener with Lymphomas, Breast Cancer
12. Food Safety: Food Additives
13. EFSA EU, press release 1472 EN
14. EFSA EU, afc_opinions, 1471 en
15. Daniel JW, Renwick AG, Roberts A, Sims J (2000). "The metabolic fate of sucralose in
rats". Food Chem Tox 38 (S2): S115–S121.doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(00)00034-X.

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Sweeteners

Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) is a member of the chrysanthemum family and is native to

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Recipe Equivalencies: Note: results may vary

Baking with Sugar Substitutes

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Comparative Sweetness of Sugars

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Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.019 mg (1%)

Iron 0.01 mg (0%)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)

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Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.008 mg (1%)

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.007 mg (0%)

Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.082 mg (1%)

Vitamin B6 0.026 mg (2%)

Folate (Vit. B9) 1 μg (0%)

Iron 1.91 mg (15%)

Potassium 346 mg (7%)

Zinc 0.18 mg (2%)

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Baking weight/mass volume relationship

 Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz

 Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz

 Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz

 Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL

 Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL

 Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

 Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

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Natural polymers of sugars

Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis plants

Cellulose is a polymer of glucose used by plants as structural component.

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There is also an herbal supplement, stevia, used as a sweetener. Controversy surrounds

Food industry usage of artificial sweeteners

According to market analysts Mintel, a total of 3,920 products containing artificial

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Reasons for use

Sugar substitutes are used for a number of reasons, including:

 Reactive hypoglycemia — individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an excess of

 Cost — many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar.

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Controversy over health

List of sugar substitutes

Natural sugar substitutes

1. Brazzein — protein, 800× sweetness of sucrose (by weight)

2. Curculin — protein, 550× sweetness (by weight)

4. Glycyrrhizin — 50× sweetness (by weight)

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6. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates — 0.4–0.9× sweetness (by weight), 0.5×–1.2×

10. Luo han guo - 300× sweetness (by weight)

11. Mabinlin — protein, 100× sweetness (by weight)

17. Monellin — protein, 3,000× sweetness (by weight)

18. Pentadin — protein, 500× sweetness (by weight)