Thesis - Historical Development of Middle Indo Aryan With Ref To Buddhist Literature and Epigraphy - Saheli Das - 2006

THE TITLE
A IDSTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MIDDLE-INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE

WITH REFERENCE TO BUDDIDST LITERATURE AND EPIGRAPHY.
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THe DEGREe OF
DOCTOR;, OF PHILISOPHY (ARTS) IN PALI OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
SAHEL/ DAS
DEPARTMENT OF PALI
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
2006
PREFACE
The present study .. A Historical Development of Middle-lnJo-Aryan \\ 1th Reference to
Buddhist Literature and Epigraphy" is carried out under the direct supervision of Dr.
Mani Kuntala Haldar(De), Head of the Department of Pali. University of Calcutta
Kolkata. I am really indebted to my supervisor and it is not a matter of exaggeration to

.wff,e,1¢
say that her help and guidance in every respect alone could not get me reach the desired
,.._
destination.
It is a well known fact that the Indo-Aryan language which happened to be the mother of
other North Indian languages was initially introduced in India by the intruding Aryans
during 1500 B.C. Actually, the lndo-Aryan language can be divided three distinct
categories, viz., Old-Indo-Aryan (upto 600

.
B.C.), Middle-Indo-Aryan
.
(600 B.C. to 1200
A.O.) and New-Indo-Aryan (1200A.D. onwards). Among those three categories, the
Middle-Indo-Aryan (MIA) language which comprises of Pali and Prakrit has important
historical values. Since Pali and Prakrit, belonging to the category of MIA language
contained vast amount of historical materials related to Buddhism. Cultivation of same in
proper perspective is supposed to yield important results related to historical analysis.
The present study consists of seven chapters.. Chapter-I is an introduction containing a
general survey of MIA languages. The total period of MIA languages can be divided in
four sub-divisions. viz.. (a) period of early development (b) transitional period, (c)
period rdated to the den�lopmcnt of later Prakrits and (d) later phase of development.
Chapter-II contains the palacogrnphic records of MIA languages. Chapter-III deals with
- 1 -
the history, structure and characteristics of Pali and Prakrit -- the early MIA languages
(6008.C to 100B.C.). Chapter-IV depicts a phase of change in the realm of MIA
languages ( 1008.C. to 400A.D.) which includes Prakrit, Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit,
Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit and the three dialects of the fragments of A�vagho�'s
drama. Chapter-V deals with a particular stage of development of literary Prakrits
(400A.D.to 600A.D.) consist of l'vralf�µ-i, Sauraseni, Magadhi". Ardha-Magadhi, Pai§iici"
etc. Chapter-VI is, infact, a di�cussion on the development of late MIA, i.e., Apabhram�
and AvahaU}ia (600A.D.tol200A.D.). Chapter-VII forms the concluding part.
In this occasion, I like to show my gratitude to Late Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya,
Department of Ancient History and Culture, C.U. and Late Prof. Niranjan Goswami,
Curator, Ashutosh Meseum of Indian Art, C.U. for their valuable instructions.
I am indebted to Prof. Satya Ranjan Banerjee, DepJrtment of Linguistics, C.U.,Prof.
Subhadra Kumar Sen, Department of Linguistics, C.U., Prof. Ratna Basu, Department of
Sanskrit, C.U., Prof. Samir Mukherjee, Department of Museology, C.U., Dr. Sadhan
Chandra Sarkar, Ex-Officer-in Charge, Govt. Sanskrit College, Kolkata, Dr. Kanai Lal
Hazra., Department of Pali, C.U., Prof. D.P.Guha, Nalanda Mahavihar, Prof. V.P.Jain,
Director, Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology, Delhi for their valuable suggestions
and constant instructions.
I am thankful to 8" Prof. Sukomal Chowdhury, Ex-Principal, Govt. Sanskrit College,
Kolkata, Prof.Binayendranath Chowdhury, Govt. Sanskrit College. Kolkata and Prof.
Bela Bhattacharya, Department of Pali, C. U. for their assistance.
I am specially indebted to my Gurudcv Late Kamal Sinha. my fa ther Sri Sunil Kumar
Das. my mother Smt. Keya Das. my sister Sanoli Das. sister-in-law Sri Supratim Ghosh.
- II -
my elder uncle Late Sishu Kumar D�is and my friends Malabika Roy, Soma Bag, Surajit
Sarkar, Aswini Kumar, Morn Roychowdhury, Piyali Chakraborti, Dipa Das and others
for their affection and encouragement at every step of my progress in research activities
and other field of works.
Finally I would like to extend my heartiest gratitude to my guide, my parents, my
teachers and my friends who have carefully endured the trials of research work and the
stresses of writing this thesis. It is my duty to express my gratitude to. the authorities of
the Central Library, University of Calcutta, Museum and Library of The Asiatic Society,
Kolkata, Library of the Govt. Sanskrit College, Kolkata and Library of the Bhogilal
Leherchand Institute of Indology for giving me permission to consult books, documents
and periodicals from time to time.
Place : Kolkata. .................................

�� ...... .
[SAHELI DAS.]
- 111 -
-----:THE PLAN OF WORK . ------
PAGES
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ _............. i-iii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION---- A GENERAL SURVEY ....................... 3-9
CHAPTER 2 : PALAEOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF MIA LANGUAGES............ 10-33
CHAPTER 3 HISTORY, STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

OF PALI AND PRAKRIT--- THE EARLY MIA
LANGUAGES (6008.C.---1008.C.) ........................................... 34-70
CHAPTER 4 : A PHASE OF CHANGE DURING THE PERIOD

BETWEEN THE1008.C.---- 400A.D........................................ 71-107
CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENT LITERARY PRAKRITS

(400A.D.--- 600A.D.) ...._............................................................... 108-120
CHAPTER 6 LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MIA DURING

THE PERIOD BETWEEN 600 A.D. --- 1200A.D-............. 121-130
CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUSION................................................... rn••······••u• ..··"············.... 131-133
LIST OF LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE WORK... _. .................................. 134-138
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION - - - - - - A GENERAL SURVEY
Language is a unique combination of sound and sense. It means that it is an expressed

idea where speech sounds combined into words. Otherwise it can be said that language is
a mode of speaking or writing common to a group of people. 1 Therefore, the primary
object of linguistic approach is language. India is a vast country and we have an amazing
collection of languages and dialects, which enhanced our literature from ancient to
modern. Before we go through the divisions or classifications of Indian languages, we
have to see the origin of Indian languages. Actually, languages of the world are of two
types --- classified and unclassified. The following chart shows the origin of Indian
languages:----
Branches of Classifi
Indo-Euro �J;u Turka-Mongal Dnivi�an Vote-Chinese Eskimo

(i) (iii) (v) (vii) (ix) (xi)
Semitic Finno Kakesian Austric North Old languages

Hemitic Ugriya Eastern of America
(ii) (iv) (vi) (viii) (x) (xii}
I. Asher. R.E.(ed.). The Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics,(Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994), v.4,
p-1896.
2. Sen. S .. Bhasar Itivrtta. (Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Pn Ltd.• 1999). p-69.
3
The Branches £ ludo-European 3
!
Greek Germanicl Tokharian
(i) (i) (iii)
Albanian Armenian
Latin K tic Balto-Slavic Aryan ( ndo-Iranian)

(iii) (v)
(ii) (iv) (ii) (iv) i

i i
Iranian Dardic Indian
(ii) (iii)
The linguistic history of India is great. The Indo-Aryan languages, which happened to be
(i)
the mother of other Indian languages was initially, introduced in India by the intruding
Aryans during 1500 B.C. Chronologically the Indo-Aryan languages are divided into
three distinct categories and these are - (1) Old-Indo-Aryan (1500B.C. to 600B.C.), (2)
Middle-Indo-Aryan (600B.C. to .12.00A.D.) and (3) New-Indo-Aryan (1200 A.O.). 4 In
each period there was literary 'standard' dialect, which constitute our main source of
information regarding the phonetics and other details of the various spoken dialects also. 5
Actually, Language, the medium of communication, can not be bound by time. It is really
difficult to say when the particular language is evolved. Its area can be described, its
development can be examined, its grammar can be explained and its characteristics can
be discussed. But the correct time of its evolution just is apprehended. It is important to
say that we can discuss about its ranges (in respect of popular use). However, the object
of this study is to see the historical development of Middle-Indo-Aryan Language with
reference to Buddhist Literature and Epigraphy. So, we have to consider both languages
of the inscription and literature.
3.Banerjee, S.R.• A Handbook of Sanskrit Philology, (Calcutta: Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, 2000), p-xxi.
4.Chatterjee. S.K .. On the Development of MIA,(Calcutta : Sanskrit College. 1983 ). p-1.
5. Taraporewala, I.J.S..Elements of the Science of Language.(Calcutta :University of Calcutta, 1978). p-241
4
The total rang� of the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan language is vast It plays a
great part in the fonnation of modern Indian vernaculars. The probable date of the
6
emergence of Buddhism in India is 6th century B.C. It is a noticeable factor that the
formation and growth of the Classical (Sanskrit) stage synchronized with the- time of the
rise of Buddhism. Buddhism virtually disappeared from the land of its birth by 12th
century A.D,7 but was established throughout the rest of Asia Pali, Prakrit, Prakrit
influenced by Sanskrit and Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit (formerly known as
Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit respectively), belonging to
the category of MIA languages contained vast amount of historical materials related to
Buddhism. Pali is the language of the sthavirav1tda (Theravada). On the other hand, while
the Sarvastivada sect composed Tipitaka
• in Mixed Sanskrit (Sanskrit Buddhist literature),
Sammitiyas composed the same in Apabhram/a and Mahasamghikas composed the same
in Prakrit. 8
As far as my observation is conceme<L Middle-Indo-Aryan language can be divided into
four stages from linguistic point of view. The first stage ranging from 600 B.C. to 100
B.C., consists of Pali and Prakrit All the texts of Pali canonical literature Tipitaka were
written within this period. The earliest written document of prruJt is Piprahwa Buddhist
Vase inscription (5th century B.C.) .9 Later, all the Asok.an inscriptions are included in
10
this phase. Again, H§thi"gumpba Inscription ofKharavela ofK.alinga is also belonged to
this period because it has close resemblance with the Gimar version of Asoka and with
Pali.11 The second stage is the transition period ( lOOB.C. - 400A.D.). In this phase or
period we have four languages, which are found in the records (epigraphs, manuscripts)
related to Buddhism. The languages are -- (i) Prakrit, (ii) Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit,
6. Haldar(De), M.K. Bauddhadhamer Itihas, (Calcutta :Mahabodhi Book Agency, 1996), Jrl.
7. Asher. R.E., The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, (Oxford: Pergamon Press.1994), p-422.
8. Bandopadhyaya,A.C.Buddha O Bauddhadharma,(Calcutta :Finna KLM Pvt. Ltd., 1989), p-%.
9. Pandey. R.B.. Historical and Literary Inscriptions, (Varanasi :The Chowkhamba Sanskrit
Studies. v.xxii. The Chowkhamba Series Office, I 962J. p-1.
l 0. Maj umdar. P.C.. Sanskrita O Prakrt Bhasar Kramavikas� (Calcutta : Saraswat Library. I 97 l ). p-269.
l l. ibid.. p-291.
5
(iii)Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit and (iv) Languages of the fragments of Mvagho�'s
drama. It is important say that the languages -- Prakrit and Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit
are found both in epigraphs and manuscripts and the Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit are
only found in epigraphs. Though Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit is found both in
manuscripts and epigraphs, but as they- do not deals with the Buddhism, so the
manuscripts, i.e., literatures are taken for the study only. Although our discussion is about
the development ofMiddle-Indo-Aryan languages, but Sanskrit literatures, mainly drama,
are taken where we get the application of different dialects of Prakrit languages. It is
important to mention that in the fragments of in Asvagho�'s drama (restored and edited
by H.Liiders), we get three distinct dialects of Prakrit, viz., Old M9"agadhi, Old s'aurasenf
and Old Ardha Magadhi according to Liiders. 12 He also claimed that those three dialects
conform to the phonetic standard of Pali and has several similarities and dissimilarities
with the Asokan Prakrit. 13 However, it is really ofgreat importance in case ofthe history
ofIndian languages as well as the development ofMiddle-lndo-Aryan language.
The period between 400 A.D. and 600A.D. is a particular stage ofdevelopment ofliterary
Prakrits such as .tvrah�!J1, Sauraseru, Magadhf, Ardha-Magadru and Pailaci: The
aforesaid literary Prakrits have also several sub-dialects of them. Unfortunately we have
not any Buddhist literature written in any of the literary Prakrits, still I have to consider
those in my work because the development of the Middle-Inda-Aryan language will be
incomplete until and unless I mention it.
In the next phase, between 600AD. and 1200A.D, the later development ofMIA (Apab
hramla and avaha!!ha) will be discussed. Dr. Sukumar Sen also given a chart ofthe Apa
14
bhramk where shows the time of Apabhramsa is between 350 A.D. and 650A.D.
Again, Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee shows Apabhrath£a of different dialects of Prakrits
like Mah�� Apabhram£a, Saurasern Apabhraip� Magadru Apabhnuh� etc. 15
But,
12. Sen, S., A Comparative Grammar of MIA, (Poona : Linguistic Society of India, Decan College, 1960).
p-12.
13. ibid.
1-l. ibid .. p-4.
I .5. Chatterjee. S.K.,Origin and Development of Bengali Language. (London : George Allen and lJnwin
Ltd .. 1970 L v. I. p- Fact: Page 6.
6
S.M.Katre claimeJ that Apabhrruhk was used in the East of India by the Northern
16
Buddhists. It is important to mention here that according to Vinita<lcva (8th century
A.D.) Apabhramfu used by the Sammitiya sect of Buddhists, Prakrit by the
Mahasanghikas and Pai�c"i by the Sthaviravadins in their religious literature. H�wever,
Apabhrani£a is basically the late form of Prakrit. It may be put in other way that the
Prakrit language due to its locational variation, assumed some phonological and
morphological cha.T1ges, which ultimately had come to be known as Apabhramla.
The ultimate form of Apabhramk is known as Avahanba or Apabhr�!a, which in other
17
way is the ruin of Prakrit language. Abhib�!a is a syno·nym of MIA
..
Avahattha('fallen down'). 18
Mahfunahopaddhyaya, Dr. H.P.Shastri used the special
terminology regarding the language of the Dohas is 'Sandhya-Bhafe' (twilight
language). 19 But Pandit Bidhusekhar Bhattacharya corrected it as Sandhabha�a
0
(intentional speech). 2 Tibetan translators and comm�ntators also confirm that the
meaning of the term 'Sandha-Bh�' is 'intentional speech'. 21
However, the Buddhist
Dohas are written in a late or simplified form of Apabhramfu. It is important to note that
the literary evidence of Avahanha language is of two types geographically --- (i) Western
and (ii) Eastern. 22 Western Avahantia prevalent in S�uraseru Prakrit region was full of
linguistic material. 23 Eastern Avaha!!ha correspond the works of Kii{lha, Saraha and Tillo
(Buddhist Siddhas). In this period erotic Buddhism of Eastern India, was called Sahaja It
..
reflects in the Avahattha literature.
16. Katre, S.M.,Prakft Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture,(Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya
Bhava.n, 1945), p-22.
17. Majumdar, P.C., Sanslqt O PraJq-t Bh� Kramavikas! op.cit. p-335.
18. Sen,S.K.,Proto New-Indo-Aryan, (Calcutta :Eastern Publishers, 1973), p-13.
19. Bagchi,P.C., in collaboration with Santi Bhiksu Shastri, Caryagitikosa of Buddhist Siddhas,
(Santiniketan :Viswa Bharati,195), p-xi.
20. ibid.
21. ibid.
22 .. Scn.S.K.. Proto New-lndo-Aryan, op.cit.
23. ibid.
7
The total range is shown in the following chart -
INDO-ARYAN
!·
i
Old-lndo-Aryan Middle-Indo-Aryan New-Indo-Aryan
(l 500B.C.-600 B.C.) (600B.C.-1200A.D.) (After 1000 A.O.)
[OIA] [MIA] [NIA]
i
-l"MIA (600B.C.-100B.C.)
i
Pali
i
Asokan Prakrit
Transitional Stage (100 B.C. -400 A.O.)
Prakrit Prakrit influenced

i
Sanskrit influenced
i
Languages of the
By Sanskrit by Prakrit fragments of
A�vagho�'s drama
i
2ad MIA (400 A.O. - 600 A.O.)
Literary PrakriL / Dialects of Prakrit
..
MJm
i
3 rd MIA (600A.D.-1200A.D.)
I.
Apabhrarnsa
I
Avaha!f.ha
8
Phonology of each and language of each stare '"'ill be discussed only in my paper.
Therefore. the development of the . total range of MIA will be shown from the
phonological point of view.
The work also contains the palaeographic records of MIA languages. As regards the
Palaeographic records of MIA language it may be mentioned that the Mahenjadaro and
Harappan scripts represented the oldest fonn of writing. 24 These scripts are not basically
the Aryan in origin but can be considered as the primitive fonn of Dravidian script. 25 On
the other hand, the Brahmi was the oldest script, which was introduced to write the Aryan
language in India Mauryan period onwards many old Prakrit inscriptions were found
written in Brahmi and Kharonru scripts. Subsequently, more developed Briiluni and
Kharonhfscripts were found to be used in inscriptions of K� kings and scriptures is
Sanskrit Buddhist (100A.D.-400A.D.). Between 400A.D. and 600A.D., the scriptures and
Sanskrit and Sanskrit dramas were written in developed Brahmi with its regional variety.
The period between 600A.D. and l 200A.D. witnessed the development and use of the
Brahmi' belonging to Northern and Southern classes in different religious scriptures and
use of Apabhramfu and Avahanba in Sfu'ada and Newari scripts respectively. 26
******************
24. Hazra K.L..Pali Language and Literature, (New Delhi : D.K.Print World (P) Ltd., l 994) v. J, p-49.
25. ibid.
26. ibid.
9
CHAPTER - - - 2
PALAEOGRAPHIC RECORt>S OF MIA LANGUAGES
The history of writing forms the main basis for two importan� branches of study - (i)
Epigraphy and (ii) Palaeography. Epigraphy is the study of the inscription27 and
Palaeography is the study of the script 28 •
It is mentioned earlier that the first stage of MIA consists of Pali and Asokan Prakrit. As
Pali is considered as the language of the Lord Buddha's preaching, so Pali is earlier than
Asokan Prakirt (3 rd century B.C.). But, the literature written in Pali was then in the form
of oral transmission. Here, Pali literature includes Tip�a only. According to Ofpavainsa
and Mahavarhsa, the Tipitaka and its commentaries were first written before few decades
of the 1 st century A.O., which is considered as written during the reign of king
.
Vattagamani Abhaya (1 st century A.O.)
1
29
. This manuscript used the contemporary
Brah.mi graphs for the written records 1 • The Asokan Prakrit used two types of script -
Brah.mi and Kharorthi. It can be mentioned here that the Brahmi' script written from left to
right and it has long vowels, like, 'a', 'i', •u' etc., but Kharo!!hl script written from right
to left and it has no long vowel.
27. Sircar, D.C., Indian Epigraphy, op.cit.

28. Dani, A.H., Indian Palaeography, op.cit.
29. Haldar(De). M.K.. Bauddhadhanner ltihas.op.cit.. p- 365.
10
1. Inscriptions of Asoka Language : Asokan Prakrit Script : Branmf
A) Rummendei Pillar a a 1 1 · U u e
Inscription .
>-I 'ti- X X
L X X
0 k kh g gh n C ch J jh
t d
X X X X X X
�
n t th 9 dh n t th d dh
? D
X X X
C 0 � � 0
n p ph b bh m y r l V
l L,
)(
□ rr1 � l
)(
J 6
s' s. s h m kya lea ke ga gt
,c )(
� Lr
•
t f t /\ /(
ca te ti te de dhe ru pa
t
Ja JI
<f t""
bu
�-
bhn.
-c
bhi
f
brn
A
bhe
7?mi 7)
mu me
(;
y1
c
pl
nI rl - . 'tfsa 'd J:
"
t;J � rr3 �
ye Ia ti lu va V1 V1 SI hi
l
hi
-J J ✓ c5 6 6 [; t G-
l1
B) Nigali Sagar Pillar a a 1 1 u u e
Inscription
½
X X X X X
�
k kh g gh
. ch jh
+
0 n C J
I
d
X X
€
X X X
I
I1
-n t• .
th d. dh
• . t th d dh
X
n
X
p ph
X X
b
clbh X
m
�
y
0
r
?
I
D
V
.1,/ l. l, X
□ .
� <J �
X
J 6ti
h m ko ga co
t
s' s s �
•
,L lr =r d ,{
X X
/\
c
te thu du de na muh pa pl bu be
J.
bhi
9
yam ye
t ? I
va
�
sa
C
si ill
[;J -0
t
la
I J l
C) Calcutta-Bairit
-J
a
�
a
�
i 1
d-
u u e
Rock Inscription
H tt •
L
X X
• • �
D,;.
k kb g gh n ch jh
t
0 C J
A W,G
*
'l d cb
X X X
ff" t .
th .
d dh n t th d dh
X X X X X X
A 0 � D
n p ph b bh m y r I V
..L
:t�. 8 -J 6
IJ..../ �
l:,
X
L, D
� s h m ka ke khi khu ga
X
gi
X
� l,-
•
-f t 1 _1ni A
t
ghain ghu ca Cl cya cha Ja
*
lv � cfte i i. �
ta ti tii tha di de dhe nam na
*
/\ A A 0- � ? 1) l _[
11
ne pa pra pri pha bu bha bhi ma mi
1 (, L ( G 9 r-r �
tf -�
s
va ve
.t
y� ye la lo VI sam sa SI
J:; � -J -J tS 6 cG �
t i 'Y
Sl SU ha
Cr
D) Sinci Pillar a a I I u u e
Inscription
X X X X X X
�
I + 1 . I\ lu
X
d c6
X X
n t th .
d dh n t th d dh
X
C
X X X. X
A/ f.. 0 ?
X
1.. \.; X X
,-I l{ JJ I ,J
s' s s h m kim ke khu ge gham
X X
. clcha G-
•
f t 1 7\ �
ghe .
te ta ti ti tu thi <la
7v d. cE
du dha nam
-(
na
A
ru
I 1
pe
),_ 01 ?
bhe
•
po bha bhi
� _[ L i lJ *
,.,.r ✓ ,1
me ya y1 ye n va sam sa Sll,
r
VI
15 X i *
6 i
I
I J,, �
SU hi
i *
I I
c:_ I i
I
13
E) Sirnith Pillar a a l T u u e
Inscription
0 -k kh
Hg
?+gh •,·;n.. .
X
L
ch
X
J
t>
jh
·+
C
X
1 X
lv
X
d/d
X
€/(,
X
�
n t !h <} dh . t th d dh
r/? D
X X X X X
C f. 0
J_ L G
X
d/J tf X X
V 6/6
. kam
-r
s' � s h m ki ke ko khi
)C
khu
{;
kho
J,
gham
U-
ghe cum
•
+·-
Ja ti
+
tu
=,:-
tharh
'Y
tha
1 t d.: "-
*
1c, <c- r! 0· 0-
de di dba dhu nam na Ill nu ne pa
? -� [J ) . ..L _c .i �- J_ C
c e
pl pl po pria bhi bhe ma ya y1 ye
-c CD ,f' r( � X i ;i
va sa
✓ u. t t
Ii le vam VI Vlffi ve sarh SI
6 & 6 �
•
[ �
SU svam ha bu he
NjC( � G- tr 1r
F) Kausimbi Pillar a a 1 i u u e
Edict
'JC X X X: ;){ .x
0 k kh
�
g gh .
n C ch J jh
�-
t
"'
d
X * X X X X
'
I
L. I I I
14
t th . .
n
" th
,v
n • d � t d dh
D
lC ,c JC X
(_
)IC. :,C
�
J_
:>t .x
� cf \l.J/ '1
lt
-J
.
�
s' s h m ko kh(u) ge ca
r • •
s �)
• *
C- [
.x X
)v
.
i
c
ti da de dha nam na m
>
ta no pl
* * *
j
I
[Y _L f 1
bi bha ma yam YI ye va
..
sa(n) sa Sl
oJ
se
rt
ha
�
hi
J; i 1
*
� �
i
G) Girnar
� G--
a a I l u u e 0
I
Rock Edicts I
• •• L f>
X X
� � l_ I
k kh gh
.
n ch j ih . n
n
-g C
-t 1 I\ d cb µ
X
\JJ �
t th g � n t th d dh n
r1 I ? D J_
3(
C � � 0
u
p ph b bh m y r l V s'
b □ n1. 0 �
1 .J b
X ;
+·a f + t 1-1 '.

