King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 432:
I.C Engine

Laboratory Manual

September 1997
 Table of contents

Page #

Safety Regulations 2

Lab Regulations 4

Schedule 5

Experiment # 1
Demonstration of Different Engines 6

Experiment # 2
Dismantling of a Single Cylinder SI Engine Engine 21

Experiment # 3
Assembling of a Single Cylinder SI Engine Engine 27

Experiment # 4
Constant Speed Test of a Diesel Engine 34

Experiment # 5
Variable Speed Test of a Diesel Engine 42

Experiment # 6
Morse Test 45

Experiment # 7
Constant Speed Test of Gasoline Engine 49

Experiment # 8
Variable Speed Test of a SI Engine 56

Experiment # 9
Octane Rating by Research Method 58

Experiment # 10
Engine Diagnostics 62

Experiment # 11
Exhaust Gas Analysis 66

2
 Safety Regulations

Users of Heat Engines Lab. must comply with the following safety instructions.

1 Smoking is not allowed inside the Lab.

2. Wear always pants and safety shoes when you operate any machine. Thobes, gutras and
sandals are not allowed at all.

3. There should be no over-crowding. Only one person should operate one machine.

4. Watch for over-head hanging hoists and cranes.

5. Make sure that you stay away from hot exhaust lines and moving parts of machines.

6. Before operating any machine, you must be aware of the following

a. Location of fire extinguishers, fire blanket and the outside exits.
b. How the machine operate. Read instruction or manual of the machine before
operating it.
c. How to turn off the machine in case of damages.

7. When you hear or see a danger alarm from the machine that you using, stop the machine
right away.

8. Make sure that there is no fuel or oil spill on the floor.

9. Do not run inside the lab and concentrate on the present task.

10. When moving heavy equipments or gas cylinders, use carts.

11. Always use the right tools for the given task.

12. Handle the tools and equipemnts with extreme care and return the tools to their proper
places (Tool Cabinets).

13. For cleaning tools or equipments, use only the proper cleaner. Never use fuels such as
gasoline or diesel for cleaning.

14. Handle fuels with extreme caution.

a. Use the designated area for this purpose.
b. Use the proper containers (safety cnas) to carry fuels.
c. Make sure there is no electric spark present.
d. Do not leave fuels in open containers.

15. Make sure that all gas cylinders are chained and well supported.

16. Before operating a machine, make sure that there is no fuel or gas leakage.

3
 Lab Regulations

1. Lab grade covers 15% of the total course grade. The distribution is as follows.

Lab reports: 5%
Lab exam: 6%
Project: 3%
Attendance: 1%

2. Grading Policy: The following is the grading policy for the lab report
grades.
A+ = 10.0 A = 9.5 A- = 9.0
+
B = 8.5 B = 8.0 B- = 7.5
C+ = 7.5 C = 7.0 C- = 6.5
3. Make up Lab: Make up is not allowed. Every sutdent must attend his
own section.

4. Dress: Wear always pants and safety shoes when you attend
the lab. Thobes, gutras and sandlas are not allowed.

5. Late Coming: Students should come on time in the class. Late coming
will be panelized from the attendance grade.

6. Project Report: A Project will be assigned to each student. A seminar.

should be given by the student related to his project
during 13th week of the semester

7. Lab Exam: Lab exam will be during lab time in last lab of the
semeter.

4
Schedule: Following is the schedule for the semester.

S. No Experiment Lab Report

1 Introduction No

2 Demonstration of Different Engines. Yes

3 Dismantling of a Single Cylinder SI Engine. No

4 Assembling of a Single Cylinder SI Engine. No

5 Constant Speed Test and Energy Balance of a Diesel Engine. Yes

6 Variable Speed Test of a Diesel Engine. Yes

Demonstration of Fuel System of a Diesel Engine.
7 Morse Test Yes

8 Constant Speed Test & Energy Balance of Gasoline Engine. Yes

9 Variable Speed Test of a SI Engine. Yes

Demonstration of Fuel System of a SI Engine.

10 Octane Rating by Research Method. Yes

11 Engine Diagnostics. Yes

12 Project Presentation. No

13 Exhaust Gas Analysis. No

14 Lab Exam

5
 Experiment # 1

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFERENT ENGINES

6
 EXPERIMENT # 1

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFERENT ENGINES

Objective : To study various engines and their components.

1. Engine Classification & Nomenclature

Internal combustion engines are classified in different ways including:

1. Basic engine design ( reciprocating type or rotary type )

2. Working cycle ( 4-stroke or 2-stroke cycle engines )

3. Fuel type ( Gasoline, Diesel, natural gas )

4. Mixture preparation ( carburetor, fuel injection )

5. Ignition method ( spark ignition-compression ignition )

6. Combustion chamber design (open chamber, divided chamber,)

7. Cooling ( water cooling, air cooling )

7
1.1 Nomenclature
1. Displacement volume Vd The volume swept by the piston in one stroke

2. Clearance volume VC The volume of combustion chamber ( volume of

compressed gas )

3. Compression ratio rc = ( Vd + Vc ) / Vc

4. Air fuel ratio The mass ratio between air and fuel in the mixture
(Mass of air / mass of fuel )

5. Bore Inside diameter of the cylinder

6. Stroke The distance between top dead center and bottom

dead center

7. Connecting rod It is the rod that transmits power from cylinder to

the crank. It is connected to the crank via a pin
called the crank pin.

8. Crank shaft A shaft built with one or more eccentric portions

where the reciprocating motion is transferred to a
rotating motion. An extension of this shaft is the
part through which the external work is done.

9. Camshaft The shaft having cams for each valve ( intake and
exhaust valves ), it controls the valve timing and its
revolutions = half of the crankshaft’s revolutions.
10. Valve Clearance Between valve stem and rocker to prevent the valve
being forced off its seat upon expanding (when it
becomes hot ) and sometimes called tappet
clearance.

11. Valve timing The controlled opening and closing periods for
intake valve ( during intake stroke ) and exhaust
valve ( during exhaust stroke ) by the camshaft
rotation.

2. Engine Operating Cycles

In reciprocating engines, the piston moves up and down, this motion is transferred into a
rotating motion in the drive shaft by the connecting rod and crank mechanism shown in
Figure 1. Also, some types of reciprocating engines are shown in Figure 2.
The piston comes to rest at the top center crank position and the bottom center crank position
“ Top dead center TDC and bottom dead center BDC respectively”.

One cycle is completed in 4 strokes for a conventional 4- stroke cycle engine and in two
strokes in a 2-stroke cycle engine.

8
The following 4 processes takes place during one cycle of operation:

1. Charging the cylinder with a fresh charge ( Air + Fuel, for a gasoline engine and Air only
for diesel engine )

2. Compression of the charge to a temperature suitable for starting the combustion process (
which starts before peak cycle pressure is reached ). This results in substantial increase of
pressure and temperature.

3. Expansion of high pressure gases.

4. Discharging the exhaust gases.

2.1 The four stroke cycle engine

Corresponding to the four basic processes, we have:

Intake Stroke: When the intake valve opens to allow the fresh charge in. The pressure in the
cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure. As a result of the difference in pressures, the
charge flows into the cylinder and overcomes the flow restriction in the air filter, carburetor,
manifolds, and intake valves. The intake valve is closed after BDC is reached ( see Figure 3 ).

Compression stroke ( Both valves closed ) : Pressure rises due to compression by a slow
rate until the intake valve closes ( IVP ) then the effective compression increases. Before
reaching TDC, an electric spark starts the ignition in gasoline engines while fuel is injected
in diesel engines