� s h m karh kim ko kra kha khi
-f
X
lr
•
�-
i
t
go di Cl Cal cda ji ju io na
N'-
-
I
X. l dti <D <c- �
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'no na ta tetpa trai tha thai
K!
trf
r r; II
I
l ( } 0-
I
}-. ::0
I
� I �
15
da di de dvo dham dhu dhru mun I na m
7 7 D r _[ i
nu no pi pi u pra ra pri bhi
p p
pa
J, f"
ma mo
C
mhi yain ye
Yra l [ re rva Ii le
vam va VO vyam vyo vra sain sa SI SU
SU so sti sti sra srii sva ha hi hu
G-
hu
H) Kilsf Rock a a u u e 0
Edicts
X. X
L X
l>
k kh g gh m ch j jh
t /\ w X
d
:x.
r
t I) t th d dh n
C 0 0 D ..L
p ph b bh m y r V s'
L b D 8
X
,J b
s h kva khi khe ge co ji
•
f � f
te tu te tha thi de dham dhe na no
-( 0- D L 1
pi pu yam ye Ii le va vi vu
✓ iJ_&_t_LJ__
___
-----'--y -4---=-�--4----J;---+--l,---+---
i----r--c' _'
L__
r -- �·a_-�?.__a -+-__.__se--+-----+------t--+-1. ----t-----r-----tll------;I,
!
: If-. � 1
· ----�--�--�-- -
,
l --
: :
___ __,___ _ _____ i, __ --------�'
: i
16
I) Dhauli Rock a a I i Li ii e 0
Edicts
•
';J,f'It )I- • •
.2C
L 2C
q 1
k kh g gh
.
n C ch j jh n
t 1/1 I\ lv
X
d © t... JJ "h
t th d dh Q t th d dh n
C 0 � d:, T "/A 0 � D l.
p ph b bh m y r I V s,.
�1.}y -J -6
X X
l, 6 D r( �
. ka kha cu
r r
s s h m ki khi gt
-t
•
lr -F d...
JC'
�
�
ja JU ti .te d.lu- ff te tha
t
ta tu
£"" �'
� -c ,! r. (\_ ). 0-
e
the de dhi dhu ru nu no pl_ pu
-0 ? p> D t J, :[ ysi
bo brn bhe ma yu ye la va
t
VI
-0-
SU
rl
se
r?
hu
�
hu
�
ho
� 1f 0 �
cV �
J) Jaugada
lra k-
a
-Cr-
I i u u e 0
Rock Edicts '
• X
L �
>-+ .
• • � _f
k kh gh n C ch J jh n
t 1
X
d cb E/£
r'
:ie
I\ lv
. . . .
I
t th d I dh n t th d dh
C 0 r I
d I " I. 0
I
? D _L
17
p ph b bh m y r I V
!
□ rt/r1 8
s'
L 6 J,
X
,J b 1(
•s s h m khii khe ca JI ji ju
X
µ lr
•
t. -11 J• i f: �
dhi ti thi di de dra pf bhi
t
nam
i I
bhe mu
0-.J
ya
�
la
?
Ii
�
VJ
_r
SI
i
SU
�
rr> �
J; ,J -✓ c5 � �
K) Delhi-Topri Pillar a a 1 1 u ii e
Edicts
• •
X
L r>
.
� �
0 k kh g gh n C ch· J jh
X
+ 1 (\ tv
¥
d <b f:./ l 1-1
. .
r
n t th Q <!h I} t th d dh
Ay ? D
1C
0
X
( �- 0
n p ph b bh m r l V
j_ L 6· □ rr. 'rl �
.x.
-J 6
s' h m ti ti
r t t
� s kha thi pe
•
l,- 0-'
.Jt J(
� �
ye
i
L) Delhi-Mirafh Pillar a a 1 1 u u e
Edicts
H- • •• t>
�{
X ,c ,c
� .
"'
�
n
+t
1
d
lu
<;ih
,c
n
dt
cb t..
th d
,c
dh
th
JC
C. r1 X
A D
I
0 � 0 �
18
n p ph b I bh m y r I V
J_ l
X
D rt 8 J.,/�
:k
,J 6
m
r I
s' s s h ; khi ti bho mo va
•
Lr 'o 6
�, X
� �
SU
cY
M) Lauriya-Ararij a a l I u u e
Pillar Edicts
B >+/
rt
.• . X
L X
b,.
0 k kh g gh n C ch j jh
1'i.
t 1 /\ lJ,
1(
d ch � p
r
n
"V
t th Q dh t th d dh
rd/d
Q.
:x
C 0
t(
A 0 ? b
l □ rr. 'd w/J,. -J 6

,c
(.; (?
s' s h m khi jf !e ti" dhya
t I
�
•
.){ :,t_
� Lr 't' ? -c
po
tN) Lauriya-Nandan- a a 1 l u u e
�arh Pillar Edicts
ti/tf � K- • ••
Jc
L X
l>
0 k kh g gh n C ch j jh
t 1 d cb re�/�/
-"
.x
I
.K
I\ \J; <c.
� I
n· I
t !h 0 9h n t th d dh :
C. 0 � d
1(
f 0 i ?/'? D '
n p ph I b bh m y r I \'
1. G -�i- I D I
n1 'tf ..L-/ J;/
I J., - � -J �
--- ---------
19
st � s h m khu cu ia ta --
tva
iv/ t/1
i
X •
J_
X
rV Lr-- <c- E-
0) Rimpiirvi Pillar a a 1 r u u e
Edicts
ti 4 • •
�
L t::.
0 k kh g cli
.
n C ch i jh
X
......
+ 'l /\ u,
JC.
d cb/d, <cfe J.l
n th d dh th d dh
r
t I) t
.x
C 0 d/J JC
A 0 ?/? I)
p ph b bh m :
y . r I V
fr/�
n
l 6 6 J../J,, -J 6
K
L, D
'
s' $ s h m ju bh1 ma vi hu
X
sva
J(
� Lr
•
� I '6 i y-
%
P) Allahabad Pillar a a 1 i u u e
Edicts.
•
'ti/;f- <1
·-
)�/� L X.
"
jh
"
0 k kh g 211 n C ch j
X
- -t 'l
X
d <b E__ p
r
n t th <;I db I) t th d dh
JC
(. 0 d X
f 0 (/'? D
n p ph b bh m V r 1 V
-J 6/6;
I
j__ G G D rr � �
X
c
s" s s h rh di du pi pii Ii
,c ,I!
,l, L>-
•
� � � -J
a
I
Q) Rupnith Minor a I l u u e
Rock Edict
i>l/)4/ )f
I
•• • lC
L
X
t>
I
'
DI
I
I
!
:.:o
r
0 k kh g gh 1 C ch i ih
-t- lv d cb
"
'l
.>C
A X
<c.
J('
rr th
r
1 9 dh n t th d db
(j ? D
'Jc '<.
C. 0
l('
n p ph b bh m y r I
v
V
.J_ L, G □ rl
.
t, .J.,j'1 I J,
s' s s h _m tu ne pra bu vya
:ii:: X
)., t.r/er •
� l U- 0- i
sva
�
R) Maski Minor Rock a 1i 1 I u ii e
Edict
rl/H )C •
• •
�
[_,
X 2(
gh n ih
+ 1
0 k kh g C ch i
cb
X
\u
X X tC
(\ �
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r
th I)
? D
"
d
X
0 X
IC
('\
n p ph . b bh m y r l
□
V
1 \..J
l(
n' iftJ J.,, I -J 6

. .
•
.
v
s s h m bhii sa
r
� Jam pu
u-
•
(/\, � �
6.
'- rh l
SU
<Y e
S) Brahmagiri Minor a a I 1 u u
Rock Edict
�/)1 ..
• '
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},+J)l- • [>
J(
+J J U/ d (D
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I (\
)( )(
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L-.
[I� 18
21
n t th 9 Qh p t th d dh
1i C 0 r1b � I A 0 ?/� D
n p ph bh m y r I V
6 0 1 l -J
X
J_ l_; •
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s' s. s h m kho na .
11e dr,: pra
1 n ?
•
C
K
t0 G- 3=
)(,
t
mu ru VyU .. I
1,
�
Inscriptions of Asoka Language : Asokan Prakrit Script : Kharotthi..
T) Shihbazga- a 1 u e 0 k kh
rhi RockEdicts
,.
'1 l( ') 'Y ').., f1 c; /c, �
gh n C ch j jh n t th 9
i y y 'I <f -, y
,c
1
,c
ph t th d dh n p ph b
·-t -,,
{l
T ] i L vi
'
-�
� �
n
bh ·m y r I V s' � s h
ti
m
\J
ki
(\
go
7 cham
cu
<1 l
dharh ti tra
l>
de dri
J. 1)1 -;:f ¥ T Lr t/2. <s

s
� �
dhi no pi pri me yu le vra �i
f¾, V _j\ cf l rf1 1' '
se hi I
p
U) Mansehni
I' I
-
a I u e 0 k kh
�1ei
· Rock Edicts
: I
I I
'1 "( ) 1 I
�
r, Lf
gh
•
n ch j jh n t th d
1 ¥ y
C
1 y i 1ph yb
K X
dh t th d dh n p
t
I)
T
bh
�
m
� � 7 �
s'
L h Vt
h
r
y r l V � s
u I' 1 '1 1 fl T }> 7_

m kam kra tva dhi me mya yo
c
VI
1
mma
t } <--i \U "-L � /\ -ry

vra sti
1 +1-
The next phase, which are known as transitional period includes four types of languages,
viz., Prakrit, Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit, Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit and the
dialects of Asvagho�'s drama, i.e., Old Sauraseni, Old Magadhl and Old Ardha
MagadhI: Here, Prakrit Dhammapada is taken as the reference for Prakrit literature.
M.Petroffsky and J.L.Dutruile Rheins discovered the birch-bark manuscripts of the
Prakrit Dhammapada at the ruins of Golpiga Vih� 13 miles from Kho!fui in the circle
.. °
of Indian colonies in the in the Kharotthi alphabet of the 2nd century A.D.3 Five inscrip-
tions are taken as reference of Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit are -- (i) Kosam image
inscriptionof the time (of the year 3) of Ka.vi�ka 1(78-102 A.D.), (ii) Swnath Buddhist
image inscriptions of the time (Year 3) of Kal}i�ka (78-102 A.O.), (iii) S-ahet-Mahet
image inscription of Kal}i�ka (78-102 A.O.), (iv) Mathura Buddhist image inscription of
the time of Kal}i�ka-I and (v) Mathura Buddhist image inscription of Huvi�ka. All these
inscriptions are written in BrahmT. 31
30. Hazra. K.L., Pali Langauge and Literature,op.cit..v.1, p-50.

31. Barua. B.M. and Mitra. S.N .• Prak� Dhammapada. (Caicutta :University of Calcutta. 1921). p-viii.
__,
')..,
Inscriptions of Kusina
• • Period Language : Prakrit influrnced by Sanskrit
Script : Brahmi
1.Kosam Image Inscription of the time of Kal}i�ka-I (Year 3) a a
X. 'X
I u u e 0 k kh g gh
a
1
-t
$ .x X I(. 'JC' X .x
{\
m C ch J jh - t .
th � .
dh
.x :x:
E- X X
{_
,z )i 2<
�
n t th d dh n p ph b bh
"
X A X
L,
X
� CJ D (1'
�,�
m y r I y sl � s h m
cL Jm
Jc
6
X
\J Lf
ka di ddha
t
khu ti to tra tre tv(o)
f � � � A i � �
-
-�
dhi pl pra bu rm me �ka sam sya
I
<f ?s JJ 9 :j �- tL
�
�
I! 2.Sirnlth Buddhist Image Insuiptions of the time of KaJ�ka-1 (Year 3): Text (1)
a a 1 l u u e 0 k kh
�
X l{ X
L )C
<I
.K
't 2
:
g gh
•
m C ch J jh n -
t th
•
/\ 0 cb 0
I
X � ,,c;
E C
,c I
;
.
d .dh .
n t th d dh I n p
II ph
--- I
::ic: '
I
X
I
i
r (> I
I
I (:)
I
I
2_ . I! (} J... LJ
I
I
::,,c
2-+
b bh m y r I V s' s s
z c1 �/8
J
')C
D c-1 'D 6 8
�'<8/
..
h m ke ksu ru . tu to tre tva tvo
D1LJ :2 X 1 \ 1'
•
7' �
dhi ddhi ddhya ruuh ne nte pl pu pe pra
{ i l l l-\
(
� ✓� 'l_J jre
-
ba bu bo bhi nu me ye ra n
□ !1 --x J.. ..] J

;\
CJ 9 � clJ
rva lla va Vl vu sa
• .
ska sti stha
J s M
""'
8 :t
(..
�
6 �- �
SI spa sya ha hi
� � �• ..,..I� Lr CY
Text (2) a a 1 u u e 0
1(. X X - ,< Ji'. 'X. � '(.
k kh gh
.
n C ch J jh n
"'
t
t
t)
.
th d•
:K
.
dh
X
.
n t
X. .)(.
th
�
d
X
dh
X
C 0
X .x X.
t\
]tC ;,<.
a J_
p ph b bh m y r 1 V s'
u c.L J 2-1
)C
D X
.
' �
� s h m ksa k�u ti to tra tre

•
t ( X
'
Ll i�/ct
" ls I
I
I � � I
I
') 7)
25
tvo dhi ne pl i:e pra bo bhi re Ila
'/
I
�
(Y )_ CJ Ll :! �
c5 · 1 ;t
..
stha �pa sya ha
L <iKt Cr
�
Text (3)
!�- a I T u u e 0
:x :it "' "' p

':,{ :,,c )C
•
k kh gh m C ch J jh n
"
t
::x-
tJ ch
X X 3C X
E
t •th d• dh
I .
n t th d dh n
:c. G
X. :)C. X ,c. .3(
C � �
p ph b bh m y r I V s'
u ')t
□ c..L J iJ
")(
z
�
.
� �
s s h m ksu tra tre tvo di
�I<?
I
•
c.1 Lf
�
;! ') � �
dhi pu bo ye rva sam sya ha he
< tlij
•
I c? i 6 � l �"
0 I.J
i
I
3. Sibet-Mibet Buddhist Image Inscription of Kai,i�ka-1 a a 1
X X X
!
u
-u ; e I 0 k kh g gh m
'
t
X X X X ;p:. .x X
I /+
:,(
I
(\
I ;
I
C ch J jh n t th
• d• dh
• •
::r:.
..
r1
X .x.
J
X. ,c
�
t th d dh n p ph b bh m
/\
X
c (] J_ u "'
D ((
•
�
y r I V � s s h ksu
J
X lC •
t.L 6 f::'- f L.S
.
cam cha !i
-·
nam ..
nda to tra tram tvo
�
da
cb 2 -:c y ;; 1 \ \
"
0 ;:_
di
- ddhe dhi mun pl bhi me ye n rva
er G. ;J 21.J l
c,-
J.: �
sea
�
va Vl sam sti sya ha he
*
i 10 � �· �
4. Mathuri Image Inscription of the time of kaniska-I (lOlA.D.)
'&� . . Cs L-(
a
X· �
..
I 1 u
-u e k kb
0 g gh
,1--
X �
I\
:,:_ X X -;,(
-
�
.
n C ch J jh n th 9 .
dh
" JC g X X X :ic :.(" X
C.
"
u
X X ;K :Iii
_L D I
m y r I \' � � s I
' h rh !
•
J
� ii
cL Ii l..f
I
tJ
(!
I
I ..L - I I I
17
_,
I tva ta dhi m pra pu bo yam
•
...
gu .
IL 1 (I ? yha -0- J;
..
�
z
n re rva VI Sta sya sva
? J
I
J 1z. �
ti Cf
5. Mathuri Buddhist Image Inscription of Huvi!ka (lllA.D.) a a
l r · u u e 0 k kh g gh
/f' 2
X X X. X X X � .x
.
m C ch J jh n t. .
th .
d .
dh
X X X X: X .x: ,c
C
::r I\/ '1

m y
0
r
�1�
I
a J_
s'
u
s
X.
s
□ <!/cl
h
"
V
ke
ti-'
ksu
J
khu
ug1
b,.
,,
m
-
1J
ta
<:I/�
�"ti
LJ
tr tra
gn
1
tra
�
tre
�
tvo
r? ? :f F
tha de ddha dhi
ii�
ne
X
nte
0
pl
5
pu
()
pra
1
bu
0-
bo
< 6 a1
bha bhi mi
l
y1
�
ye
(£
va
J 9 6 <f c{ I L
'
c..
cJY
i I
I
I '
I
z{ �
�
I i I
ska sam sya ha hi hu
•
�
r' ��
fl"
l[ Cr 4
Reference for the language Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit is vast literature and the list
..
includes Maha, astu Avadana, Jatakamfila: Divyavadana, Astasahasrika Prajfia-Paramita;
Saddharmaplll}1arikasutra, Lalitavis� Lank�vatara, Suvaqiaprabhasasutra,
Gm:i?avyuha, Tathagataguhyaka, Saniadhirajasiitra are all written in Newari script and
Avadana s'ataka is also written in Nagari script and all these manuscripts are taken from
the Museums of the Asiatic Society, Kolkata.
Name of the text : Astsahasriki-Prajiiaparamita,

••
Langauge: Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit Script: Newari
a a 1 r u ti r I• e al
3t. 3l!"
au
t>--
�
k
�
�
kh
3
g
-3-,
gh
J!n• J �
ch
�
0 C J
--J1 }),.,.. c3l � ll � � '2 � �
jh n .
t .th .
d .dh .
n t th d
�
�
"2 (J � �
cl ii 2-ir �
dh n p ph b bh m y I
� 61 -q � 9 �
17" Z\ � �
s.
V s' s h m h• ·tc. �Q. 1L �
� S1 � �
Go 0 0
0 '31 fil \
tr><t pi. bhu s"vct �t c:t.
� en �
� i
Name of the text : Saddharmapundarikasiitram
••
Language : Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit Script : Newari
a a l l ll u r .I e
� :5{l
v--
00 �
ti!"\
.J �
�
J � �
•
0 au k kh g gh m C ch J
� J1- � � Jf � -2o � � �
jh n t .
th d• .
dh .
n t th d·
�
� C, 0 � ¼, � � �
�
dh n p ph b bh m y r I
<q .=1 q q 1f 4
V s/ s
�
s h
�
h . .
am kti
�
Cal ilea
� S1 !l � 6:,
0
0 \312 � �
..sta
�
Ill bo ru rdde lyam va1 s'ca ..
stha skr•
ra 21 � �
-� o
� � w � �
The fragments of Asvagho�a' s drama, which found from Central Asia is a very valuable
literature to understand the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan language. Ram Sharma
demanded that the characters of the manuscript "belong to the Middle-Brahmi of Kl.1¥1)a
period". 32 But, Henrich Luders after giving a close examination of the graphs, considered
that "the handwriting of our fragment has been written in the time of Ku�agas and further
it has been taken into consideration that whole of the manuscript appears to contain
developed forms than those of the contemporary inscriptions''.33 Fleet and 0. Franke
32. Sircar. D.C.. Select inscriptions bearing on Indian History and Civilization. (Calcutta :University
ofCalcutta.1965). v.l. pp.-135-153.
33. Sharma. R .. Brahmi Script-- Development in North-Western India and Central Asia. (Delhi: B.R.
Pub I i�hing Corporation.2(102 ). \.I. p-76.
30
demanded with arguments that the fragment must have hcen originated in the beginning
of the Christian era.
01
The next stage is known as 2nd stage covers various dialects of Prakrit language, like,
M'"alfarastrf, s{.uraseni, Magadhi, Ardha-Magadhi' and Paifaci. Unfortunately we have on
I I
written records in these dialects which are related to Buddhism. But, these dialects were
taken for the completion of whole range and Sanskrit dramas, like. Abhijrf"ana
. .
I
Sakuntalam, Mrcchakatikam, Ratnava.Ir and Prakrit literature, like, Uvasagadasao,
Karpuramahjari, Sattasai, Setubandho etc. are taken as a reference for the dialects.
I
However, all these texts are found written in all the Indian characters from Sarada in
Kashmir to Grantha in the South. 35
Name of the text: Abhijnina-Sakuntalam

Language: Sanskrit & Prakrit Script: Nagan
a a l I u u r 1• e al
01 �
7i t 3 � >lt
. (2, � �
0 au k kh g gh n C ch J
3n � en � c1l �
'3. -if � �
* = I !licit
x = not available
34. ibid.
35. Katre. S.M .. ·Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to lndain Culture. p.27. op.cit.
31
jh n t th
• d• dh
• . n t th d
� Yf 2 d J, i :JJJ � �
n p ph b bh m y r I
� '1 q er � 'a{ R � � 0
V s s s h m h KIO'\ � Xn�
q � \S{ �
0 •• � � �
�
tte dc:0,a. nd.o.. b"°' s'Ka. 5'eo..
-d l i c:tj �
�
Name of the text: Ratnavali Language: Sanskrit & Prakrit Script: Nlgarf
a a I r u u r l• e a1
31/4 �
au
�
k
�
kh
'3 � �
.
n
�
c.. Q_
ch
�
0 g gh C J
� � cl; � 11 t{ ..::3)" 'cl � Vi

,.,,.
jh n t th
• d. dh
• .
n t th d
Ri .:>; d d � a � q/<1 °&? �
.,
dh n p ph b bh m y r
'z::f 'Cl � � }{
•
H � � �
V s' s• s h m .
h kya kkha gr
q ZI" 'St' �1� {]

•
g/: c:,fif{ � J2
�
.,.,._
Jna taih . da mna ro sri .
skra sam
I
f
! � �: c;:r 7>11 �
D �
]J � '
I
The last stage is termed as 3 ro MIA, which includes Apabhra.rhk and Avaha!!ha There
..
are different types of Apabhramk, viz., �aharastn-Apabhram� S'uraseni-Apabhramta,
Magadhi-Apabhramfu, Ardha-M"agadhf Apabhramk etc. 36 and due to locational
variations, i;cripts used for the literature are also various, viz., Sarada, Devmigarf, Ncwari
etc. Newari script is profusely used for the Avahanha literature. The palaeographic
records are given according to the manuscripts available in some numerous libraries and
museums of Kolkata, viz., The Asiatic Society, Sanskrita Sahitya Parisad, Bangiya
Sahitya Parisad etc.
**************
36. Chatterjee, S.K., The Origin and Development of Bengali Language, op.cit.
33
CHAPTER --- 3
HISTORY, STRUCTIJRE ANC> CHARACTERISTICS Of PALI AND
PRAKRIT -- - -
THE EARLY NJ.A LANGUAGES (600B.C. � 100B.C.)
Toe 3rd chapter of the proposed research work is History, structure and characteristics of
Pali and Prak.rt -- the early MLI\ languages (600B.C. - 1008.C.). Since Buddhism
flourished during 600B.C., it can be surmised that Pali as colloqui came into bring even
before Asokan Prakrit though written form of Pali can be discerned not before l 00B.C.
The discussion on the genesis and early development of (1) PALI and (2) ASOKAN
PRAKRIT follows:-
(l)PALI
* THE TERM PALI AND ITS ORIGIN :-
The term Pali is a controversial issue. Different scholars have oppressed then respective
views regarding the term Pali leading to an interesting debate in the academic world.
37
According to Geiger, the word 'Pali' is an abbreviation for Palibhasl. European
Orientalists have put forward a different view in respect of Pali. In their opinion it means
a row (pamkti) or line of a book or a book itself and again also the page of a canon or
37. Geiger, W.( tr. By B.Ghosh), Pali Literrature and Language, (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprim
Corporation, 1978), p. I
34
38
manuscript. It is also mentioned by several scholars that Pali means 'texts' or 'sacred
text'. According to Kosamhi, a Buddhist scholar, Pali is derived from root 'pal' which
means 'to protect', 'to preserve". 39 Some scholars also argue that Pali took its meaning
from 'PalIT', i.e., village. As Pali became the language of the common people, it might
have been originally the language of the rural areas. 40 According to a grammatical work
Pali is defined as "Saddattham paletiti pali", i.e., ''text is so called because it protects the
sense of _the words". 41
However, the Great commentator Buddhagho� made the
following observation that the language in which Tipit_aka was written was known as the
language of Pali.
*THE HOMELAND OF PALI:-
The homeland of Pali is still a puzzle. Indian and foreign scholars as well have put
forward different view on origin and homeland of Pali. Max Wallesser, a German
scholar, opines that Pali is derived from the name of the city of Pataliputra (Greek
Palibothra) and has pointed out that the word 'pali' has been formed from Pa�i or Pagali
and his assumption is that Pali was the language of Pataliputra, which was the capital of
Magadha42 However, the direction appears to be right since grammatically it is wrong to
suggest that Patali > Pali, because the right direction is as follows :-- Pa.tali > later Prakrt
Pa<µl1i > Old Bengali Pala.li > Modem Bengali Parula43
According to Ceylonese tradition Pali is Magadhi, Magadhanirutti, Magadhikabhasa and
the argument behind it, is the language of the region known as Magadha wherefrom
Buddhism emerged. 44 The Great commentator Buddhaghosa also pointed out that Pali is
'Magadhinirutti', i.e., the language of M"agadhf and in his a.Wiakatha, we get
Buddhavacana, Tipi� Tanti, Pariyatta etc. as the synonym of Pali. 45 In connection
38. Hazra, K.L., Pali Language and Literature, v.l, p.l, op.cit
39. Gune, P.D., An Introduction to Comparative Philology, (Poona : Poona Oriental Book House,
1962), p.195
40. Pali Language and Literature, op.cit.
41. ibid.
42. ibid., p-2.
43. ibid.
44. Geiger, W., Pali Literature and Language, p-3. op.cit.
4 5. Pali Language and Literature, v. l, p-3, op.cit.
35
with this we find an interesting mention in Culava.Ihsa that Pali, which was synonymous
46
with Tipita,ka had been brougbt here (palimattam idhanitam natthi a!!hakatha eva).
However, it is to be noted that according to the Ceylonese tradition Magadhi is the 'mula
47
bhasa' (s!i Magadhi mula-bhasa). But it is not perhaps logical to infer that Pali is
�agadru since primarily Magadhi and Pali are characteristically difft: �cnt from each other
and secondarily, despite the fact that Magadhi was a regional dialect understood by a
section of people, Pali became the universal one which had been made by Lord Buddha
for preaching. In other words Pali as a language became the 'lingua franca' of the
Northern India during 6th century B.C. while Magadhiremained confined within a region.
Interestingly, there is a story in Vinaya Cullavagga, which opmes an impression

regarding the language of the Buddhavacana The story is thus :- At that time two
brahmin brothers, Yamelu and Tekula came to Lord Buddha and reported that the
bhikkhus were propagating the teachings of Buddha through the medium of Sakaya
nirukti (Pali Sakayanirutti, probably means local dialect) instead of Chandasa and they
want to use the Chandasa for Buddha's teaching. Lord Buddha rebuked them ordered that
do not propagate his teachings in Chandasa, but in Sakayanirutti. Buddhaghosa
interpreted the term 'chandasa! and 'sakayanirutti' -as 'Vedic' and -,MagadhI' used by
Buddha respectively. But from the story of the Vinaya Pitaka (Cullavagga), it seems that
'sakayanirutti' is the 'local dialect'. 48 It may mention that though Lord Buddha ordered
his pupils to promulgate his teachings in 'sakayanirutti', but he was conscious about the
,,Situation that the use of local language or dialect would not distort his teachings and for
that reason he ordered his pupils instead of using their own dialect, the words or dialect
be used consciously according to the need. 49
46. ibid., p-3.

47. ibid.
48. Chowdhury. B.N .. Bauddha Sahitya. (Calcutta: Mahabodhi Book Agency. 1995),pp.8-9.
49. ibid.,pp.9-10.
36
Prof. Burnoff and Prof. Lassen also cf o not subscribe to the view that Pali is Magadru
dialect. They give reasons supporting their views. The salient features of Magadhfare -
(i) the mutation of every 'r' into 'I', (ii) every 'f and 's' into ·f, (iii) the ending •�• in
nominative singular masculine and neuter of 'a' -stem inflected like them. While in Pali,
change of 'r' into 'l' is frequent but not the rule, it has only 's', but not•�• and 'f and the
nominal forms mentioned above ·with '-o' or '-ain'. 50
Westergaard and E.Kuhn consider Pali as the dialect of Ujjayiru because it has
resemblance with the dialect of Asokan inscription, Gimar version (Guzerat). 51
Another
reason is that Mahendra (Pali Mahinda), son of Asoka, who was born and brought up at
Ujjayini and later on he went to Sirhhala (Ceylon) and propagated dhamrna through the
language of his native land, i.e., Ujjayini. 52
According to Oldenberg, Pali is the language of Kaliriga because it has similarities with
the language of the Hiithlgumpha Inscription of Kharavela found in KhaJ}�.53 E.
Muller also accepted this view. 54 But according to Luders, Old Ardha Magadhi (in which
the Jaina canon is written) is the basis of Pali. 55 P. V.Bapat argued against Liiders' view
because according to him Ardha-Magadhi belongs to the category of Prakrit dialect. 56 On
the other hand, Grierson and Nalina.ksha Dutt thought Pali has resemblance with Pai�i
Pralq1. 57
According to Sten Konow, Pali and Pai£aci is the language of the Vindhya
region.58 Dr. S.K.Chatterjee, after examining phonological and morphological aspects,
has drawn the conclusion that the original source of Pali is located in the region round
about Madhyadda or Siirasena and Sauraseru Prakrit bears close resemblance with Pali.59
50. Geiger, W.,Pali Literature and Language, op.cit.
51. ibid.
52. ibid.
53. Chowdhury, B.N., Bauddha Sahitya. p.13, op.cit.
54. ibid.
55. ibid.
56. ibid.
57. ibid.
58. ibid
59. ibid.
37
In connrction with the above opinion of B.C.Law regarding the origin of Pali, may be
mentioned. According to him, the term Palibhasa or 'Pali language' is a comparatively
modern coinage. 60
Again, Rhys Davids holds the view that the original source of Pali is
hardly be determined by the indepth analysis of languages. The dissimilarities between
Pali and Magadhi is more important though in Pali certain traits of Magadhi Prakrit can
be traced and also bears the view that the dialect of Kos'ala is the basis of Pali. 61
Prof.
Windinsch opines that Pali belonged to the category of Magadhi Prakrit and mentioned
that such a lingua franca naturally contained elements of different dialects, yet it was free
from the most obtrusive dialectical characteristics and it was not properly
homogeneous. 62 However, it is noticeable that scholars, both Indian and European, could
not reach any consensus. It appears that Buddha regarding the medium of instruction for
the propagation of his Dhamma, preferred local dialect while preaching in the region of
Anga-Magadha, Kuru-Pan'cala, Sak.ya-Malla, Vatsa and various places in Central India.
However, the conception of the lingua franca has been supported by the views of various
scholars. H.Kem declared Pali as "kunts prache", i.e., compromise of various dialects. 63
Rhys Davids admitted it with giving probable reason that in the ancient days, there were
wide highways running through principal cities, so as to maintain communication
between the Westem India and the Central India upto the limit of Vindhya ranges.
Buddhist Sram�, royal officials and traders used to avail of those rout� frequently
from V ai�i" and Rajagrha on the east to Ujjayini on the Y;"eSt and to Prati�pura (near
Narmada) on the south. As a matter of fac4 a lingua franca 64 gradually developed due to
the mutual exchange of thoughts, understanding and transaction of various kinds.
Therefore, Pali, which became the common language, came up as a mixture of various
dialects used during that time.
6-0. Law, B.C., A History of Pali Literature, (Varanasi : Bharatiya Publishing House, 1974), v. l, p. l.
61. Chowdhury. B.N.,Bauddha Sahitya, op.cit.
62. Geiger, W.,Pali Literature and Language, p.5, op.cit.
63. ibid., p-2.
64. ibid., p-5.
38
As the present work is. concerned with the development of Middle-Indo-Aryan
languages with reference to Buddhist literature and as only Tipita)m is taken for Pali
literature as reference, so the time and period of compilation of Tipitaka, has taken
account From the contemporary history we know that during the First Buddhist
Council, which was held just a few months after the demise of Lord Buddha,
Dhamma and Vinaya was recited at the Council by Ananda and Upfili ·1 l!spectively. 65
Again, during the time of Asoka (3rd century B.C.), in the third Buddhist Council,
Elder Thera Moggaliputta Tissa compiled the Kathavatthu. 66 Apart from this, we get
the name of the seven passages, i.e., (i) the Vinaya-Samukasa (the excellent treatise
on Moral Discipline), (ii) the Aliya Vasas (the course of conduct followed by the
sages - modes of ideal life), (ill) the Anagata bhayas (fears of what may come about
in future - dangers threatening the samgha. and the Doctrine), (iv) the Muni-Oathas
(poem on 'who is an hermit?'), (v) the Moneya-suta (Discourse on Quietism), (vi) the
Upatisa-pasina (the question _of Upatisya) and (vii) the Laghula-vada (the sermon to
Rihula beginning with the sermon on Falsehood, as delivered by the Lord Buddha) in
the Bliabru Edict of Asoka. 67
Now, it can easily be apprehended that the name
Tipita,ka as the collection of Buddhavacana was not formed till the time of Asoka.
More-ever, we get the information that compilation of Tipi!aka or its written form is
available from the time ·ofVattagamanr Abhaya of Srilahldi (1 st
century B.C.). 68 We
come across a number of dialects used in Asokan edicts. Considering all the Points, it
might be concluded that the dialects of Prfilqt, like, � SamBsem: Magadhi,
Ardha-Migadhi, Paiilci had cast their influence on Pali and also western and middle
eastern dialects of Asoka and language of Hatlngwnphi Inscription of Kharavela
have some similarities with Pali and thus 'Palibha.sa' is a conglomeration of various
languages.
65. Haldar(De), M.K.,Bauddhadharmer ltihas, pp.135-136, op.cit.

66. ibid., p.151.
67. Mukherjee, R.K., Asoka, (Delhi : Motilal Banarasidass, I 962), p.118.
68. Bauddhadharmer ltih� p.365, op.cit.
39
* PALI AS THE LANGUAGE OF BUDDHAVACANA / BUDDHA'S PREACHING==
Pali is the language of Buddhism. In other words the entire Buddhavacana or Buddha's
doctrine is written in Pali language. Now the question is, whether Pali truly is the
language of Buddha's preaching or not The answer can be gi�en by referring two distinct
viewpoints related to Pali Tipi¥11ca and linguistic character of the language.
It is well known that Pali Tipi!B,ka is the canon 1\f Theravada Buddhism. From the texts of
the TipitaJca, we get various informations, which tend to prove the statement that the Pali
is the language of Buddhavacana ·we have already seen that in Cullavagga, a book of the
Khandhakas, which is a section of Vinaya Pi� a story has been mentioned when Lord
Buddha asked his pupils "Anujanami bhikkhave Sakaya nirutt.iya Buddhavacanam
69
pariyapunitam". Rhys Davids and Oldenberg translate the above-mentioned passages
"I allow you, oh brethren, to learn the words of the Buddha each in his own dialect
(Saka.ya niruttiya'.). 70
In this connection references can be made of Udana, a book (3 rd) of Khuddaka Nikaya, a
section of Sutta Pit,aka Udana means solemn utterances of the Buddha The Udana is
written in verse and the story before the verse is written in prose. However, before each
sutta or verse, we see" ... Atha kho Bhagava etain-attham viditva tayam vf&}ayain imain
71
udanam udanesi ...." means by knowing the subject truly or consciously Buddha
uttered these utterances.
Itivuttaka is another book (4� of the Khuddaka Nikaya, also a section of Sutta Pitaka,
also known as a "book of quotations of the authoritative sayings of the Buddha". Each of
69. Law, B.C., A History of Pali Literature, v.l, p.xi, op.cit.

70. Geiger, W.. Pali Literature and Language, p-7, op.cit.
71. cf. Mitra. S.N., B.A. Pali Selections, (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1965), pt. I. p.12.
40
the suttas begins these words - "vutt, 1 m hetam Bhagavata, vuttam arahatati me sutta"
(This has been said by the Blessed One - thus I have heard) and ends with the words -
"ayamapi attho vutto Bhagavata iti me sutanti" (this meaning was told by the Blessed
One -- thus I have heard). n
From the above discussion, it can be proved that Tipi'l3ka is mostly Buddhavacana Now
the question is, whether Pali is the language of Buddhavacana or of Tipitaka
• or not. if we
analysis it from the linguistic point of view, then we perhaps get the answer.
It is well known that King Asoka propagated the religion (Buddhism) in and outside
India We have several edicts (major and minor rock edicts, pillar edicts, pillar and cave
inscriptions) of Asoka, which were directly and indirectly related to Buddhism. King
Asoka sent missionaries outside India for the spread of Buddhism. Again, we know the
fact that the Vedic language is the language of Aryans. It may be noted in this connection
that the language of Aryans, i.e., Vedic and the language of the Asokan edicts chronolo
gically preceded the Tipitaka, which came to influence the later. 73 Hence, the influence
of local dialects on the language of Tipi!B.ka can clearly be perceived. It is already
mentioned that the TipitaJca was first written during the reign of king Vanagamanf
Abhaya (1 st century B.C.) in Srilanka. It is needless to say that the present one is that
particular literature written during the above-mentioned period.
In the language of Tipifaka, influence of several dialects can be noticed, i.e., western
dialect of Asokan Prakrit and Middle Eastern dialect of Asokan Prakrit (3ro century B.C.),
the language used in Hiithigumpha Inscription of Kharavela (1 st century B.C.),
MIDI�!ri", Sauraseni', Magadhi, Ardha-Magadhi, Pai�ci and Vedic. 74
72. Bandopadhyaya, A.C., Buddha O Bauddhadharma, p-I07, op.cit

73. It is interesting to refer that we get the mention of seven suttas of Buddhist texts in the Bhabru
edict of Asoka, but the tenn Tipi!,lka is not used there.
74. Majumdar, P.C.,Sanskrita O Prakrit Bhasar Kramavilli, pp.297-301, op.cit.
41
. . . . ------ --------- -------------
Now t�c similarities between Pali and each of them will be stated respectively.
PALI AND WESTERN DIALECT OF ASOKAN PRAKRIT:-
(i) '-aya · and '-ava' is retained.

(ii) Presence of 'r'.
(iii) Cerebralisation is not extensive.
(iv)
I
.
's' , 's' > 's'
(v) Presence of conjunct consonant, e.g., 'sm'> 'mh', 'jxf' > 'nn\ 'kf > 'cch'.
(vi) Final '-ah'> '--0'. 75
PALI AND MIDDLE EASTERN DIALECT OF ASOKAN PRAKRIT:-
(i) 'f > 'n' in some cases.

(ii) Sometimes 'r'> 'l'.
(iii) Sanskrit 'tv .' and 'tm'> 'tt'.
(iv) 'ks' > 'kkh', 'st'> 'tth'.
(v) Consonant with 'r' is assimilated.
(vi) Final '-a!t' > '-e'. 76
PALI AND THE LANGUAGE USED IN HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION OF KHARAVELA
(i) 'n' is retained.

(ii) 'r' does not became 'I'.
(iii) ,,, and 'f >'s'. ·
(iv) Two numerals, Sanskrit 'dvitiya', 'tritiya'> Pali 'dutiya', 'tatiya'.
(v) Final '-a_ti'> '-o'. n
75. ibid.• pp.297-298.

76. ibid.
77. ibid.
42"
PALI AND MAff,ARASTJU;-
••
(i) All intervocalic single plosives are elided and elided consonants are
represented by 'y' or 'glide' (like Ardha-Magadln1 in Pali and in Mah�!If.
elided consonant reduced to 'h' in case·of aspirate.
..
e.g. Sanskrit 'suka', 'nija', 'sviidate' > Pali and Maharastri 'suva', 'niya',
'sayati'.
... 'lahu' , 'ruhira',
Sanskrit 'laghu' , 'rudhira', 'sadlm'> Pali and M§harastrf
'sahu'.
(ii) . ..
Sanskit 'ks'> Pali andMaharast:ri 'cch'.78
I -
PALI AND SAURASENI :-
a. Intervocalic single consonant often voiced.

b. Sanskrit 'tin' > Pali and Sauraseru 'tt'. 79
PALI AND MAGADID :-
(i } Intervocalic single consonant become voiced.

(ii) Sanskrit 'r' becomes 'I', but it is not a general rule for Pali but the use of
Sanskrit 'I' as 'r' also found in Pali.
(iii) Sanskrit •�y', 'jn''> ·on'·. 80
PALI AND ARDHA-MAGADHi
(i) Presence of 'r'.

(ii) Final '-ap' > '-o'.
(iii) The elided intervocalic consonants are often represented by 'y' or 'v' glide. 81
78. ibid., pp.297-298.

79. ibid., p-298.
80. ibid.
81. ibid.
43
PALI AND PAIJI :-sX -
(i) Voiced consonants become wivoiced.
(ii) According to Hemchandra, there are twenty-two characteristics features of
PaiJiici and fourteen of them have resemblance with Pali.
,,.,, • Al.,
e.g., 'Jn' > ·nn', 'i:i.y'> 'nfi', •�• > 'n', 'I'>f!', 's' and 'f> 's' etc. 82
AA.L
/
PALI AND VEDIC:-
(i) . . . .
Intervocalic 'd', 'db' becomes 'I', 'lb'.
(ii) Vocabulary, e.g., Vedic '�imbala' (cotton flower)= Pali 'simbala', 'simbalr.
Vedic 'kivant' = Pali 'kiva.m' (how much?, how far? ) 83
However, from the biography (not continuous) of Lord Buddh� it has seen that he went
to Varfu]asi, Uruvela, Rajagrha, Kapilava.5tu, Sriivasti, Vai� Bhaq.cJagrama, Piva,
Bhargade� K.auiambi, K�inagara etc. for the preaching of his P-hamma. It appears
from Cullavagga that Buddha told his disciples to use local dialects in course of his
preaching and as a result, we get influence of various dialects and languages on Pali,
which is the language of TipitaJca. Considering all the aforesaid facts it seems to us that
Tipitaka is Buddhavacana and therefore, Pali is the language of Buddhavacana. _
PHONOLOGY OF PALI :-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS:- � a, i, i°; u, ii, e, o.
CONSONANTS :- k, kh, g, gh, n, c, ch, J, jh, [ !, th, � <}h, I}, t, th,

. .
d, db, n, p, ph, b, bh, m , r, I, lh, y, v, s, h, m.
82. ibid., p.299.

83. ibid., pp.300-30 I.
44
a. Sanskrt vowels 'r' and Tare absent and diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' are also.
. . . .
b. The <.:onsonant 'I' stands for intervocalic 'd' and 'lh' for intervocalic 'dh'.
In the manuscripts T and '!h' are always confused. Some spellings seem
to be arbitrary.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRT VOWELS IN PALI :-
(i) Sanskrit 'r' becomes 'a', 'i', 'u' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
hfdaya hadaya
n,1 ISi
rsabha usabha
(ii) . becomes 'ri' and 'ru' in Pali.
Sanskrit 'r'
e.g. SANSKRIT PALI
rite
rukkha
(iii) .
There was no place have the long 'r' in Pali phonology. It was entirely lost
(iv) Sanskrit vowel 'l' becomes 'u' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
l4pta kutta
(v) Sanskirt diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' become 'e' and 'o' in Pali respectively.
e.g. SANSKRIT PALI
caityagiri cetiyagiri
Gautama Gotama
(vi) Sanskrit 'aya' and 'ava' become 'e' and 'o' in Pali respectively.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
kariipayati karapeti
. avalokayati oloketi
45
(3) CHANGE OF VOWELS :-
(i) Before double consonants 'a' becomes 'e". 'i', 'u', 'o'.
e.g., SANSKRIT PAU
I -
sayya seyya
trapu tipu
partcavims�ti pa.I}l}uvisati
_ tiraska tirokkha
(ii) Sanskrit 'a' becomes 'e', 'u' and 'o' in Pali..

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
matra metta
sarvajJlal_l sabbanR'u
do� doso
(iii) Sanskrit 'i' becomes 'a', 'u'and 'e' in Pali.

e.g ., SANSKRIT PALI
P!1IDVI pa!}lavi
gairika gerika
..
IIUU\j istha majjenha
(iv) Sanskrit 'i' becomes 'e' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
grhitva gahetva
(v) Sanskrit 'u' becomes 'a' and 'o' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
aguru agaru
anupama anopama
46
(vi) Sanskrit 'e' becomes 'i' before double consonants in Pali.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
presevaka pasibbika
(vii) Sanskirt 'o' becomes 'u' and 'ii' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
jyotsna j�a
• I ka ·
VISO visiilca
(4) THE LAW OF QUANTITY :-
Long vowels are usually shortened before conjunct consonants

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
filya sakka
tirtha tittha
pu.npt p�
(i) Sometimes double consonant is simplified and the long vowel is kept.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
unru ummi, iirni
(ii) Sometimes there was a shortening of a long vowel and to compensate that
following single consonant is doubled.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
usmsa unhissa
(iii) As a corollary of the above, the vowels 'e' and 'o' are to be mentioned as
short a double consonant and long before a single one.
e.g.. seyya. yobbana, upekkha rnokkha
47
(iv) Sometimes the long vowels become short�ned without any compensation.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
sarhkhyata samkhata
(v) Short vowels are lengthened almost, in case of prepositions.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
pravacana pavacana
Some of these cases may be mentioned as compensatory for the
loss of consonant.
(vi) There is dropping of the nasal, if the nasalised vowel is lengthened.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
sim.ha sTua
Again, in some cases the nasal generally repairs the loss of some consonants.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
asru ainsu
(vii) Sometimes vowels are dropped without any compensation.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
duhitii dhita
ap1 pi
(5) THE LAW OF MORA :-
The Law of Mora plays an important role in the construction of Pali words. In Pali a
syllable can contain only one mora or two moras, but not more than two. Therefore, it
begins with short vowel (one mora) or long vowel (two mora) or it closes with short
vowel. Every syllable with a nasal is mentioned as closed. There is no long nasal vowel.
48
Several changes have taken place in case of-vowels due to the Law of Mora :-
(i) In Pali, there is long vowel before single consonant.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
valka vaka
(ii) In Pali, there is short vowel before double consonant.

e.g. SANSKRJT PALI
mahaphala mahapphala
(iii) Like the long, the short nasal vowel possesses two moras then in the place of a
pure long vowel, a nasal sometimes appear.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
I
sarvan
- . -
sa-nvan
Sometimes a long vowel is kept before double consonant

e.g., SANSKRJT P.ALI
datra da:t¼A.
(iv) A long vowel preceding the consonant group is shortened regularly even in the
case of the separation of a consonant group by a vowel which is known as sva
rabhakti.
e.g., SANSKRJT PALI
mourya monya
(v) Without any compensation there was dropping of vowels.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
eva va
49
--�-----�--�-
· (6) THE TREATMENT OF CONSONANTS:-
(i} Pali possesses all the· Sanskrit consonants, except palatal ,f, cerebral 'f and
visarga(l}} . The sibilants'�' and 'f are replaced by (dental 's') only and 'ti'
either being dropped or replaced by the nominative singular ending'o'.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
yasa yasa
ti�ya tissa
Buddhah Budd.ho
(ii) In Pali cerebrals are found much more profusely then in Sans�
e.g., ghata, du!t}la, daIJ-ga; pwp_1a -
(iii) Sansktt consonants are sometimes changed in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
lalapi nala!a
sarva sabba
(iv) Hard consonants are sometimes softened.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
vyapfta vyavata
ruta ruda
(v} 'y' sometimes appears for'd' in Pali.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
khadita khayita
(vi) Reduction of an aspirate to ·h'.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
laghu lahu
sadhu sahu
50
(Yii) There are several Pali words where intervocalic voiced consonants become
unvoiced.
e .g., SANSKRIT PALI
chagala chakala
(viii) In several cases aspiration is found.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
kubja khujja
(ix) Change is seen in the conjunct consonants, which show either simplification
or assimilation.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
p�a
sadda
(x) The conjunct sometimes dissolved by an intervening vowel.

e.g., SANSKRJT PALI
acariya
surya suriya
(xi) Interchange of 'r' and 'I' is not rare.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
pan pali
kira kila
(7) Due to the Law of Mora, several changes have taken place in case of consonants
also:-
51
(i) SANSKRIT PALI
!18 km}ha
�
gandharva gandhabba
caitya cetiya
sthavira
_,.,_
praJna
,.._
thera
panna
rakta ratta
�ya sakka
(ii) Change of Sanskrit consonants.

(a) SANSKRIT PALI
Y8Mi ..
latthi
(b) Softening of hard consonants.

e.g.,
SANSKRIT PALI
uta uda
(c) 'y' becomes 'd'.

e.g.,
SANSKRIT PALI
Khadita khayita
(d) There was a change in the conjunct consonants.

e.g.,
SANSKRIT PALI
mukta mutta
§abda sadda
52
(iii) In Pali, •r retains and it very often tries to shov.· ·r' when in the corresponding
Sanskrit form there is 'l'.
e.g. SANSKRIT PALI
mahaphala mahapphala
kira kila
(iv) There was the assimilation of conjuncts in Pali.
e.g. SANSKRIT PALI
cakra cakka
rakta ratta
satya sacca
EXCEPTIONS :-
(a) 'r' retain with initial conjuncts.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
Brahmajala Brahmajfila
(b) Initially there was no assimilation of conjunction, but there was a system of
simplification.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
sthita thita /thita
(v) Assimilation of medial visarga.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
Plli?kara pekkhara
(vi) Loss of final consonants, except anusvara.

e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
devat deva
53
(vii) Sometimes Sanskrit 'y' and 'm' changed to 'v'.
e.g., SANSKRIT PALI
a�an avuso
trayatrimSat tavatimsa
Beside, the Pali, <'ther language of early stage of MIA is Asokan Prakrit,
which will be discussed below.
{2) ASOKAN PRAKRIT
Asoka, the great king, was a prince of the Maurya Dynasty and grandson of Chandra
gupta Maurya. According to northern and southern legends, Asoka's succession was
disputed, he slaughted his ninety-nine (99) brothers, for the sake of throne for which he is
dubbed �<;lasoka But after Kalinga war he has a great change and he became
Dhammasoka. In the Rock Edict VIII, we see: "For a long time past, Kings used to go out
on tours of pleasure (Vihara-yatra). Here there were chase and similar diversions. Now,
King Priyarudin, Beloved of the gods, is repaired to Sambodhi (Bodhi tree) when he had
84
been consecrated ten years. Hence, this is touring for dhamma (Dhanna-yatra). There
fore, we see that before that King Asoka used to find his relaxation or recreation in tours
of pleasure, like, hunting etc. But, after the awful K.alinga war, he left the idea of ever
going on this pleasure tours forever and started religious tours. However, as a result of
Dharmayatra, we got many inscriptions, like, pillar edicts, major and minor rock edicts,
two separate rock edicts, etc. which are found in various places of his empire. Therefore,
inscriptions of Asoka have been engraved either in rocks, stone pillars or in caves. A list
of inscriptions given below which I take as reference :--
1. On Rocks:--
A. (i) Fourteen major rock-edicts - Gimar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarru, Manshera, Dhauli,
Jaugaga.
(ii) Two separate Kalinga rock edicts --- Dhauli and Jaugaga.
84. Bhandarkar. D.R .• Asoka. (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1969). p.74.
54
-- -·--
B. (i) Minor Rock LJicts -- Riipnath, Brahmagiri and Maski rock inscription.
2. On Stone Pillars :--
(i) Seven Pillar edicts -- Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Miraµi, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandan

garh, Rampurva, Allahabad.
(ii) Minor pillar edict --- Ka1.1�ambi pillar edict.
(iii) Minor pillar inscriptions - Sanci, Sa.math, Rummendei and NigalfSagar.
Again, all the inscriptions mentioned above can be divided into two separate divisions -
(i)directly related to Buddhism and (ii) indirectly influenced by Buddhist ethics (mainly
ahimsa) and rituals as the form of proclamation.
The following list shows the distribution of inscriptions under the proper heads :-
(A) Directly related to Buddhism:-
(i) Minor Rock Edict - Calcutta-Bairat rock edict/ Bhabru edict

(ii) Rummendei and Nigali Sagar pillars.
(iii) Kauiambf, Saflcf and SarnAth pillar edicts.
(B) Indirectly influenced by Buddhist ethics and rituals as the form of proclamation :-
(i) Fourteen rock edicts -- Gimar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarhf, Mansherii, Dhaulf,

Jauga<Ja
(ii) Two separate Kalinga rock edicts --- Dhauliand Jaugaga.
(iii) Seven pillar edicts -- Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Mirat}l, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya
Nandangarh. Rampurva, Allahabad-Kosam pillar.
(iv) Minor rock edicts --- Rtipnath, Maski and Brahmagiri Rock Inscriptions.
55
(A) A STUDY ON THE ASOKAN INSCRIPTIONS DIRECTLY RELATE_D TO BUD
DHISM :-
The list of the inscriptions has already given. Now, the place of findings as well as a short
description of the inscriptions is stated below:---
(1) Bhabru edict/ Calcutta Bairat rock edict :-
Captain Burt in Bairat, near Bhabru, Jaipur district, discovered it in 1840, Rajasthan. At
present , it is preserved in the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta (Kolkata). The
inscription bears the name of seven texts of Tipitaka which are recited by Buddhist
monks and nuns and both male and female devotees.
(2) Rummendei pillar inscription :-
Dr. Fuhrer discovered it in 1896 near shrine of Rummendei Temple, in the village
Parariy� Nepalese Tami. King Asoka visited the spot and erected the pillar as it is the
birthplace of Lord Buddha Sak}'amuni and that is why king exempted the village of
Luriunini from paying truces.
(3) Nigali Sagar pillar inscription:--
Dr. ruhrer discovered the inscription in 1895 on the western bank of a large tank called
Nigfili Sagar in Nepalese Tami. The inscription refers to King Asoka's enlargement of the
Stu.pa of the Buddha Konakamana to.the double (of its original size) and later on visited
the place in person and erected the pillar.
56
Li) Kau�bi pillar edict :-
It is found inside the Allahabad Fort. It is addressed to the Mahanfatras at Kausimbi

ordering them to take steps schism in the monastery and also to punish the monks or nuns
trying to break up the samgha.
(5) Sarnath pillar edict :--
This edict is found at Sarnath, district Benares (ancient 13-�ipatana or Mrgadava), U.P. It is
probably addressed to the Mahfunatras at P�iputra ordering against them to take steps -
--- schism in the monastery and punishments also mentioned for the monks and nuns
trying to break up the samgha. Again, it bears the order for lay-worshippers to come on
every fast day (posatha) at the samgha in order to be inspired with confidence with_
confidence with this very edict.
(6) Saiici pillar edict :---
This pillar inscription is found in Sanci, ancient Buddhist site, which is situated in Raisen
district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India. This inscription also contains suggestion against
the schism in the monru.1ery,
PHONOLOGY OF THE ABOVE INSCRIPTIONS :-
Among all the inscriptions, except, Bha.bru edict and Sanci pillar inscription, the places of
findings of these inscriptions can be located in the middle-eastern region, still they bears
the same phonological features like others.
57
(i) 'r' is generally replaced by 'I'.
e.g., SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
__ ,,;
raJna lajina
raja Hija
ti
,.
cirasthikah. cilasthitike
aharah aha.le
(ii) Conjuncts 's' and 'r' are always assimilated.

�-bhagika\J. athabhagiye
samagn$ samage
- ah
gram game
. (iii) Conjunct 'ks'

• becomes ·kh' .
b�u bhikhu
bhilq;� bhikhuni
�ipta nikhita
(B) A STUDY ON THE ASOKAN INSCRIPTIONS INDIRECTLY INFLUENCED BY

BUDDIDST ETIDCS (MAINLY AHIMSA) AND RITUALS AS THE FORM OF
PROCLAMATION:-
It may be noted that a list of the inscriptions in connection with the above has already
been given.
Now, the finding places of the same are given below.
( 1 ). There are altogether fourteen rock edicts, which have been found in six different
places. i.e., Shahbazgarhi, Manshera, Gimar, Kalsi, Dhauli and Jaugac).a.
58
(i) The Slfahbazgarhi R.:>ck :-
The ShahbazgarhrRock is found in Shahbazgarhi, Peshawar district, North-West �rontier

Province, now situated in West Pakistan.
(ii) The Manshera Rock :---
The M"""anshera Rock is found in Manshera in the Hazara district of the North-West
Frontier Province, now in West Pakistan.
(iii) The Gimar Rock :--
The Gimar Rock is found in Gimar Mountain, Junagarh district in Kathitar

.
�
peninsula,
Guzerat.
(iv) The K.alsiRock :--
The KalsiRock is found near KA1s4 Debra Dun district, United Province. . _.
(v) The DhauliRock :---
The Dhauli Rock is found at Dhaulivillage in Puri district, Orissa.
(vi) The Jaugada Rock :--
The Jauga1a Rock is found at Jaugapa in Ganjam district, Orissa.
(2) There are seven pillar edicts of King Asoka, which are found in six places, i.e., Delhi
Toprii, Delhi-Mira!h, Lauriya-Arariij, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva and Allahabad.
59
(i) The Delhi !opra Pillar :-
. .
This pillar is originally in Siwalik Mountain range in the village Tobra (present Topra), in
the district of Salum and Khizrabad (90 kos from Delhi). The pillar standing to the
present day on the roof of the three-storied citadel of Firoz Shah outside the 'Delhi-Gate'
to the south-east of modern Delhi. It bears seven edicts of Asoka
(ii) The Delhi-Mira!fi Pillar :---
This pillar is carried by Firoz Shah fro Miraµi (in the district of United Provinces) to
Delhi. It bears the firstfive edicts of the Delhi-Topra pillar. A fragment bearing portions
of the two last line of the sixth edict was offered to the British Museum in 1913 and from
its dimensions, it seems that it belonged originally to the Delhi-Mira!h pillar.
(iii) The Lauriya-Araraj Pillar:-
This pillar stands near a village named Lauriya, in the Camparan district, North Bihar.
The name Araraj is after the neighbouring Siva temple, named Araraj. It bears the set of
the first six edicts.
(iv) The Lauriya-Nandangarh Pillar :--
This pillar also stands near village named Lauriya, in the Cbamparan district, North
Bihar. Nandangarh is a ruined fort in its vicinity, due to which Cunningham combined
these to separate two sets of six edicts ---- Lauriya-Arariij and Lauriya-Nandangarh.
60
(V) The Rampurva Pilllli
Another copy of first six edicts was discovered at Ram-Champaran district, North Bihar
by Mr. Carlleyle.
(vi) The Allahabad Pillar:---
It is found in Allahabad and now, it stands inside the fort at Allahabad. It is a set of six
edicts.
(3) Among all minor rock inscriptions, only three has been taken as reference and these
are found from Rupnath, Maski and Brahmagiri.
(i) The Riipnath Rock Inscription :--
The Rupnath rock inscription is found from Riipnath, fourteen miles west of Slimanabad
railway station on the line from Jabalpur to Katni, Madhyapradesh.
(ii) The Maski Rock Inscription :--
This rock inscription is found from Maski, a village in the Lingsugur Taluka of the
Raicur district of the Nizam' s Dominion, Hyderabad.
(iii) The Brahmagiri Rock Inscription
It is found in Citaldurga district of Mysore State.
61
There is a contron.:rsy regarding the nature of inscriptions whether Buddhism influences
them or not. In the opinion of a number of scholars that the inscriptions do not
necessarily betray the impact of Buddhism since non-violence or ahimsa, which appears
to be the predominant feature of all inscriptions is also a guiding principle of other
religions too. Asoka's statecraft was also influenced by Buddhism. Yet there are so many
reasons, which prove the fact that Asoka's edicts (which a,c not directly related to
Buddhism) have indirectly been influenced by Buddhist ethics and rituals and they are
found as the form of proclamation. According to the reading of E.Hultzsch, in Minor
Rock Edict-I, Riipnath and Maski, king Asoka directly declares himself to be a •�a'
(: · sumi prakasa sake) and a 'Buddha-Sakya' (am sumi Budha-Sake), i.e., a Buddhist. In
the Calcutta-Bairat Rock Edict, he speaks with an air of authority over the Buddhist
samgha, pointing out some passages, viz., (i) the Vinaya-samukasa (the excellent treatise
on Moral Discipline), (ii) the Aliya-vasas (the course of conduct followed by the sages -
modes of ideal life), (iii) the Anagata bhayas (fears of what may come about in future -
dangers threating the Samgha and the Doctrine), (iv) the Muni-Gatha (poem on "Who is
Hermit?"), (v) the Moneya-suta (Discourse on Quietism), (vi) the Upatisa-pasina (the
questions of Upati�ya) and (vii) the Laghulavada (the sermon to Rahula beginning with
the_ sermon on Falsehood, as delivered by the Lord Buddha) from scriptures to be receited
and meditated by the dwellers of the sangha, i.e., monks and nuns and also by the lay
devotees, i.e., male and female and giving an account of his faith in the Buddhist Trinity.
We also get that he stands out as the Defender of his Faith and proclaims the penalties for
schism in the sru:hgha as referred to in the Minor Pillar Edicts at S-arnath, Kaulambi and
Sanci. Moreover, we have evidence of (i) his abolition of bloody sacrifices, (ii) his
appointment of Dharma-Mahamatras to look after 'the interests of the saingha'
(samgha!}lasi pi me ka!e ime viyapafa hoharhti ti hemeva bambhanesu - some
85
Mahamatras were ordered by me to busy themselves with the affairs of the saingha)
(pillar edict - VII), (iii) his observance of Uposatha Buddhist Holdings (tisu catimmasisu
85. Hultzsch. E .. Corpus fnscriptionum lndicarum. Inscriptions of Asoka, (Delhi: Archaeological Survey
of India. 1991 ). v. I. p.136.
62
tisiyain pumnamisiyarn timni divasani cavudasam paµpaday[e] dhuviye ca anuposatbain
macche avdhiye no pi viketaviye -- Fish are inviolable and must not be sofd, on three
Catunnasis (and) on the Tishya full-moon during three days, viz., the fourteenth, the
fifteenth (and) the first (tithi) and invariably on every fast day and atrumrl-pakhlye
cavudasaye pamnadasaye tisaye punavasune tisu catummasisu sudivasiye gone cqa na
nilakhitaviye ajake �ake siikale e va pi amne nTiakhiyati no nilak.hitaviye - On the
eighth (tithi) of every fortnight, on the fourteenth, on the fifteenth, on Tishya, on
Punarvasu, on the three catunnasis (and) on festivals, bulls must not be castrated (and)
he-goats, rams, boars and whatever other (animals) are castrated (otherwise), must not be
86
castrated (pillar edict -V). Moreover, his attachment to a definite Buddhist symbol in
the edicts, i.e., the symbol of the White Elephant, indicated by an inscription at Gimar at
the end of the Rock Edict XIIl and represented by a figure cut on the rock at Dhauli and
incised at Kalsi with the label 'gajatame', "the most perfect elephant" points towards
Buddhist leaning of Asoka Further, in Pillar Edict V, we find "tuse sajive no
jhapetaviye" (Husks containing living things must not be burnt), which is nothing but
Lord Buddha's compassion towards all living creatures, not only for human being and
animals. 87
However; these inscriptions can be divided under four parts according to geographical
distribution, which must be classified under five distinct dialect group. These are - (i)
north-western, (ii) western, (iii) middle-eastern, (iv) eastern and (v) southern. Now, the
list of the inscriptions according to distinct dialect group given below :--
(1) North Western :--
ShahMzgarhi and Manshera rock edicts.
(2) Western :--
Gimru- Rock edicts.
86. ibid, p.128.

87. ibid .• p.127.
63
(3) Middle-F.astern :
(i) �alsi rock edicts.
(ii) Seven pillar edicts . .
Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Mirath, Lauriya-Ararlij and Lauriya-
Nandangarh, Riirnpurva, Allahabad.
(iii) Minor Rock Edict -- Rupniith.
(4) Eastern :---

(i). Dhaulfand Jaug$ rock edicts.
(ii) Two separate rock edicts, Dhauli and Jaugada. .
(5) Southern :--
Minor Rock Edicts -- Maski and Brahmagiri.
PHONOLOGY OF THE ABOVE INSCRIPTIONS :-
(1) North-Western Dialect Group :--
(i) Sanskrit 'r' becomes 'a' 'j' 'u' 'ri' or 'ru' (rarely) with or without the
• ♦ , ' ,
cerebralisation of a following dental plosive.

vyaprta vapa!11
hhrtarYesu .
bhataroayesu
krta kita
vrttam
vyaprta vapu�
mrg� mrige
mrgalJ mrugo
(ii) The conjunct 'kf generally retain but sometimes became 'ch' or 'kh'.
64
mok�ya mok�ye
ksanti ksarnti
ksudram khuda
ksinoti k�ati,ch<i!lati
(iii) Conjuncts in 'r' are generally not simplified (examples are found in both the
versions).
dharma dhrama
brahmava bram8.I_la
. , ..
pnyadars1 priadarii
sarvatra savrata
(iv) Conjuncts in 's' are sometimes assimilated with or without the cerebralisation
of the following dental plosive.
asta atha
(v) Conjunct 'sv' becomes 'sp'.

SVasaJ].a spasana
svasunruh spasuna
(vi) A nasal conjunct in 'jn' and 'y' is assimilated to 'n'.

e.g., SANSKRT ASOKAN PRAKRT
rajfiaJ:l rano
anya ana
65
(vii) · 'h' is rather a weak sound in non-initial (medial /finaJ) positions.
. e.g., SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
brahmana bramana [both version]
(viii) It is very important that there is no use of long vowel in both the versions as
they are written in KharoWU script.
(2) Western Dialect :---
(i) 'r' becomes 'a' or 'u' if 'v' precedes.

mrgal] mago
vyap!131: vyapapt
vrtta vutta
(ii) Conjuncts in 's' are almost always retained.

e.g., asti, hastidasana, nasti , but, ithi < sansqt stri.
(iii) 'ks' becomes 'ch' .

k�udram chudam
..
ksanati chmµlti
(iv) Conjuncts in 'r' are often assimilated.

priyadar§inal) piyadasino, but
deva.nampriyasya devanampriyasa
66
again, priyadasino also available.
<lhuvo (Sanskrit dhruvah)..
again, subscript 'r' being used as the superscript
e.g., Sanskrit priy$ > Asokan Prakrit piryo
(3) Middle-Eastern Dialect Group :-
(i) 'r' is generally replaced by 'l'.

araddham aladhe
cirasthitika cilamthitika
satirekain satileke
(ii) Final 'a' is often lengthened.

aha
(iii) Conjuncts in 'f and 'r' � always assimilated.

..
astami .
athami"
arddha
(iv) .
'ks' becomes 'k:h' always, but also get 'ch'.
k¥11ti khanati
pak:haye
67
(4) Eastern Dialect Group :-
(i) ,,, and 'f are always replaced by 's'.

p� pulise
amclasti anusathi
(ii) 'r' becomes 'I' in some places.

e.g, SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
p� pulise
(5) Southern Dialect Group :--
(i) 'r' is also used and not 'l' as in the dialect of the middle eastern and eastern
group.
e.g., pure
Suvamnagirite, arogiyam, satireke
(ii) Only 's' is observed..

e.g, SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
buddha-Sakya budhasake
�I'aVa.t}-e sav�
(iii) .
Use. of 'n' retained sometimes.
I -
sravane savane
68
(iv) Want of assimilated consonants.
Ardha-tri aghati, adhati
SOME PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES WHICH ARE COMMON iN ALL ASOKAN

INSCRIPTIONS :-
(i) Sanskrit vowel "( is everywhere changed to ·a', 'i' and 'u'.
e,g., SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
mrga maga, miga, muga
(ii) Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' always changed to 'e' and 'o' respectively in
Asokan Prakrit.
satal} sate
jataip jate
laukika lokika
pautra potra, pota
(iii) Sanskrit 'aya' and 'ava' changed to 'e' and 'o', but sometimes retains.
-a3napaya
·-
.
anapaya/anape/anapaya/anapaya/anapaya
(iv) Intervocalic single unvoiced consonants sometimes voiced, i.e., 'k', 'c', 't',
• 't'
'p' becomes ·g'. 'j', ·f, 'd'. 'b'.
hita hida
loka loga
acala ajala
69
(v) Intervocalic single aspirate sometimes changed to 'h' .
. e.g., SANSKRIT ASOKAN PRAKRIT
laghu lahu
Therefore, the oldest example of MIA is to be found in Pali of the Buddha's preaching tir
Tipitaka and the Asokan inscriptions. Pali is the medium of expres.5ion of orthodox
Buddhism. The language and style of Asokan edicts are simple, lucid and forceful. The
structure and characteristics of the language of the Asokan inscriptions may differ from
the language of Pali, yet some points of similarities also found between the two.
************
70
CHAPTER - 4
A PHASE OF CHANGE DURING THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE 100B.C.
-- 400A.D.
The fourth chapter of the proposed research work is ...A phase of change during the period
between I 00B.C. to 400 A.D.". This stage is termed as "Transitional Stage" by Dr.
Sukumar Sen. 88
In this phase we have four languages, which will be include under
Middle-Indo-Aryan group of languages. These are :-
( l ) Prakrit,
(2) Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit,
(3) Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit,
(4) Dialects of Asvaghosa's drama
(1) PRAKRIT
Actually, Prakrit language was used for inscriptions with its full freedom upto the age of
imperial Gupta all over India. We have already seen that all the inscriptions of Asoka
were written in Prakrit and the earlier inscriptions, upto about the first century A.D., were
all written in Prakrit also. In this phase the Prakrit Dhammapada is taken as reference for
Pm.kit
,.. language found in the same era
The Dhammapada is available treatise dealing with Buddhist morals in verses.
· M.Petroffsky and J.L.Dutruile Rheins discovered the birch-bark. manuscripts of the
Dhammapada wTitten in the Prakrit at the ruins of Go£rnga Vihara, 13 miles from Kho!an
88. Chatterjee. S.K .. On the Development of MIA. p.25. op'.cit.
71
in the circle of Indian coloni"s in the Kharot\hf alphabet of the 2nd century A.O. The
manuscript is one of the earliest finds from Kho�. Among the later finds in Khotan. we
have few documents consist of dispositions and reports of local authorities, instructions,
regulations, official and private correspondence. 89 They are all inscribed in the KharoUhi"
script and drawn up in a PralcA� dialect. But, the Prak.A
� Dhammapada is the only Buddhist
text, which has been found uptil now. 90 The date of manuscript placed by li.Bi.ihler and
Sten Konow in the I st century A.D., while by H.Liiders in the 3 rd century A.O. 91
The author of the manuscript is unknown. As the manuscript is a fragment one, not a
complete record, it is impossible to say exactly how many chapters and verses the text
contained and their arrangements. But. the chapters in the fragmentary manuscript are
twelve in number and they are - Mahavaga, Apramadavaga, Citavaga, Pusavaga,
.
Sahasavaga, Panitavaga or Dhamathavaga, Balavaga, Jaravaga, Suhavaga, Tasavaga,
Bhikkhuvaga and Brahmanavaga 92
However, this copy of Ohammapada is composed in
a dialect of the Gandhara region, which has close kinship, in orthography and other
linguistic traits, with dialects of Shahbazgarhi and Manshera rock edicts of Asoka 93
In
case of script used in the manuscript, are used in Shahbazgarhi and Manshera edicts of
Asoka. 94 Moreover, we have no information about the commentary written on the Prakrit
Dhammapada.
The whole study based on the text edited by B.M.Barua and S.N.Mitra, published from
University of Calcutta, 1921 [Prakrit Ohammapada based upon M.Senart's Kharo�thf
Manuscript with text, translations and notes].
89. Barua, B.M. and Mitra, S.N. (ed.), Prakrit Dhammapada, (CaJcutta: University of Calcutta, 1921), p.l.
90. ibid., p-i.
91. Singh. N.K., International Encyclopedia of Buddhism., (New Delhi : Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
1997). V • • p.231.
92. Prakrit Dhammapada, pp.viii-ix, op.cit.
93. ibid.. p.ix.
l/..J. ibid .. p.i.
T2
PHONOLOGY OF nns PRAKRIT :-
. As the manuscript of the Prakrit Dhammapada written in Kharo�t.hi script, so it has no

long vowel in its sound system. The sound system of this Prakrit consists of the following
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :
VOWELS :-- a, i, u, e, o.
CONSONANTS :-- k., kh. g, gh, n, c, ch, j, jh, n, t,. th,

. d,• dh,
. I}, t, th, d, dh, n, p.
ph, b, bh, m, y, v, r, I, !h, s, �. s, h, m.
(i) Sanskrit vowels 'r' and T are absent and diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' also absent.
(ii) .
The consonant 'lh' stands for 'dh'. .
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN THIS PRAKRIT :-
(i) Substitute of Sanskrit vowel 'r' :--
Sanskrit vowels 'r'

. becomes 'a' , "i' ' 'u' , 'e' , 'ri' and 'ru'.
e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA
duwrakrti dubakati
t r�a �
mp.yupariiyanalt macuparayano
drujlqtam drukita
sulqtam sukita
f.Jli UJU
maccu
kftyam kaca
..
drdha dri9ha
sarnvrtah samvruto
(ii) Non-initial 'e' tends to become 'i'.

1me lffil
caure cauri
upetal: uvito
(iii) ·o· often replaces ·u' after ·h· and ·br·.

e.g .. SA'.\JSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA
bahu baho
brohi uhu
73
--------------
TREATMENT OF SANSKRT CONSONANTS IN THIS PRAKRIT :-
(i) Intervocalic plosives. sibilants and affricates are voiced and with the
exception of the sibilant. they are sometimes lost with substitution of glide alif
or '-h-.
yatha yadha
pratrupsati prakjhati
santike satii
bhoga bhoha
ma-cit ma-y1
tvaca tvaya
dharmikal) dhammiho
roganiqa ro·a-ne9a
prathama padhama
(ii) Voicing of a voiced consonant in a nasal or sibilant conjunct occurs.

sarhkalpamanas sagapamano
.,.,. ..
s13a
smca
ekaprfu:ianukampi�ya ekaprananu' abisa
sampanna sabanno
dl.l{,pralqti dubakati
antara adara-
samskara saghara
�ti k�i
granthati gardhati
hanti hadi
(iii) Unvoicing of a voiced plosive appears sporadically.
e.g. SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA

viriigal) viraku
buddhagata buddhakata
samagata samakata
vigahya vikaya
yogak�ememasa yokachemasa
dhammagat11 dhamakata
7--1
(iv) The voicing of an initial unvoiced consonant is not unknown. ·1 i1is may be
partly due to the effect of the script.
patita vatita
(v) The simplification and reduction to 'h' of 'hkh' or 'kf appears sporadically.
e.g, SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA
du�a duha
aveha
(vi) Owing to its spirantized pronunciation original 'dh' (and 'dh' developed from
'th') is sometimes confused with the sibilant.
gathanam gasana
�ithila �ilila
,
(vii) The three unvoiced sibilants , ; , 'f and 's' are more or less preserved. But the
preference is for the dental is found.
(viii) The conjuncts 'kf, 'sk' and 'sc' had not yet developed fully into '(c)ch',
'(k)kh' as in other MIA and therefore they have separate symbols in the script.

cak�uma cachuma
(ix) ·v· sometimes becomes ·m·.

e.g. SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA
navam nama
75
r x) 'r' is substituted for 'l' found in only instance.
apalambal] avaramu
(xi) Conjuncts in 'r' are often retained.

e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DI IAMMAPADA
prapnoti pranodi
granthati gradhati
aprarnadena apramadena
parivrajati parivrayati
prasadasya prasadasa
prajvalite prajalite
(xii) Conjunct in 'l' are assimilated.

alpam apa
-sankalpa -sagapa
(xiii) Nasal conjuncts are assimilated to the nasal.

pru;i�ital] panito, panitu
brahman� bramano
samyarnen� sanamena
gambhira garn1ra
samyataJ.! sanatu
dharrna- dharna-
76
(xiv) -,�, becomes 's'.
iravaka savaka
(xv) The conjuncts 'kr', ' gr·. 'tr'. •ctr', 'pr', 'bhr' and 'sf remain unchanged.
granthati gradhati
putresu putresu
indriyesu idriesu
pramatta pramata
brumi bromi
sambhrama sabhrama
hasta hasta
(xvi) 'st' and 'sth' are assimilated.

samyak�ii samedithi
..
lresthah. setho
(xvii) 'tv' (< 'tin') is retained. but 'v' generally becomes 'p'[after a sibilant].
.,
v1svaset
upetal) uvito
(xviii) 'dhv' is retained.

e.g.. SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DHAMMAPADA
iirdhvaratha urdhvaratha
adhvanam adhvana
77
(xix) the Sanskrit consonant 'v' becomes 'm' in this Prakrit.
e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT DH,A.MMAPADA
navam nama
bhavanayain bhamanai
(2) PRAKRIT INFLt 'ENCED BY SANSKRIT
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS WRITTEN IN PRAKRIT INFLUENCED BY �ANSKRIT :-
1. KOSAM IMAGE INSCRIPTION OF THE TIME {OF THE YEAR 2) OF KANISKA I {78 -102
• •
A.D.) :--
This inscription is engraved on the pedastal of a big standing figure of a Bodhisattva It

was recovered from the ruins of Kosam (ancient Kau§funbi). The image is now kept in
the Municipal Museum at Allahabad. The inscription consists of two lines of writing. 95
Subiect matter:-- The inscription records that in the year 2, of Maharaja Kruµ�ka, on the
8th day of the 2nd (month) of Hemanta, Buddhist nun Buddhamitra, who is well versed in
.
the Tipitaka, sets up (this image of) Bodhisattva at the promanade of the Lord Buddha. 96
2. SA.RNA.TH BUDDHIST IMAGE INSCRIPTIONS OF THE TIME {YEAR 3) OF KANlSKA {78-

..
l02 A.D.) :-
Three inscriptions are incised on a colossal standing Bodhisattva statue, and on an

octagonal stone shaft, which once carried an umbrella, placed over the image. The two
objects belong together is evident from their epigraphs, both of which record the donation
of a Bodhisattva and of an umbrella with a shaft ( chatra y�fi) on the same donors. 97
95. Goswami,K.G., Kosam Image Inscriptions of (the reign of Kaniska) : The Year 2 (art.), Chakraborti.
N.P. Epigraphia Indica., (Delhi : Archaeological Survey of India. I 93&). v.xxiv, p.210.
96. ibid.. p.212.
97. Vogel. J.P .. Inscriptions of the 3 rd :ear ofKaniska (art.). Hultzsch, E., Epigraphia lndica.. (New Delhi:
.-\rchai.:ological Surve: of lndia.1981 ). \ .8. p.173.
78
Subject matter :-- TrXT
nd
(I) -- ..
In the 3 nl year of mahArn.ja Kanis� the 3 n:1 month of
winter, the 22 day, on this date specified above, was (this gift) of Friar Bala. a master of
Tipi!filCa and fellow of Friar P�yavuddhi, namely an image of Bodhisattva and an
umbrella with a post, erected at Benares, at the place where the Lord used to walk. --
together with his parents, with his masters and teachers, his pupils and with the nun
Buddhamitra, well versed in the Tipi!aka, together with K�atrapa Vanaspara and
Kharapallana and together with the four classes, for the welfare and happiness of all
creatures. 98
TEXT (2) -- This gift of Friar Bala, a master of Tripi!-3ka, namely an image of the
Bodhisattva, erected by the great K�trapa Kharapallana together with the �atrapa
Vanaspara. 99
TEXT (3) --- In the 3 year of Maharaja Kaip�ka, the 3 month of winter, 22 day, on
rd rd nd
this specified above has this gift of Friar Bala, a master of Tripi!aka, namely an image of
the Bodhisattva and umbrella with a post, been erected. 100
3. SET-MAHET IMAGE INSCRIPTION OF KANISKA

• {78-102 A.D.) :-
.
This inscription is on the pedastal of a colossal standing figure of a Buddha or
Bodhisattva General Cunningham found it inside a small masonry building at Set
Mahet.101 The statue to which the inscription belongs is shown on the accompanying
plate. It is called a Bodhisattva Unfortunately the head is broken and it is difficult to
ascertain whether it wore some sort of a diadem, as the so-called 'Bodhisattva' figures in
the contemporaneous art of Gandhara. There are, however, no necklaces or other
102
ornaments of the body and the feet are naked.
98. ibid.. p. I 76.

99. ibid.. p.179.
100. ibid.
IO I.Bloch. T.. Tv.o Inscriptions on Buddhist Images (art.). Hultzsch. E. (ed.). Epigraphia Indica., (New
Delhi : Archaeological Survey of lndia.1981 :,. v.8. p.180.
I 0� ibid .. p.181.
79
Subiect matter :--- The inscription records that the statue on the pedasta1 of which it has
been engraved and which it describe as a BuJhisattva, together with an umbrella. and
stick was put up at Sravasti, at the place where the Lord used to walk, inside the
.
Kosambak.uti, as the gift of the Pusyavuddhi
' (Sansk.tt . .
,. Pusyavrddhi) and that it was the
property of some teachers of the Sarvastivadin school of Buddhists. 103
4. MATHUR.A BUDDHIST IMAGE INSCRIPTION OF THE TIME OF KANISKA I (101A.D.) :-
This is a short but highly important record on the pedastal of a Bodhisattva Image. It is
now deposited in the Curzon Musewn of Archaeology at Mathura. The inscription is not
104
well preserved. Some portions of it have apparently been destroyed.
Subiect matter :--- The object of the inscription is to record the setting up of a
Bodhisattva image by a lady, called �adatta, who was the daughter of Maharaja
Masyaguta (Sanskrt... Maharaja Matsyagupta), in her own monastery, in the first fortnight
of the Gri�ma season of the year 23 of the reign) of Maharaj a Kru:i.i�ka. 105
5. MATHURA BUDDHIST IMAGE INSCRIPTION OF HUVISKA (1 t 1 A.D.) :-
This inscription is on the broken pedastal of a seated Buddha image from Chaubara
mound near Mathura. It is now in the Lucknow Provincial Museum. The Mathurii statue
is called a Bodhisattva Unfortunately nothing but its lower part is preserved and the
lower part is preserved and the lower part showing the crossed legs of a seated figure
only. 106
I 03. ibid.. p.180.

I 04. Chabra, B.C., Curzon Museum Inscription of Kaniska's reign : year 23. (ed.), Epigraphia lndica.,
(Delhi: Archaeologiccal Survey of India. Del�i. 1949). v.28. p.42.
I 05. ibid.. p.43.
I 06. Bloch. T.. Two ln;criptions on Buddhist Images (art.). Hultzsch. E. (ed. J. Epigraphia lndica. p.181.
op.cit.
80
Subiect matter :--- The inscription records that on the 8th day of the I st summer (month)
in the year 33 of the Maharaja, the Devaputra Huvi�ka, a Bodhisattva was set up at
Madhuravanaka by the nun Dhanavati. Dhanavati was the sister's daughter of the nun
Buddhamitra who knew the Tripitalrn and Buddhamitra was a female pupil of the monk
Bala, who knew the Tripi!aka 107
(1) PHONOLOGY OF THIS LANGl1AGE :-
VOWELS :--- a, a, i, i, u, u, ai, o.

CONSONANTS :--- k, kh, g, gh, n,
C, ch, J, jh, Ii, !, !h, 9, 9h, �. t, th, d, dh,
"
n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, r, I, v, s, s, s, h , m• .
(2)TREA TMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN THIS LANGUAGE :-
(i) Sanskrit vowel 'r'

• becomes 'i' and 'u' in this language.
e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT IN! LUENCED BY SANSKRIT
matapitfbhyam matapitihi
plll)yavrdhye� Put1yavuddhisya
(ii) Sanskrit diphthong 'ai' sometimes changed to 'e', but sometimes retained.
e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT INFLUENCED BY SANSKRIT
tripitaka Trepi!aka
sailagrasthasya sailagrasthasya
(iii) Sanskrit diphthong 'au' becomes 'o' in this language.

katciambaku�yam kosambakutiye
107. ibid .. p-182.
81
(iv) Before conjunct consonant long vowel became short.
kawfumbaku!3yfun kosambakutiye
sarvastivadinam sarvastivadinam
upadhyayacaryaih upadhyayacaryehi
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANT IN THIS LANGUAGE :-
(i) A remarkable feature is that all the sibilants are found here. But somc;times the
change of ,J, into 's' is also found.
e.g., §avastiye
kruµ�kasya
bodhisatvo
SANSKRIT PRAKRIT INFLUENCED BY SANSKRIT
.
Kau&imbakutayam kosambakutiye
. .
(ii) Conjunct with 'r' is not generally assimilated. Sometimes assimilation is also
found.
e.g., trepitaka
piirvaye
purvayam
sarvastivadinam
But, in some cases 'r' is assimilated.
carhkrame camkame
parigrahe parigahe
82
(iii) The conjunct 'ks' is generally retained, but sometimes changed to 'kb'.
bhiksoh. . b�ya
mahaksatrapena mahak�trapena
but, bhiksuni .. bhikhuni
(3) SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT :

List ofliterature written in Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit :--
MAHAVASTU AVADA.NA:---- It is one of the most important works of the old school of
108
Hinayana. It claims to be the first book of the Vinaya Pi!3ka of Lokattaravadins, a
branch of Mahasruighika school. 109
In this book, we have found the story of life of
Buddha and with that it corresponds the history ofrise ofthe Sangha.
AVADANA LITERATURE :-- The word Avadana means a "noteworthy deed", sometimes
in a bad sense, but generally in the good sense of "a heroic deed", "a feat", with the
Buddhists a "religious or moral feat" and then also the "story of a noteworthy deed or
feat". 110 Under the caption Avadana Literature, we get the following works :--
(i) Jitakamala / Bodhisattivadina :- Jatakamala means ''Garland of Jatakas".11 1

Various poets have written Jatakama)as. But the work particularly is ascribed to poet
�iira or XryJura. It is a collection ofthirty-four Jataka stories, which deals with the
assorted former lives of the Buddha or Bodhisattva. It also illustrated the value of
paramitas (per-fections), which are essential for the attainment ofBuddhahood. These
moral tales are written in a mixture ofprose and poetry.
I 08. Wintemitz, M., History of Indian Literature, (Delhi : Motilal Banarasidass, 1988), v. 2,
p.230.
I 09. Banerjee, A.C., Buddhist Literature (art.), Chatterjee, S.K.The Cultural Heritage of India.
(Calcutta: Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, 199 l ). v.5, pp.203-204.
I 09.History of Indian Literature, v.2. pp.266-267. op.cit.
11 l. ibid .. p.262.
83
--- -- ---
(ii) Avadina Sataka :-- It is an ancient collection of hundred tales or nwral stories
from the Theravada Buddhist tradition. 112
Most probably it is the oldest work in the
tradition of Avadana literature. It has ten chapters and each contains ten stories or
particular theme. The book inculcates the doctrine of karm� i.e., evil deeds subject to
production of evil fruits while good acts good fruits. It is written on 1st or 2nd century
B.C. and author is unknown. The Buddha himseJf is the hero of many of the tales and
other protagonists are Arhats, gods and ghosts(preta) who are reaping consequences
113
of their moral or immoral deeds.
(iii) Divyivadina :-- It is one of the earliest Buddhist literary compositions and a
collection of moral stories relating how good and evil deeds receives their appropriate
result. It is written in the Avadana style. The book is divided into thirty-eight sections
and as a whole written between 200 and 350 A.O.
According to M. Wintemitz, "the Mahayana does not possess a canon of its own, and
can not possess one, for the simple reason that the Mahayana does not represent one
114
unified sect". We get one hundred and five (105) Mahayana texts in the Buddhist
Dictionary Mahavutpatti. Among these one hundred texts, nine books are most
important which are called "Nine Dharmas", Dharma of Dharmaparyaya (religious
texts). These are -- (i) A�asrika PrajffapararniM, (ii) Saddharma.,PUI}�arik� (iii)
Lalitavistara, (iv) Lankl:ivatiira or Saddharma-La.nka. vatara, (v) Suva.n_ra Prabhlisa,
(vi) G<1.9<javyuha, (vii) Tathagataguhyaka or Tathagatagupa-jnan� (viii) Samadhiraja
and (ix) Dakbhiimi;vara. All these works are also called "Vaipulya-Siitras". 115
(i) �!asihasriki Prajni-piiramiti :--- It is probably the earliest text written
during 1st century B.C. It means ' perfection of wisdom'. It elevates the
bodhisattvas as the practioners of the six perfections (paramita) and thereby
points the path to practice of Jhana (meditation).
112. Bowker, J. (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. (Oxford: OxfordUniversity
Press. 1997). p. I I I.
113.ibid.
114. Wintemitz. M .. History of Indian Literature. v.2. p.263. op.cit.
I I 5. Singh. N.K.( ed.). lnkmational Encyclopedia of Buddhi:;m. ( New Delhi Anmol
Publications P\t. Ltd .. 1997 ). v. l. p.238.
84
(ii) ..
Saddharma-Pundarika Sutram It is one of the most important
Mahayana Siitra written sometimes between I st century B.C. and 2nd century
A.O. It deals with the .characteristic peculiarities of Mahiiyfula and is more
devotional. As a work of literature it stands foremost.
(iii) Lalitavistara :-- A biography of Gautama Buddha(upto ihe sermon of
Vardl}asi) written in 2 nd century A.O. Mahiivastu describes itself as a
Hinayana text, but as it exhibits all the remarkable features of Mahayana, the
text is considered as Mahayana text. From the points of view of the history of
religion and literature, it is of immense value to us.
(iv) Lankavatira or Saddharma-Laiakivatara Su.tram :--- It is one of the
latest books (sometimes before 443A.O.) of this group. It teaches principally
I
a modification of Sunyavada, i.e., the Vijnanavada, the 'Doctrine of
116
consciousness'. The sutra gives special emphasis on the doctrine of
consciousness itself as the nature of ultimate reality. It gives us valuable
material for the study of the early Yogacara system.
(v) Suvan.1aprabhasa :--- It is one of the later Mahayana works and very popular
in Mahayana Buddhist countries. The text is both philosophical and ethical. It
also contains many legends. _Tantric_ rituals are further referred to here in. A_few
fragments of this work have been discovered in Central Asia
(vi) Ga��avyii.ha :- It is "the cone-shaped elevation on the crown of the Buddha
Sakyamuni, one of the thirty-two marks of a Buddha (dvat:rimsa-
dvaral�a)". 117 It is not available in Sans� corresponds to the Chinese translation of
the Avatamsaka. It tells us about the wanderings of the youth Sudhana who attained the
.
highest knowledge through the Siksa-samuccaya .
At the end of the Gandavyuha, both in.
manuscript and in Chinese and Tibetan translations there are few verses which are used
even at the present day for purposes of worship in all the Mahayana Buddhist countries.
I 16. Wintemitz. M .. History of Indian Literature. v.2. pp.3 19-320. op.cit.

l 17. Bowker. J .• The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. p.365, op.cit.
85
(vii) Tat_hagata Guhyak.a :- It is a book of Mah'riyiina Buddhism of later period,
probably belonged to the 7'h century A.D. It contains Mahayana teachings
mingled with elements of Tranticism. It is regarded as one of the authoritative
work on the earliest Trantas.
(viii) Samidhirija Siitra :-- It is one ofthe works oflater Mahayana Sutra. lt lays
the greatest emphasis on meditation for the attainment of perfect wisdom. It
also tells about the practices necessary for developing the mental state.
(ix) Das�bhiimis'varasiitra :-- It is one of the most important book of the Maha
yana Buddhist Literature. It consists of an exposition of the ten stages of
spiritual progress, which is essential for the attainment of Buddhahood.
It is to be noted here that this language is firstly termed as Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit by
Franklin Edgerton. According to him most of the North-Indian Buddhist texts are
composed in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and he staged the literatures into three manner -
(i) texts like Mahavastu (both prose and verse), (ii) the Saddharrna PlJI!1arika(where
verses are hybridized and the prose shows the Middle lndic character) and (iii) texts like
Mula-Sarvastivada Vinaya (where non-Sanskrtic forms are very few both in prose and
verse). 118 But Alex Wayman demanded that Edgerton was not perhaps present enough in
categorizing the third stage of literature, though Wayman also agreed that it is no doubt a
119
toughest job. However, Edgerton reasoned that due to the partial yielding to the
prestige of classical language of their Brahmin neighbors such hybridization was evolved.
But, Prof. V .Raghavan holds "the view that the Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit was but a
Mixed Sanskrit due to the expansion of Buddhism in the trans-Indian territories 120
where
the efforts of the non-Indian Buddhists contributed a new construction and words
displaying a kind ofliterary Sanskrit bearing a close stamp ofstandard Sanskrit with
118. cf. Sarkar, S.C., A Few Words on Buddhist Sanskrit (art.), Hazra, K.L.. Journal of the Departmental of
Pali. (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1989-90). v.5. pp.81-82.
119.ibid.. p.86.
1�0. ibid .. p.8-1. fn. I.
86
which are not expected in Paninian Grammar. Therefore, 1_he base of this mixed language
is the spoken form and that it is not exclusively Buddhistic but common to the class of
Brahmanical literature called the Epics". 121
So, it can be infer that the compilers of the
Buddhist Sansi0 were careful about the Lord Buddha's dictum (Sakaya niruttiya
Buddhavacanain pariyapunitain) of preaching and his non-reluctance of accepting
Sans0ic or Vedic (Chandasa) language as a medium of preaching religion and as a result
a compromisation between the Middle-lndic language and the Standard Sanskrt
. � of Panini
122
was made and existed for a long time. But the term Buddhist Hybrid SansJi is now
obscure. 123
PHONOLOGY OF THIS LANGUAGE :-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS:- a, a, 1, 1, u, u, f, e, ai, o, au.

CONSONANTS:- k, kh, g, gh, n, ,..r
c, ch, j, jh, n, !, ;ti, � �, q, t, th, d, dh,
'
n, p, ph , b, bh, m, y, r, I, V, s, �' s, h, m.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRT VOWELS IN THIS LANGUAGE :-
l. Though all the vowels of Sanskrit are available in this language, except T, the
substitutes of 'r'are
• also found in some places .
This language bears 'r'
and at the same time substitutes 'r', i.e., 'a', 'i', 'u' and
'ri' also found somewhere.
e.g. SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
'r'> 'a' talavrntaka talavantaka

k{ta-pllI)-ya kata-p�ya
...
trsna tasina, ��a also
amrta amata
121. ibid
122. ihid .. pp.86-!C.
12.,. ihid.
87
'r' > 'i' a!rr>tigas atittiga
,
rsidatta i�idatta
asadpta asadifu
masma masma
'r' > 'u ' Vtddhi vuddhi

•
rtu utu
.IJ
U ujju
·r' > 'ri' rddhi riddhi

rs1 ns1
..
rksa riksa .
rtu ritu
2. The Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' are frequent in this language, but at the
same time 'ai' and 'au' becomes 'e' and 'o' respectively in this language.
e._g., SANSKRiT SANSKRiT lNFLUENCED BY PRAKRiT

kaivarta kevatta
caitya cetiya
traimasika tremasika
maitra metra
kaupina kopina
kauravya koravya
Gautama Gotama
Kraufi'ca kronca
88
Again Sanskrit diphthong 'ai' becomes 'i' in this language.
e.g., SANSKRT SANSKRT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRT

vaira
dhairya dhrraya
3. Sans� 'ava' becomes 'o' in this language.
e.g., SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT

avakara okara
avagamana ogamana
avadhrta
avamiirdhaka omuddhaka, omurdhaka
avara ora., avara also
4. Change of Vowels :- (Law of Mora)

(i) Sanskrit vowel 'a' becomes 'a', 'u' in this language.
anubhava 1mubhava
anupurva anupurva
animitta rurimitta
kapotaka kapotaka
(ii) Sanskrit vowel 'a' becomes 'a' in this language.

yathti yatha
adhipatya adhipatya
tatha tatha
Ajivika ajivika
89
SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
mithya mithya
yada yada
(iii) Sanskrit vowel 'i. becomes 'a', 'i', 'e' in this language.
e.g., SANSKRIT SA�SKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
kakil)i kak8J}.i
apt pi, api
yadi yadi
prati prati"
idanim edarum
(iv) Sanskrit vowel 'i' becomes 'e' in this language.
e.g.,SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
idcla edfSa
kidda ked[Sa
(v) Sanskrit vowel 'u' becomes 'ii' in this language.

e.g.,SANSKRIT SANSKRJT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
..
susthu susthii
sad.Im sad.bu
kuhana kuhana
(vi) Sanskrit vowel 'e' becomes 'i' in this language.

maitreya maitriya
(vii) The long vowel became short before conjunct consonant.

e.g.,SANSKRlT SAN SKRJT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
kapilavastu kapilavastu
karpasika karpasika
ka.I)c_ia kanda
90
(viii) Sanskirt short vowel becomes long before single consonant in this Ian-
guage.
e.g.SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
valka vaka
simha siha, also found simha
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN THIS LANGUAGE :-
(i) Though this language bears all the Sanskrit consonants, especially all the
sibilants instead it is a Middle-Indic language.
(ii) Sometimes Sanskrit consonant 'r' becomes 'l' in this language.

kubera kubela
rajasvara rajasvala
(iii) Sometimes Sanskrit cooiuncts

:.,
like 'kt', 'kth', 'ks' . , 'tk', 'tm', 'ts',
·' 'J·y•, 'dy'
'tsy', 'dg', 'dv', 'pt', 'py' becomes 'tt', 'tth', 'kh', 'j'(in itially), '�1', 'kk', •�•,
'th'(initially), 'cch', ' gg', 'dd', 'tt', 'pp' respectively.

su-yukta su-yutta
madhusikthena madhusitthena
�draka khudriika
.
jye�µia J esth
.. a
kU<jya kugga
utkala ukkala
atmamanas attamanas
tsaru tharu
matsya maccha
91
----- - - --- - -- -- - - - � �- --- -------·-
udgata uggata
avidvasu aviddasu
atitti
pratapyante patappanti
(iv) Sanskrit conjuncts like 'kr', 'tr', 'dhr', 'pr', 'rdh', 'ry' 'rl', 'vr' becomes
'k'(initially), 'tt'(initially 't'), 'ddh', 'p'(initially), 'ddh', · yy' & 'Ir, '11', 'v'(initially)
respectively in this language.
kro<;fa koga
citra citta
tri ti
grdhra grddha
pramatta pamatta
avamilrdhaka omuddhaka
aryaka ayyaka
paryastika pallatthika
durlabha dullabha
pra-vrajita pra-vajita
(v) Sanskrit conjuncts mlike •s'c'& 's'th', 'sk' & 'skh', 'st', ' sp', ' sph' becomes
'cch', 'kh', 'tth'(initially 't'), 'p'(initially), '_ph'(initially) respectively in this
language.

I �
pascat paccha
du�channa ducchana(probably ducchanna)
skandhavara khandhavara
skhalitarh khalitam
92
paryastiki pallatthiki
stabdha tabdha
sprhf P,rha
sphiita. phii!11
..
(vi) Sanskrit conjuncts like 'jfi' becomes ·ii'(initially), somewhere 'ny' and 'nd'
becomes ' Ip:' in this language.

-✓-
a-Jnana ,.,_
a-nana
ajfiata anyataka
. ..
sanda . .
.
sanna
(vii) 'Semi-vowels lost in tri-consonantal clusters is an important feature of this

language.
kamsya karnsa
antya antaka
jantra janta
�e<ji prakseda
(viii) Sometimes the conjuncts are simplified by the addition of svarabhakti

vowel.
e.g.,
SANSKRIT SANSKRIT INFLUENCED BY PRAKRIT
giana gilana
padma paduma
93
(ix) This language bears a peculiar feature. i.e., a word is partly Sanskrit
and partly Prakrit both phonologically and morphologically. But, as
well as the present study deals with phonology only, so a list of words
is given below which are phonologically partly Sanskrit and partly
Prakrit:-
adhipatya kapilavastu prakaµt
aprativartiya karpasika P:ha
aryaka k�ika metra
�!miga kedrSa riksa .
asadifu kronca ridhyate
isidatta koravya
,_
TI�l
edanim khudraka sama

I
edr/a grddha seyya
I
. .
odhrta je��a sela
omiirdhaka tabdha sonuttara
osakha purasta samkileefa
osupta pravaJ?l?a sahas�iri
kata-punya pra-vajita .
siha-nisadya .
ILLUSTRATIONS :-
1. Sanskrit 'adhipatya' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'adhipatya'.

Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'ty' remains same, but due to the Law of
Mora the intial 'a' becomes 'a' which is a Middle-Indic feature, if it
becomes a purely Middle-Indic feature, if it becomes a purely
Middle-Indic one, and then it will be 'adhipacca'.
2. Sanskrit 'aprativftya'
A.
> Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit
'aprativartiya ·.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'pra' remain unchanged and the conjunct
·rtya' becomes •rtiya·. The conjunct with ·r·, is generally assimilated
and ·r· is dropped. Again. Sanskrit conjunct 'tya· becomes 'cc' in
Middle-Indo-Aryan. But, here't' and 'y' is divided by a svarabhakti
vowel (anaptyxis). So, in one hand, Sanskrit conjunct 'pra' remain
unchanged, and in another hand, conjunct 'rtya' is divided by a
svarabhakti vowel (anaptyxis) 'rtiya'.
3. Sanskrit ·aryaka' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit'aryaka'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel ·1r becOiil\!S ·a' before a conjunct consonant,
which is a feature of Middle-Indo-Aryan. At the same time, the
Sanskrit conjunct · ry · remain unchanged. But, if it is purely a
Middle-Indic. then it becomes 'ayyaka'.
4. Sanskrit ·astanga'
... > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit ·astanga·. ..
Here, the Sanskrit conjunct 'st' remain unchanged. But, Sanskrit
vowel ·a' becomes 'a' before the conjunct consonant ·nga', which is
a feature of Middle-Indo-Aryan. If it becomes purely Middle-Indic
one, then it \\ill be ·anhanga'.
5. Sanskrit ·asadrfu' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit'asadi�'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel'( became 'i' according.to the rule of MIA, but
the sibilant palatal •£•
remain unchanged. But if it becomes purely
Middle-Indic. then it will be ·asadisa', palatal ,:, will be changed to
dental's'.
6. Sanskrit •�idatta' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'i�idatta'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'r' became'i' according to the rule of MIA, but
the sibilant cerebral 'f remain unchanged. But, if it becomes purely
Middle-Indic, then it will be 'isidatta, cerebrals 'f will be changed
to dental's'.
7. Sanskrit •idanim' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'edanim'.
Here, Sanskrit vov.-el •i· became ·e· due to the influence of Law of
Mora, which is a feature of MIA. But, final consonant 'm' remains
unchanged. But. if it become purely Middle-Indic one. it becomes
·edanim'. as there is no consonantal ending. except 'rh' (anusvara) in
MIA.
. .
8. Sanskrit 'icirda.· > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'edrsa'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'i' is changed to 'e' due to the influence of
. and
Law of Mora, which is a feature of MIA. But Sanskrit vowel 'r'
.
the sibilant palatal •�' remain unchanged. If it becomes purely

Middle-Indic one, then vowel'( will be changed to 'a', 'i' or 'u' and
the sibilant palatal•�· changed to dental 's'.
. -
9. Sanskrit 'avadhrta' > Sanskrit influenced bv Prakrit 'odhrta'. .
Here, 'ava' becomes ·o' which is a characteristic of MIA. But.
Sanskrit vowel 'r' remains unchanged.
10. Sanskrit 'avamfudhaka • > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit
'orniird.haka'.
Here, 'ava' becomes ·o' which is a feature of MIA. But, Sanskrit
vowel 'ii' remain unchanged before conjunct consonant and the
conjunct 'rdh' is also remain unchanged which are not the features of
MIA.
11. Sanskrit 'ava.lak.ha' > Sanskrit influenced by"Prakrit ·o�a.kha·.
Here, Sanskrit 'ava' becomes 'o' which is a feature of MIA. But,
Sanskrit sibilant palatal ·l• remain unchanged. If it becomes purely a
Middle-lndic, then it will be 'osakha', then palatal '�' will be
changed to dental 's'.
12. Sanskrit 'avasupta' > Sanskrit influenced by 'osupta'.
Here, Sanskrit 'ava' becomes 'o'which is a feature of MIA. But.
Sanskrit conjunct consonant 'pt' remains unchanged.
13. Sanskrit 'lqta-pl.J.J,'lya · > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit · kata-
pw::iya'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel '( is changed to ·a' which is a characteristic of
MIA. But at the same time the conjunct ' IJY' remains unchanged. If it
becomes purely Middle-lndic one. then it will be changed to · i:u:i · or
'nn' etc.
96
14. Sanskrit 'kapilavastu' > Sanskrit influenced by - Prakrit
·kapilavastu'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel '<i: is changed to 'a' before the conjunct
consonant 'sf. which is a feature of MIA. But, the conjunct 'st'
remain unchanged. But 'st' is generally changed to 'tth' in MIA.
15. Sanskrit 'karpasika' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'karpasika'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'a' is changed to 'a' before conjunct consonant
'rp'. But the conjunct ' rp ' remain unchanged. But it is generally
assimilated and 'r' is dropped in MIA.
16. Sanskrit 'kfu¥ka' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'kfil1,ika'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'a' is changed to 'a' before the conjunct
consonant 'rf. But, the conjunct 'rf remain unchanged. If it
becomes purely Middle-Indic one, then it will be assimilated and 'r'
will be dropped.
1 7. Sanskrit 'kidrfa' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'k�'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'i' is changed to 'e' due to the influence of
Law of Mora. But, vowel 'r' and the consonant palatal 's' remain
unchanged.
18. Sanskrit 'kraunca' > Sanskrifirifluenced by Prakrit 'kroirca'.
Here, Sanskrit diphthong 'au' is changed to 'o' which is a feature of
MIA. But at the same time conjunct 'kr' remain unchanged.
19. Sanskrit 'kauravya' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'koravya'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'au' became 'o' which is a feature of MIA. But
at the same time the conjunct 'vy' remain unchanged.
20. Sanskrit •�udraka' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'khudraka'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'kf (initially) became 'kh'. But at the same
time the other conjunct 'dr' remains unchanged.
21. Sanskrit ·grdhra' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit ·g�ddha'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'r' is not changed. But the Sanskrit conjunct
·dhr' is changed to ·ctdh' which is a feature of MIA.
97
22. Sanskrit 'jy�' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'j�'.
Here, the Sanskrit conjunct 'jy'(initially) is changed to 'j' which is a
feature of MIA. But the conjunct 'sth' remain unchanged. But, if it
becomes purely a Middle-Indic one, then it will be 'jeWta', '�!h' then
becomes 'tth' ...
23. Sanskrit 'stabdha' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'tabdha'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'st' (initially) became 't' which is a feature
of MIA. But the Sanskrit conjunct 'bdh' remain unchanged.
24. Sanskrit 'purastat' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'purasta'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'st' remain unchanged. But, final consonant
't' is dropped which is a feature of MIA that there is no consonantal
ending in MIA.
25. Sanskrit 'prapanna' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'pravaI]IJa'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'pr' remain unchanged. But, 'p' became 'v'
and dental 'n' became cerebral 'I)' which are features of MIA.
26. Sanskrit 'pra-vrajita' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'pra-
vajita'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'pr' remain unchanged, but 'vr' is simplified
to 'v'. Here, 'pra' is a -prefix and 'v' is treated as initial consonant
Thus, it became 'pra-vajita'.
27. Sanskrit •p�' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'praka!,a'
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'pr' remain unchanged. But Sanskrit vowel
.
'r' is changed to 'a' which is an important feature of MIA.
28. Sanskrit 'sptha' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'prha'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct ' sp' (initially) is changed to 'p', but Sanskrit
vowel 'r' is retained.
29. Sanskrit 'maitra' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'metra'.
Here, Sanskrit diphthong 'ai' becomes ' @.' according to the rule of
MIA. But, Sanskrit conjunct 'tr' remains same, but if it becomes
purely a Middle-1ndic. then it will be ·metta·.
98
30. Sanskrit 'rk�' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'rik�'.
.
Here, Sanskrit vowel 'r' becami..: ·ri' which is a feature of MIA. But,
Sanskrit conjunct 'kf remain unchanged, if it becomes purely
Middle-Indic one. then it will be changed to'kkh' or ·cch' in MIA.
31. Sai1skrit 'rdhyate' > Sanskri� influenced by Prakrit 'ridhyate'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel '( became 'ri' which is a feature of MIA. But
Sanskrit conjunct 'dhy' remain unchanged; generally it is changed to
'jjh' in MIA.
32. Sanskrit '�i' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'ri�i'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel "( is changed to 'ri" which is a feature of MIA.
But at the same time Sanskrit consonant cerebrals 'f retained.
33. Sanskrit '�ama' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'smna'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'sy' (initially is simplified to 's', which is a
feature of MIA. But, generally we have only dental ·s'. not palatal
•t• and cerebral 'f in MIA. Actually, here Sanskrit consonant palatal
s·
,I, retame
. d.
34. Sanskrit 'fuyya' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit •£eyya'.
Here, Sanskrit vowel •a· becomes 'e' before the double consonant
'yy' which is a feature of MIA. But it retains Sanskrit consonant
palatal+ at the same time.
35. Sanskrit •faila' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit '§ela'.
Here, Sanskrit diphthong 'ai' became 'e' which is an important
characteristic of MIA. But palatal '§' retains. If it becomes a purely
Middle-Indic, then it will be 'sela'.
36. Sanskrit '{roi;iottara' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit •��ottara'.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct consonant ·sr" is assimilated to ·s·, is a
feature of MIA. But at the same time ,;, retained. If it becomes a
purely Middle-Indic. then it will be ·soryottara·.
99
_ 37. Sanskrit 'samklda' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrtl 'samkilesa'.
Here, the Sanskrit conjunct is divided by the insertion of a
svarabhakti vowel �anaptyxis) which is a feature of MIA. But at the
,
same ti1i1e Sanskrit consonant palatal,, retained.
38. Sanskrit 'sahasrain-, > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit
/ ..,
'�sahasrasm.
Here, Sanskrit conjunct 'sr' remams unchanged. But another

conjunct •Ir' is divided by the insertion of a svarabhakti vowel
(anaptyxis) which is feature of MIA. But at the same time palatal•£,
is retained.
39. Sanskrit 'si.rnha-ni�dya' > Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit 'siha-
ni�dya'.
Here, 'sim' becomes 'si' which can be explained by Law of Mora
But at the same time Sanskrit sibilant cerebral 'f and conjunct
consonant 'dy' remain unchanged.
(4) DIALECT'S OF ASVAGBOSA'S DRAMA :-
The fragments of Afvagho�'s drama (circa 1 st century A.O.) discovered from Central
Asia is restored and edited by H.Liiders (Bruchestucke Buddhistischer Ora.men, Berlin,
1911). Actually, H.Luders brought the fragment of the three Buddhist dramas, i.e., the
Sariputra-prak8.ra!]3. and two other of yet unknown authorship. In the fragments, we get
three distinct dialects of Prakrit. These are - (i) the dialect of the Rouge (d�) is Old
Magadh;i(or Eastern Prakrit), (ii) the dialect of the courtesan (ga.Q.ika) and the jester
(vid�a) is Old Sauraseni (or Western Prakrit) and (iii) the dialect of Gobham is Old
Ardha-Magadru(or the Middle Eastern dialect group) according to Liiders.124 It can be
mentioned here that the name of the courtesan (ga.I}ika) is Magadhavati" and the jester
(vidu�ka) is known as Komudagandha. H.Li.iders claimed that those three dialects
conform to the phonetic standard of Pali, which are also used in the older inscriptions and
12--1. Sen. S.. A Comparative Grammar of MIA. ( Poona : Decan College. 1960 ). p.12.
100
became the forerunner of the three dialects -- Magadhf, Ardha-M:"igadhf and
Sauraseni. 125 He also demanded that th..:· Jialects are only found in the inscriptions and in
126
the Buddhist scriptures and he termed it as whole as Old Prakirt. It is really of greatest
importance in case of the history of Indian language as well as the development of
Middle-Indo-i\ryan language. These dialects of Prakrit have several similarities with the
Asokan Prakrit, but there are dissimilarities also.
..
(A) Phonology of the dialect spoken by Dusts, i.e., Old-M""agadh1:-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM:-
VOWELS:- a, a, i, T, u, e, o.
CONSONANTS :-- k, kh, g, gh, n, c, ch, J, !, th. 9-, I}-, t, d, dh, n, p,
b, bh, m , y, l, v, t, h, m.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN OLD MAGADHI :--
All the Sanskrit vowels are not available in this dialect and only a, a, i, u, ii, e and
o are found.
(i) Sanskrit vowel'!"' becomes 'e' and 'u' in Old Magadhi.
e.g.,
SANSKRIT OLDMAGADHI
dr� dekkha
vutta
(ii) Sanskrit diphthong 'au' becomes 'o' in Old Magadhf.
e.g.,
SANSKRIT OLD MAGADHI
- -
Kaumudagandha kumudagandha
125. Mitra, A .. (trans.), Fragments of Buddhist Drama. (Calcutta : Sanskrit College. I g94 ). p.128.
126. ibid .. p.129.
lOI
(iii) Before <:onjm1ct consonan� the long vowel becomes short.
e.g.•
SANSKRIT OLDMAGADHI
- -
brahmana bambhana
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN OLD MAGADHI :-
(i) Sanskrit consonant 'r' becomes 'l' in this dialect.

e.g.,
SANSKRIT OLDMAGADHl
karanat kalana
(ii) Only one sibilant, i.e., palatal s is fom1d in Old Magadhf.

e.g.,
SANSKRIT OLDMAGADHI
dasiputra d�iputta
saha {aha
(iii) Sanskrit conjm1ct consonants 'ky', 'dy', 'sy', 'tr', 'hr', 'rk\ 'rd', 'kf, 'hm',
'm h' becomes ·kk' , 'J·J·, , '§�' 'tt' 'b' 'kk' 'dd' 'kkh' 'mbh' and 'ngh'
' ' , '··' .,,
respectively in Old Magad i. h
e.g.,
SANSKRIT OLDMAGADHI
- -
I
sa.kyan sakkan
adya aJJa
',,
kisya k 1ssa
dasiputra da:Jiputta
brahrnana bambhana
marka� makka�o
\·iccarda Yicchedda
102
- ---------------------- --- -
df�a dekkha
brahmana bambhan:1
.
hamho.l,., hanho
(B) PHONOLOGY OF TIIE DIALECT SPOKEN BY 'I HE COURTESAN AND JESTER,

i.e., OLD iAURASENi :-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS :- �- a, i, i, u, u, e, o.
CONSONANTS:�- k, kh, g, gh, n. c, ch, J, jh, n, t, t_h. �,
,v
i:t, t, th,
d, dh, n, p, b, bh, m, y, r, 1, I, v , s, h, m.
I -
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN OLD SAURASENI :-
(i) Sanskrit vowels 'r' and 'I' are absent in Old Sauraserii, but Sanskrit vowel '(
/
becomes 'i' in Old S�uraseni.

I -
e.g., SANSKRIT OLD SAURASENI
sadr/am sadisam
alqtajna akitanna
hfdayena hidayena
(ii) Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' retained and 'au' becomes 'o' in Old S�uraseni.
I -
31 fil
sasauvarcalarucakena sasavarccalarucakena
(iii) Before conjunct consonants. the long vowel becomes short in Old S'urasenf.
103
" - - ----·--- --------- ---
e.g., SAT\JSKRIT OLD SAURASENI

as'cariyam acchariyam
sakkhi sakkhi
'·ghrain
Sl sigghain
(iv) 'i' becomes short in 'dani', 'idani'.
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN OLD iAURASENI :-
(i) . . in Old s'auraseru.

Sanskrit consonant 'd' becomes 'I'
daqima dalima
punna<;fi punnaF
(ii) . . .
'l' appears still in lavali, Iakena
(iii) Sanskrit consonant 't' becomes 'd' in Old Sauraseni, is found only in one case,
which is & regular characteristic of S�uraseni.
- --- -- -t-- -- -
surata surada
I
(iv) Old Sauraseni bears an interesting feature, i.e., 'r' becomes 'l', which is found
only in one instance.
I -
. -
rurussasam
. nilussasam
r
(v) Sanskrit conjunct consonants 'kf, ·pf. •jn", 'dy' 'dhy·. ·sy" becomes ·u'. ·t .
'rtff', 'y', "jjh' and 'ss' respectively in Old s,urasenT.
104
-- . . -------
I
aniyukt� aniyutta
avilq;iptena avik.hittena
akrtajna akitanna.
jin:mdy(a) ..
jinnuy(a)
upadhyaya upajjhaya
yasya yassa
(C) PHONOWGY OF THE DIALECT SPOKEN BY GOBHAM, i.e., OLD ARDHA

MAGADHI :-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS:- a, a, i, T, u, e, o.
n, ,.,,.
CONSONANTS :-- k, kh, g, gh, . . .
c, ch, j, jh, n, �. th, d, n, t, th, d,
n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, I, 1, V, s. h, m.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN OLD ARDHA-MAGADHI :-
(i) . .
Sanskrit vowels 'r' and 'l' are absent in Old Ard.ha Magadlii, but 'r' becomes .
'i' in Old Ardha Magadhf.
e.g., SANSKRIT OLD ARDHA-MAGADHI
bharf.fdarake bhattidalake
(ii) Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' are absent in Old Ard.ha Magadhi, but 'au'
becomes 'o' in Old Ardha l\.ffigadhf.
e.g., SAN�KRIT OLD ARDHA-MAGADHI
kalamaudanakam kalamodanakam
105
(iii) Before conjunct consonants long vowel became short in Old Arciba Magadhi.
e.g., SANSKRIT OLD ARDHA-MAGADI-D
nalakagra nalakagga
akriyam acchariyam
..
pandarakam p�cJalakam
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN OLD ARDHA MAGADID :-
(i) Sanskrit consonant 'r' becomes 'I' in Old Ardha Magadhi.

bhartfdarake bbanidfilake
pariqata palinata
(ii) Sanskrit consonant palatal,;, is changed to dental 's' in Old Ardha Magadhf.
- -
kus'alava kusalava
mruivasarn nilussasam
'
(iii) Sanskrit con�1unct consonants 'kt' ' 'ty' , 'gr' , 'm·' ·' 'sv ' 'sc' , 'sp' and
' 'rt' ' 'ks'
..
initial 'pr' becomes "t' ' 'cc' ' 'gg' ' 'nn' , 'tt' ' 'kkh' ' 'ss' , 'cch' , 'pph' and 'p'
respectively in Old Ardha Magadhi.
e.g., SANSKRIT OLD ARDHA-MAGADI-D
- -
tiktakena tittakena
patyagra paccagga
nalakagra nalakagga
.
varnikahi va.,!10<.ah,
kak�tu kakkhatu
nirus'vasam nilussasam
_1
ascanyam acchariyam
pu�pa puppha
106
(iv) :-:anskrit 'ava' becomes 'o' in Old Ardha Migadhi.
e.g., SANSKRIT ou:i ARDHA-MAGAOHI
dantapavana dantapona
************
107
CHAPTER - - - !5
DIFFERENT LITERARY PRAKRITS (400A, p. -600A. D.)
The 5th chapter of the proposed research work is Different Literary Prakrits (400A.D.-
600A.D.).This stage is designated as Second MIA. This stage actually contains five major
dialects of Prakrits and these are Mah�": �urasenf, Magadhf, Ardha-MligadhT and
Pai/act The first four dialects are also known as dramatic Prakrits. Mmiiir�vi, s'auraseni
and Ardha-Magadhi are also known as religious Prakrits. But there is no Buddhist
literature written in these dialects, still it is necessary to discuss the 2nd MIA as well as
these dialects to complete the total range of MIA.
(1) MAHARASTRi
••
According to a Prakrit grammari� .M� is the standard Prakrit. Dm}<;lin remarks

127
"M�tnJrayam bh� p�!3Jn pralqtam vidtll}"- As. a matter o� fact, the
Prakrit grammarians framed the rules first for it, then for others. There are some special
rules for others and the rest is like Mah�. 128 It has a magnificent literature of lyric
poetry. The important literary instances of this Prakrit are "Gath!sattasai" of Hala (from
3 rd to th century A.D.), "RAva!}avaho" or "Dahamuhavaho" or "Setubandho" (5th --0th
century A.D.) of Pravarasena, "Gauc].avaho" of Bakpatiraja(BappairffaJ(8th century A.D.)
129 130
etc. The language originated in the Decan. But it is not easy to locate a fixed
.. ..
dialect area of MAfiarastri because the Mliharastri songs were famous far beyond the
.. . is based. on the
boundary of Maharastra. However, A. C.Woolner claimed that MruiArastri .
Old spoken language of the country of the Godavariand bears many features that survive
127. Woolner, A.C., Introduction to Prakrit, (Varanasi : R.S.Pannalal & Co., 1928). p.5.
128. ibid.
129. Majumdar, P.C., Sanskrita O Pra7mta Bh�ar Kramavikas'. p.336, op.cit.
130. Taraporewal� I.J.S.• Elements of the Science of Language, p.247, op.cit.
108
------
as peculiarities of modem M�. 131

M� was used in poem from the ancient
days. A<;'.cording to Rak.obi, Mnh�!fi got this position near about the 4th century A.D. 132
It can be mentioned here that the language of the ancient inscription (150-200 A.D.) of
Mah� is similar to Pali. 133 However, Malf�!rl' was the language of epics and
lyrics. Though Lhc Prakrit grammarians framed the rules first for the Mah"ara;,µf, but
. Sauraseni is earlier than Mah1lrastri. .. 1
34 ..
Mnharastn is found in Sanskrit dramas, like
Abhijfrana s'a1cunta1am of KA.lidasa, Ratnavali of King Hacyivardhana etc. Again,
Karpuramafi'jari of Rajas"ekhara is an instance of the mixture of Maharastri and S�uraseru, ..
which is written
. ..
in the Sattaka style of drama 135
PHONOLOGY OF MAffARAsTRi :-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS :- a, a, i, 1, u, ii, e, o.
CONSONANTS :-- k, kh, g, gh, n, c, ch, j, jh, n, � '11, � 9h, �. t, th,
d, dh_, n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, r, I, v, s, h, m.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN l\'IAHARASTR.I :- ..
(i ) .
Sanskrit vowel 'r' becomes 'a', 'i', 'u' and 'ri' in .tvraharastri. ..
e.g., SANSKRIT MAHARASTRI
apasfta osara
...
drsti ..
ditthi
nirvrta nibbuo
rksa riccha
131. Woolner, A.C., Introduction to Prakrit, op.cit.

132. Hai, Md. A. & Barua, P.R.. Prakrit Prabdika. (Dacca: Dacca University. 1968), p.105.
133. ibid.
134. Chatterjee. S.K.. On the Development of MIA. p.35. op.cit.
135. Banerjee. B., Pali O Prakrita Sahityer Itihas, (Calcutta : Saraswat Library, 1972). p.179.
109
. ··----·------- - --------------
(ii) ..
Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' becomes 'e' and 'o' in M""aharastri.
e.g., SANSKRIT MAHARASTRJ
••
gairika gena
kaumudi kornui
But, sometimes San�krit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' becomes 'a-i' and 'a-u' in
Maharastri.
••
vamn va-ira
mauli ma-uli
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONA1'1S IN MAIIARASTRI :- ..

(i) All intervocalic single voiced non-aspirate plosives, i.e., 'k', 'g', 'c', 'j', 't',
'd', 'p', 'v' and 'y' are elided.
e.g., SANSKRIT ..
.MAHARASTRl
prakrta
• paua
vigalita vialia
. ,.
rus1cara nisiara
indrajala indaala
lat!Q laao
hfdayain hiaain
Illplll}8 I}iW]a
dhruvain dhuain
priya pia
(ii) All intervocalic voiced aspirated plosives are reduced to '-h-'.

e.g., SANSKRIT \·IAHARA�TRI
vimukha vimuha
110
- - - - - --------------
meghala mehala
pathika pahia
madhu mahu
abhinava ahinava
(iii) Before voicing (and spirantization) and final elision -, ,>r reduction to '-h-') an
unvoiced non-aspirate is sometimes �'Pirated.
e.g., SANSKRIT MAHARASTRJ ..
chayaki > * chayakhf> * chaahi> cha.hf
sphaµka > * sphatikha > pha<Jiha
(iv) Dental 'n' generally changed to cerebral 'n', but sometimes retained.
(v) Semi-vowel 'y' is changed to 'j' at initial position.

e.g., SANSKRIT MAHARASTRf
yuvatf JU8.1
(vi) Occasionally intervocalic '-s-' is changed to '-h-'.

e.g., SANSKRIT MAHARAsTRI ..
anudivasam anudihain
(vii) The conjunct 'kf becomes 'ccha' .

e.g., SANSKRIT MAH..ARASTRJ ..
laksmf lacchi
(viii) The conjunct 'tm' becomes 'pp'.

!i.tman appa
111
·------------------------
(2) SAURASENl
There is not much literature in other Prakrits except Mah�!ri. 1auraseni is originated in
the Madhyad� the home of Sanskrit and named after the Siirasena, the country round
6
Mathurli. 13 It has close affinity v.ith Sanskrit. A.C.Woolner claimed that due to close
kinship with Sanskrit, it was overshadowed and owing to the continuous influence of
Sanskrit, it failed too much independent progress. 137 However, Sauraseni is therefore
8
partly archaic and partly artificial. 13 S�, we get the Sauraseni as the usual Prakrit of the
prose portions in Sanskrit and Prakrit dramas. In the dramas, it is spoken by ladies and
Via�a and in the Camphor cluster (Karpuramanjaii) even by the king. The
referencesfor Sauraseni used in my work are Sanskrit dramas like Abhijnana Sakuntalam,
Ratoovali, Mfcchakapkam etc and the Prakrit drama, viz., Karpuramanjari. The frequent
use of S�uraseni is found as the language of ladies, children, eunuchs, astrologers, the
insane and the sick in the dramas. 139
PHONOWGY OF SAURASENI
, -
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS:-- a, a, i, T, u, ii, e, o.
CONSONANTS :- k, kb, g, gh. n, c, ch, j, jh, n: � th, � <jh, i:i. t, th, d,
dh, n, p, ph, b, bh, m, r, I, v, s, h, m.
I -
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN SAURASENI :-
(i) .
Sanskrit vowel 'r' becomes 'a', 'i' and 'u' in Sauraseni.
, -
e.g., SANSKRIT SAURASENI
tmaka
'' tanaga
136. Woolner, A.C., Introduction to Prakrit, op.cit

137. ibid.
138. �en. S .. A Comparative Grammar of Mddle lndo Ar:an. p.21, op.cit.
139. Katre. S.M .. Prakrit Languages and their contribution to Indian Culture. op.cit.
112
------------------------
...
drsti ..
ditthi
..
mrnala munala .
(ii) Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' become 'e' and 'o' in Sauraseni:
bhairava bherava
kautuka kodua
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN SAURASENJ :-
(i) Unlike the principle of a dropping or omitting singular consonants between

vowels in Sauraseni, such dropping is not frequent.
sarasvati sarassadi
(ii)
e.g., SANSKRIT
/
SAURASENI
-
Intervocalic '-t-' and '-th-' are reduced to '-d-' and '-dh-' respectively.
gat� gada
lata lada
kautuka kodua
katham kadham
...
drstipatha ..
ditthivadha
(iii) Sometimes instead of being dropped or reduced to '-h-', a consonant between

vowels is doubled in S�urasenT.
e.g., SANSKRIT
"
SAURASENI
-
eva evva
"
-
(iv) Sometimes instead of 'h' in Sanskrit, we find an aspirate 'dh' in Sauraseru.
"
iha idha
113
--· -- --· -----
(v) The conjunct 'lq;' becomes 'kkh'.

I -
preksita
.• pekkhia
pratyacak�itum pacchacakkhiduin
.
guruduksinli . guru dakkhina
•
(vi) Intervocalic '-nt-' sometimes becomes '-nd-'.

I -
Sakuntala Soundala
antah. ande
(vii) Simplification of double consonant is less frequent than in M'aharastri and ..

Ardha-Magadhi.
,I -
yasnun yahim
(3)MAGADHI
Magadlii' is the dialect of the eastern borders of Aryan Culture. It is the Prakrit of the
east. 140 Its geographical center was in the ancient Magadha. 141 The earliest evidence with
which �agadhi have a connection is that of the language of the Asokan inscriptions (i.e.,
Eastern group of dialects of Jaugaga and Dhauli). 142 A short inscription of the Jog'irriara
Cave written in Old Magadhi language has been mentioned earlier (1 st chapter). Again, in
the previous chapter, we see that we got Old Magadru form in the fragments of
Mvagho�'s drama. Beside that, the Sanskrit dramas are the most important source for
140. Woolner, A.C., introduction to Prakrit, op .cit

141. ibid.
142. Jha, M .. Magadhi and Its lnfonnation, (Calcutta : Sanskrit College. 1967). p.18.
114
--- --�--- -�-
the study of the language. The application of various dialects of Prakrit enriched the ·
Sanskrit plays Mfcchakatikam and Abhijflana s'akuntalam. In the M[cchakaJikam it is
spoken by the Sakara, his servant SthAvaraka, the shampooer Kumbhilaka (who later on
became a Buddhist monk), the valet of Vasantasena, Vardhamanaka and the servant of
Carudatta, the two Cru}�as. Rohasena. Carudatta's little son (though in some
1 3
manuscripts Rohasena speaks · in s,uraserii). 4 In Sakuntala, the fishermen and two
1
police men and Sarvadamana speaks in Magadhl. 44 Again, in the drama, Nagananda of
1 5
H�avardhana of later period (606A.D. - 648 A.O.) servants speak Magadhi. 4
Magadhi is therefore generally spoken by menials, dwarfs, foreigners and Jain monks
also. 146
PHONOLOGY:-
(1) SOUND SYSTEM :-
a,
i, i, u, ii, e, o.
VOWELS :- a,
CONSONANTS:-- k, kh, g, gh, n, c, ch, j, jh, n, � !h, �. <Jh, 1}, t, th,
d, dh, n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, 1, v, {. h, rh.
(2) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN MAGADHi:-
(i) Sanskrit vowel 'r'

• becomes 'a', 'i', 'u' and 'e' and with drs, it becomes 'ri' .
e.g., SANSKRIT MAGADHi
Vfddha vaddha ..
mrdu midu
nivrttah• .
niutte
..
drstam
�
dekkhiam
. ,
id\ia ensa
143. ibid.
144. Katre. S.M., Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture, op.cit.
145. Jha. M .. Magadhi and Its Information, p.29. op.cit.
146. Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture. op.cit.
115
- ------------ --- -----------
(it1 Sanskrit diphthongs 'ai' a·1d 'au' becomes 'e' and 'o' in Magadlu':
e.g., SANSKRIT MAGADHT
fuuhrdam �hida
(3) TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN MAGADHT :-
'l' replaces 'r'.

(i)
e.g., SANSKRIT
-
MAGADHI
-
maha.ratna manaladana
dhfvara dhivala
clrudatta caludatta
svara 4la
Palatal 's' replaces cerebral 'f and dental 's'.

I
(ii)
e.g., SANSKRIT MAGADHI
esah ese
..
ghosana ghos'ana
bhasuram bhas'ulam
svara �la
kamsya krunla
(iii) ' y' stands for 'j' and vice-versa.

januka yanua.
jana Ya.I}a
yavat java
(iv) Intervocalic '-cl-' (original/ derivative).

e.g .. SANSKRIT �AGADHT
samasaditam samasadide
116
(v ) The palatal nasal is preferred in conjuncts.
raj ifa 1ann'a
(vi) Conjunct groups with a sibilant are preserved.

...
prsta pu�ida
matsa masca
prek�ate pdkadi
(4) ARDHA-MAGADHi
In the previous chapter we found Old form of Ardha Magadru in the fragments of
147
Aivagho�'s drama. Actually, it is transition variety between Saurasern and Miigadh'i.
148
It is more archaic than s'auraseni and it is very much influenced by Sanskrit. In the
drama named Karpabhara of Bhasa, Indra and two warrier speaks in the language with
which Ardha-Magadhi have close resemblance. Actually, Ardha-Magadhi is the language
of Jain literature.
Some salient features of Ardha-Migadhi is given below :-
(i) The elided intervocalic consonants are often represented by the 'y' -glide.
e.g., Sanskirt saga.rs >Ardha-Magadhi sayara.
(ii) Cerebralisation of dentals is much more common than elsewhere.
(iii) Intervocalic voiced plosives sometimes remain.

ii
e.g., Sanskrit lokasmin >Ardha-Magadilogamsi.
,..
147. Taraporewala, I.J.S., Elements of the Science of Language, p.248. op.cit.

<
148. Sen. S., A Comparative Grammar ofMddle " lndo Aryan, p.22, op.cit.
117
(iv) The conjunct '-ss-, is often reduced to '-s-' with a lengthening of the preceding
vowel.
.
e.g., Sanskrit varsa? * vassa >Ardha-Magadhi vasa.
(v) The conjunct '-sm-' becomes '-ms-'.

e.g., Sanskrit asmi > Ardha-Magadhi amsi.
(S) PAISACI
,_ -
Pai'8cr has been mentioned by the Prakrit Grammarians. A.C.Woolner assumed three
.
reasons regarding its naming and these are --- (i) Bhutabhasa --- the language of demons,
(ii) language of uncivilized community including some Apabhrarhk. and some non-Aryan
languages and (iii) Pai'-aci dialect of the Prakrit grammarians (Hemacanrda) with a sub
dialect, Ciilika Pai:aci. 149
G�ghya's Bpiatkatha is a famous work written in Pai�cr,
150
but the original work is lost.
We got reference only in the Kathli Literature in Sanskrit
.
preserved in Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara and Ksemendra's Brhatkatharnanjari. 151 .
Beside that, according to Buddhist tradition, the stbaviras, one of the four ma� schools of
Vaibh�ikas used Pai£aci for this sacred literature, but unfortunately we have no trace of
152
it. Though the original work of_ Bpiatkatlia is lost, but we got several tales of it in
153
Sanskrit translations. A remarkable point is that the Shahbazgarhi Edict (North
154
Western) of Asoka has resemblance with this dialect in a number of particulars.
However, Pailaci is, therefore, reached to us by scanty references and secular quotations
by Prakrit grammarians.
149. Woolner, A.C., Introduction to Prakrit, p.68, op.ciL

150. Katre, S.M., Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture. p.23. op.cit.
151.ibid.
152. ibid.
153. Majumdar, P.C.. Sanskrita O Prakrita Bhasar Kramavik�� p.343. op.cit.
154. Introduction to Prakrit, op.cit.
118
Salient features of PaiJicf is given below :-
(i) Devoicing of intervocalic voiced plosives and affricates.

e.g., SANSKRIT
,_ -
PAISACJ
nagara nakara
raja raca
kandarpa kantapp
(ii) Non-elision of intervocalic plosives.

e.g., SANSKRIT
,_ -
PAISACI
megha mekha
(iii) Sanskrt 'n'

· ' 'I'' •!,•, 's' > 'n'' 'l'
•' 's' ' 's' respectively in Pai£aci.
e.g., SANSKRIT PAISACI
,_ -
.
glll)ena gunena
kamala kamala .
pradefa patesa
(iv) '-y-'ie retained.

e.g., SANSKRIT
/_
PAISACI
-
yukta yutta
(v) The conjuncts 'nj', 'ny', 'ny' become 'nn' in Pailacf.

.I_ -
rajn'a!J ranrto / racino
kanyaka kanfilca:
pu9ya
..,.,.,
punna
(vi) The conjuncts 'ry', 'sn', '�!' becomes separated svarabhakti vowel and became 'ria',
.
'sina ', ·sata · .
1 I9
---··-· --·-· ----------- -·---- ------ -- - - -------- -

,_ -
bhnrya bharia
snata sirfata
..
kasta kasata .
The aforesaid literary Prakrits have also several sub dialect of them. The famous Prakrit
grammarian P�ttama mentions Pracya, spoken by Vidii?ka in M,rcchaka!ikam 155
closely resembled with Sau.raseni. 156 Again, Avantf participates equally the
157
characteristics of both M� and Sauraseni, which is spoken by Viraka
158
(according to Pischel) in the same drama Beside these two �ttama also
. . .
mentioned Dhakki or Takki or Tak.kade�r, a sub language where Sanskrit and
159
�uraseru
mingled and this is also spoken by Mathura, the owner of the gambling house and the
,,Cl.
160
two gamblers accompanying him of the same drama Chandaka, a southerner, speaks
. .
Daksinatya, which is not very much different from Avanti. 161
�agadhi have also three
.. .
I , ,
. of Magadlii, which
dialects --- Sakari, Candair and Savan. Sakari, a sub dialect (vibhiisa)
16
is spoken by king's brother-in-law of the same drama 2 CaIJ�f is a degenarate or
corrupt form of Mligadhi and Sauraseni is a dialect of Magadhi. 163
..
Candali is also found
.
in Mrcchakatikam. . 164
M�!Jf, Sauraseni and M?Igadhi with their sub varieties are literary as well as
dramatic Prakrit. With these Ardha-M�adbi and Pai'8ci and its sub dialect C-ulika
I
Paisaci are found in the works of the eminent Prakrit Grammarians. The second MIA
stage ends here.
155. Katre, S.M., Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture, p.26, op.cit.
156. Sen, S., A Comparative GrammarofMiddle lndo Aryan. p27, op.cit.
157. ibid.
I 58. Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture, op.cit.
159. A Comparative Grammar of Middle lndo Aryan, op.cit.
160. Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture, op.cit.
161. Woolner, A.C., Introduction to Prakrit, p. , op.cit.
162. ibid.
)63.A Comparative Grammar of Middle lndo Aryan._p.28. op.cit.
164..Prakrit Languages and their Contribution to Indian Culture, p.25. op.cit.
**************
120
- --------- - --------- ---
Cf-1APTER - 6
LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MIA DURING THE PERIOD BETWEEN
600A.D. - 1200A.D.
The 6th chapter of the proposed research work is "Later Development of MIA during the
period between 600A.D. and 1200A.D.". This stage is known as 3rd MIA, which is also
the last stage of this phase of Indian languages. It includes Apabhnuh�
.
and Avahattha ..
respectively.
• I
APABHRAMSA
Apabhramk, a constituent of the 3rd MIA stage is known from the time of the Great
Commentary, Mahabh8{iya of Patruijali (circa 2nd century A.D.). 165 Bharata in his
NiiJYasastrl\( circa 300A.O.) mentioned Apabhram£a, which is the first real reference of it
166
and the term ''vib�' is used in the sense of Apabhrainsa, apparently mean that the
167
speech deviated from the standard speech. But the earliest Prakrit grammar, Pralqta
Prak.asa of Vararuci (5 th century AD.), does �ot recognize Apabhrainfu. 168 Later on, the
rhetorician Dm}�in (8th century A.O.) remarked that the speech of Abhiras and others is
recognized as Apabhnuhla in literature (kavyaesu), but in scriptures (�tresu), any
16
language other than Sanskrit is mentioned as Apabhnuhk. 9 In the 9th century A.O.,
Rudra� in his Kavyala.hkara regarded Apabhram� as a generic term for provincial
0
dialects which were many in number. 17 After that in the 10th century A.D., Raja.Sek.hara
165. Sen, S., A Comparative Grammar of Middle Indo Aryan, p.25, op.cit
166. Tagare, G.V., Historical Grammar of Apabhrarnta_ (Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 1987), p.l.
167. A Comparative Grammar of MiddJe lndo Aryan, op.cit
168. ibid.
169. Sen, S.K .• Proto-New lndo-Aryan, (Calcutta : Eastern Publishers. 1973 ), p.12.
170. Historical Grammar of Apabhrarhk p.2, op.cit.
121
.. -- -----------------
regarded Apabhraihla as a literary dialect, which is different from and equal in status to
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pailaci in his Kavyamimarhsa (900-925 A.D.). 171 Hemachandra in
his "Siddha-Hema-Sabdanlciasana" mentioned ApabhramJa along with Man�!J'f,
Pailaci. Magadhi, S�urasenf, Ciilika-Paisici and Ar�a. 172 Pu: - ,1ottama in his
"Pra.Iqtanufasana" discussed Apabhramsa firstly ·md elaborately then others. He
recognized three dialects of it, viz., Nagaraka (Nagara Apabhramk), Vriica<)aka (Vraca?3,
Apabhramfut) and Upanagaraka (Upanagara Apabhramk.). 173 It must be mentioned here
..
that "Canda'' is the first Prakrit grammarian who recognized it as such. 174
Apabhramfu
also mentioned and discussed by the later Prakrit grammarians, like, Trivikrarna,
.
Laksmidhara, Sirhharaja, Narasirnha in their valuable their works. 175
..
Markqndeya ( 171h
century A.D.) in his "Pralqt-sarvasva", mentioned twenty-seven varieties of Apabhrarnfu
and discussed about three principal types ------ Nagara, Vraca':1a and Upanagara. 176
RPischel quoted the following from s'aiikara on Shlruntala :--- " sarhskrtat prlikrtain . .
£re�harh tato'pabhramfubhasa.I}arh'', i.e., ·· from Sanskrit originated the best Prakrit and
from this the Apabhram� language''. 177
S.K.Chatterjee in his Origin and Development of Bengali Language has given a chart
showing the source of formation of different kinds or dialects of Apbhramk, viz, Khasa
Apabhrarhs'a from Kha/4 sfiurasenr Apabhrruhfu from Sauraseni, Ardha-Magadhi
Apabhram.£a from Ardha-Magadhi, Magadhi Apabhram.s'a from Magadhi, �
..
Apabhramla from �aharastri, Nagara Apabhramta from Lati, Saurastn� Abhm-: . ..
Magadhi, Avanti with Sauraseni influence and Vrli.ca<Ja Apabhrarhs'a. 178 Grammarian
�ttama recognized Upanagaraka, a variety of Apabhrams'a as a local speech, like
171. ibid.
172. Katre, S.M., Prakrit Languages and their contribution to Indian Culture, p.27. op.cit.
173. Sen, S .. A Comparative Grammar of Middle lndo Aryan. op.cit.
174. Tagare, G.V.• Historical Grammar of Apabhramsa. p.4, op.cit.
l 75. Prakrit Languages and their contribution to Indian Culture. op.cit.
176. ibid .. p.28.
177. Jha. S.. (trans.). A Grammar of the Prakrit Languages. ( Delhi : Motil al Banarasidass. 1981 ). p. l.
178. Chatterjee. S.K .. Origin and Development of Bcnga:i Language. op.cit.
122
----- ----��
. . .
Vaidarbhi-. Lati, Audri, Gaudi, Takkadef.ya etc. 179 It is interes,,ng to mention here that
Purusottama mentioned several languages and dialects in his work, viz., Pracya (closely
..
I -
resembles Sauraseni ), Avant[ (equally shares the characteristics of Maharastrf and
Saurasernl, Sakari(a sub-language of (Vfifgadlii), CfiI}�iilf (degenerated form of Magadhi).
. .
�avan (a dialect og Mitgadh1), TakkI or Ta.kkade�iya (a sub-language which is mixture of
Sanskrit and Sauraseni). Kaikeya PaiMcika (a corrupt form of s,uraseni" mixed with
Sanskrit) etc. 180
However.. Apabhram§a gained the status of literary dialect during the 5 th century A.O.
There is a vast literature both religious and secular written in Apabhramk. According to
Virutadeva (8 th century A.O.), the Sammitiya sect of Buddhists employed Apabhram.£a
for their literature, 181 which is mentioned earlier. But, unfortunately that are lost.
G.V.Tagare classified the vast Apabhrarh�a literature into three categories according to
their place of composition and these are ---- (i) Western Apabhramsa, (ii) Southern
Apabhramk and (iii) Eastern Apabhrarn�. 182 But he includes the works of Saraha and
Kfu_Jha under the Eastern Apabhramfu and Paudadoha of Ramasimha under the W estem
..
Apabhram� which is taken as Avahattha literature in the present research work.
PHONOLOGY:-
SOUND SYSTEM:-
VOWELS :-- a, a, i, i, u , u, r, e, e, o, o.
CONSONANTS :-- k, kh, g, gh, n, c, ch, j, jh, n, !, �, �, gh, �' t, th, d, dh, n, p,
ph, b, bh, m , y, r, I, !, I
v, s, s , h.
179. Sen, S., A Comparative Grammar of Middle lndo Aryan, p.30, op.cit.
180. ibid., pp.27-30.
I 8 I. Katre. S.M., Prakrit Languages and their contribution to Indian Culture, p.21. op.cit.
182. Tagare. G.V .. Historical Grammar of Apabhramsa. pp.15-16. (_1p.cit.
123
Points to be mentioned
I. The diphthong 'au' is sometimes se1,.1rated into two vowels in N�ara
ApabhradJa.
2. Palatal•l• and cerebral 's' becomes dental 's' in Nagara Apabhra.rMa, but
. Apab� cerebral 's'. and dental 's' becomes palatal •I:.
in Vracada
TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN APABHRAMSA :-

.'
(i) Sanskrit vowel 't' is sporadically retained in Apabhramfa. Otherwise 'f

becomes 'a', 'i', 'u', 'ri' which is Middle-Indic character.
e.g., SANSKRIT APABHRA.MJA
DftYa nacca
mrga maya
hrdaya hiaa
...
drsta ..
ditthi
prfuivi puhavi
� sansa
rddhi riddhi
(ii) Weakening of final vowels, 1.e., '-a' > '-a', '-e' > '-i', is found m
Apabhratbfu.
e.g., SANSKRIT APABHRAM�A
priya pia
sandhya sarnjha
are ari
124
(iii) A remar� ·ihle feature of the Apabhnhla stage is the commencement of the
nasalization of vowels.
• I
e.g., SANSKRIT APABHRAMSA
kamala kav�a
kumara kuvara
pramana . pavaga
TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN APABHRAMSA :-
(i) The disappearance of non-initial single stop consonants. Intervocalic · -k ·. '-t',

'-p' becomes'-g', '-d ', '-v ' and '-kh', '-th', '-ph' becomes '-gh', '-dh', and'
bh' respectively and ultimately reduced to'h'.
• I
e.g., SANSKRJT APABHRAMSA
madakala mayagala
samiti samidi, samii
narapati naravai
sukhena sughi
kathitam kadhidu
saphalakam sabhalaiim
At the same time these '-kh','-gh', '-ph' and '- bh' are also reduced to'-h' in
..
Apabhramfu, which already found in Maharastri. As a matter of fact, this
stage bears the completion of reduction of intervocalic single aspirates to '-h'.
• I
sakhi sahi
vighata vihaya
muktiiphala muttahala
s'obha soha
(ii) Intervocalic single consonant ·-m· is changed to ·-v· (with the nasalization) of
the following vowel.
125
• I
karnala kava'la
kumara kuvara
pramlit1a pavru;ia
(iii) Sometimes intervocalic single consonant · -:, · becomes '-h'.
e.g., SANSKRIT APABHRAM£A
..
esah
I
eha
dasan daha
(iv) '-y' and '-v' glide are regular feature of Apabhrarhsa.
• I
e.g., SANSKRIT PRAKRIT APABHRAMSA
yugala juala juyala
subhaga suhaa suhava
AVAHATTHA
••
..
The simplified form of Apabhramfu is "Apabhrasta·. i.e., 'Abhibhasta· (fallen away) and
. 183
..
. is a synonym of MIA ·Avahattha' (fallen down). Prakrit
the term 'Abhibhrasta'
grammarians did not mention Avahat!ha in their works. "Dharmadasa in his
..
Vidagdharnukhamandana (ante 1160, as he is quoted in Sarvananda's Tikasarvasva) .
clearly distinguishes between the upper and the lower phase of the popular literary
language. The former he calls Apab� and the latter Laukika (i.e., belonging to the
. ..
Folk language).1 84 Purusottama and Hemacandra treated Avahattha as the degenerated
Apabhram� speech. 185 The present study is based on the Dohako� of Tillo, Saraha and
Kai;ma. These are Eastern Avaha!!ha, literature. 186 Devasena's Savayadhammadoha is the
.. Literature. 187 Western Avahattha
instance of Western Avahattha ., corresponds to the
188
S�uraseniPrakrit region. But the study includes Eastern Avah�ha only.
183. Sen. S.K .. Proto-New Indo-Aryan. p.13. op.cit.

184. ibid.
185. Sen. S., A Comparative Grammar of Middle Indo Aryan, p.21, op.cit.
186. Proto-New lndo-Aryan. op.cit.
187. ibid.
188. ibid.
126
PHONOLOGY :-
SOUND SYSTEM :-
VOWELS: -- a, a, i, 1, u, ii, e, ru, o, au.

(i) A remarkable feature of this language is the revival of
diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' though it is a Middle-Indic.
(ii) Every short vowels, i.e .. ·a·. 'i', ·u', .·e·, and 'o' e also found
in nasalized form, i.e., ·a", 'i', 'ti'', •t and 'c,' and long vowel
'a' is also found.
(iii) It is important to mention here that here are so many
diphthongs and contact vowels found in Avahattha, i.e., 'aa',
'""au', 'au', 'ao' , '1° a', 'ia""', 'ie' 'iu', '10' 'ua'., 'ue', 'ue'' 'ea' ,
' ' '
' ' '
'ei , 'eu', ·oa', •oi', "ou', 'aa', 'ai', 'au', 'rut , 'ii , 'iia', 'ua',
'aia' '<>iu' 'aai ' 'aia' 'iai' 'iau' 'iau' 'iae' 'iai' 'iau'
' U-l , ' , , , ' ' ' ,
189
'uaa', uia·, 'eai·, 'oie·. •oiai'.
CONSONANTS:- k, kh, g, gh. � c, ch, j , jh, t
F, �. 1, qh, IJ, t, th, d, dh, n,
. .
p, ph, b, bh, m, y, r, r, rh, l, v, s, h.
(i) The single consonant �n' is usually (due to orthography) replaced by 'n'.
e.g., SANSKRIT AVAHATTHA ..
nayana . .
nirmala nimrnala
. / ala
ruse .niccala
(ii) The single consonant 'b' is usually replaced by 'v', but it 1s always 'b'
initially and medially it may be "b' or 'v'.
e.g., SANSKRIT AVAHATTI-V\
buddha buddha
buddha vuddha
189. ibid.
127 •
TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT VOWELS IN AVAIIATIHA :-
.. .
(i) ..
Sanskrit vowel 'r' becomes 'a' ' 'i' ' 'u' inAvahattha
e.g., SANSK.RlT AVAHAITHA ...
alq1a akkata
hfda ya hiahi
mrtah mua
(ii) Before conjunct consonant long vowel became short.
e.g., SANSKRIT AVAHAITHA ..
atma appa
tirtha tittha
paramartha paramatthe
(iii) ..
A remarkable feature of A vahattha is the contraction of contiguous vowels.
e.g., SANSK.RlT AVAHAITHA
i:
andhakara> * and.hara> andMra
padatala > * padaala> payala
TREATMENT OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS IN AVAHATTHA

•• :-
(i) Sanskrit conjunct consonant'ks'

• initially and medially becames'kb-' and'-
kkh' inAvahanha
e.g., SANSK.RlT AVAHAITHA ..
..
ksana
aksi akkhi
(ii) ..
Sanskrit conjunct consonants '-ty' and•-�• becomes'-cc' in Avahattha.
e.g., SANSK.RlT AVAHAITHA ..
satya sacca
nifuila niccalu
128
(iii) The Sanskrit conjunct consonants 'dy" and ·jr' becomes •jj· in Avahanha.
e.g .. SA�SKRIT AVAIIATTflA..
adva aJJa
vajradhara vajjadharn
(iv) Sanskrit conjunct ·dhy· becomes •jjh · in Avaha!!ha.
e.g.. SA':'-,;SKRIT AVAHATI.HA
• •
adhaurdharnadhye adhaudharnajjhe
(v) Sanskrit conjunct consonants ·-ty' and '-tf becomes ·-tf in Avaha\\ha.
artha attha
trutyati ..
tuttai
(vi) ..
Sanskrit conjunct consonsnts '-kt' and '-tr' becomes '-tt' in Avahattha.
e.g., SANSKRIT AVAHATTHA
••
yuk.ta jutta
putral] putto
(vii) Sanskrit conjunct consosnants '-rth' and '-st' becomes '-tth' in Avaha!,!ha
e.g., SANSKRIT AVAHATTHA
••
paramartha paramatthe
vistara vitthara
(viii) Sanskrit '-tm' becomes '-pp' in Avaha!!ha.
atma appa
(ix) Sanskrit conjunct consonant '-bhr' becomes '-bbh' in AvahanJla
e.g.. SANSKRIT AVAHATTHA ..
vibhrama vibbhama
(x) Sanskrit conjunct consonants ·-rm' and '-nm' becomes '-mm' in AvahaHha.
nirmala nimmala
Janma Jamma
129
-�------- - ----- ----
(xi) Sanskrit conjunct consonant ..

'-run' becomes '-mh' in Avahattha.
brahmanebhil;l vamhanehi
(xii) Sanskrit conjunct consonants '-rv' becomes '-\·v' in Avahanha.
e.g., SANSKRII AVAHATTHA ..
nirvana nivvana
.. .
(xiii) The Sanskrit conjunct consonant '-sn' becomes '-nh' in Avahattha. ...
e.g. SANSKRIT AVAHATTHA
krsna k�a
(xiv) The Sanskrit conjunct consonants, viz., 'ti.g', ·cch'. •jj', ·nc', ·nj·, '99·, \iph·.
·•'' 'ddh', 'nt' , 'nd'' 'ndh' , 'mp', 'mb', 'mbh' and 'II' remain unchanged in
'nd
..
Avahattha
************
130
CHAPTER- 7
CONCLUSION
The seventh chapter is the concluding portion of the thesis. A ,11storical review of the
entire period with reference to Buddhist literatLire and epigraphy will thus reveal that
right from the birth of Prakrit language-group, the original form. of Sanskrit had
undergone almost decadent, although the later Sanskrit works also exist simultaneously
with the Prakrit works. It is noteworthy that grammar of the Prakrit languages was
written in Sanskrit. On the other hand, in the Sanskrit dramas the low-cast people and
ladies used to speak in Prakrit. Regarding the treatment of vowels, Middle-Indic
languages show the absence of vowels 'ai' and 'au'. But the Gimar version of Asokan
Prakrit, which belongs to the first stage of MIA, bears the vowel 'ai' only in three forms,
viz., 'thaira', 'traidasa' and 'samacaira'. 190 The vowel 'ai' is also found in the inscriptions
written in Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit and in the literature written in Sanskrit
influenced by Prakrit, viz., Mahavastu Avadana. A�!asfillasrika Prajnaparamita,
Lalitavistara etc. It is very astounding that even in the Avaha!!ha. the last stage of Prakrit
group, the vowel 'ai' is also found. The vowel '( is generally absent in the Middle-Indic
languages. Its substitutes, i.e., 'a', 'i', 'u', 'e' etc. are found all over the period. But the
vowel 'r' and its substitutes are all found in the literature written in Sanskrit influenced
by Prakrit.
190. Hultzsch, E., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, v.1. Inscriptions of Asoka. p.lvi, op.cit.
131
--- . ----
The consonant 'I'

• is found in Pali (:, language of the I stage of MIA), which is also
st
found in Old s'auraseni & Old-Ardha-Magadhi (belongs to the transitional period),
Pailaci (belongs to the 2nd stage of MIA) and in Apabhramfu (belongs to the last stage of
MIA). Regarding the use of sibilants, the general characteristic of Middle-Indic group of
languages is the use of dental 's' only. But, in Asokan Prakrit, palatal •�•, cerebral ·f and
dental 's' --- all are found. These are also found in the languages, like, Prakrit
influenced by Sanskrit and Sanskrit influenced by Prakrit. It can be mentioned here that
Magadhi dialect of Prakrit (belongs to 2 nd stage of MIA) bears only palatal '�'. Again,
palatal •�• and cerebral 'f becomes dental 's' in Nagara Apabhrarhful, but in Vraca<ja
Apabhramfu, cerebral 'f and dental 's' becomes palatal '�'.
The dialects (Old S�uraseni, Old Magadru and Old-ArdhaMagadlii) of Atvagho�'s
drama have some similarities with the several dialects of Asokan Prakrit, e.g., Old
M�adhi with Eastern version of Asokan Prakrit, Old Saurasern with North-Western
version of Asokan Prakrit and Old-Ardha-Magadhi" with Middle Eastern version of
Asokan Prakrit.
The non-initial and single consonants, if unaspirate, are dropped and if aspirate, then
changed to 'h'. This feature is found in later Prakrit, but in earlier Prakrit (e.g., Prakrit
Dhammapada etc.), it is absent. As a matter of fact, even in the Apabhnuh'8 stage the
..
process of decadence did not come to an end and as a result, Avahattha is found which
again paved the way ofNew-Indo-Aryan.
13�
- - - ---- --- ---- -· .
Palaeographic records of Middle-lndo-Aryan languages, also given ir this thesis which
actually shows the changes in ancient writing covering the total period. It is started from
Early Brahmi, then Middle Brahmi, Nagari, Ncwari etc. and Asokan KharonJlT. then
..
Kharotth1 of the 2nd century A.O. also found which preserves the Buddhist literature.
However, as an intermediary stage between Old-Indo-Aryan and New-Indo-Aryan, the
importance of Pali and Prakrit with its dialects and degenerated forms can never being
missed and it is essential to have a knowledge of the same to understand the evolution of
Indian languages. Above all, it will not be possible to understand Buddhism unless Pali
and Prakrit are given proper importance.
************
133
---------- ------- - --- ·----- ---- ----~--
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138

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Thesis - Historical Development of Middle Indo Aryan With Ref To Buddhist Literature and Epigraphy - Saheli Das - 2006

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THE TITLE

A IDSTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MIDDLE-INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THe DEGREe OF

DOCTOR;, OF PHILISOPHY (ARTS) IN PALI OF THE

The present study .. A Historical Development of Middle-lnJo-Aryan \\ 1th Reference to

Mani Kuntala Haldar(De), Head of the Department of Pali. University of Calcutta

Kolkata. I am really indebted to my supervisor and it is not a matter of exaggeration to

categories, viz., Old-Indo-Aryan (upto 600

contained vast amount of historical materials related to Buddhism. Cultivation of same in

proper perspective is supposed to yield important results related to historical analysis.

The present study consists of seven chapters.. Chapter-I is an introduction containing a

(6008.C to 100B.C.). Chapter-IV depicts a phase of change in the realm of MIA

languages ( 1008.C. to 400A.D.) which includes Prakrit, Prakrit influenced by Sanskrit,

drama. Chapter-V deals with a particular stage of development of literary Prakrits

(400A.D.to 600A.D.) consist of l'vralf�µ-i, Sauraseni, Magadhi". Ardha-Magadhi, Pai§iici"

and AvahaU}ia (600A.D.tol200A.D.). Chapter-VII forms the concluding part.

In this occasion, I like to show my gratitude to Late Prof. Amitabha Bhattacharya,

I am indebted to Prof. Satya Ranjan Banerjee, DepJrtment of Linguistics, C.U.,Prof.

and constant instructions.

I am thankful to 8" Prof. Sukomal Chowdhury, Ex-Principal, Govt. Sanskrit College,

Kolkata, Prof.Binayendranath Chowdhury, Govt. Sanskrit College. Kolkata and Prof.

Bela Bhattacharya, Department of Pali, C. U. for their assistance.

and other field of works.

Finally I would like to extend my heartiest gratitude to my guide, my parents, my

Leherchand Institute of Indology for giving me permission to consult books, documents

and periodicals from time to time.

Place : Kolkata. .................................

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION---- A GENERAL SURVEY ....................... 3-9

CHAPTER 2 : PALAEOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF MIA LANGUAGES............ 10-33

CHAPTER 3 HISTORY, STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

CHAPTER 4 : A PHASE OF CHANGE DURING THE PERIOD

CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENT LITERARY PRAKRITS

CHAPTER 6 LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MIA DURING

CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUSION................................................... rn••······••u• ..··"············.... 131-133

LIST OF LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE WORK... _. .................................. 134-138

INTRODUCTION - - - - - - A GENERAL SURVEY

Language is a unique combination of sound and sense. It means that it is an expressed

Indo-Euro �J;u Turka-Mongal Dnivi�an Vote-Chinese Eskimo

Semitic­ Finno­ Kakesian Austric North­ Old languages

Latin K tic Balto-Slavic Aryan ( ndo-Iranian)

(ii) (iv) (ii) (iv) i

4.Chatterjee. S.K .. On the Development of MIA,(Calcutta : Sanskrit College. 1983 ). p-1.

5. Taraporewala, I.J.S..Elements of the Science of Language.(Calcutta :University of Calcutta, 1978). p-241

Transitional Stage (100 B.C. -400 A.O.)

Prakrit Prakrit influenced

Literary PrakriL / Dialects of Prakrit

PALAEOGRAPHIC RECORt>S OF MIA LANGUAGES

27. Sircar, D.C., Indian Epigraphy, op.cit.

+·a f + t 1-1 '.

vam va VO vyam vyo vra sain sa SI SU

SU so sti sti sra srii sva ha hi hu

l □ rr. 'd w/J,. -J 6

n' iftJ J.,, I -J 6

J. 1)1 -;:f ¥ T Lr t/2. <s

f¾, V _j\ cf l rf1 1' '

u I' 1 '1 1 fl T }> 7_

t } <--i \U "-L � /\ -ry

30. Hazra. K.L., Pali Langauge and Literature,op.cit..v.1, p-50.

□ !1 --x J.. ..] J

1(. X X - ,< Ji'. 'X. � '(.

� s h m ksa k�u ti to tra tre

:x :it "' "' p

::r I\/ '1

Semitic Finno Kakesian Austric North Old languages

(i) Seven Pillar edicts -- Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Miraµi, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandan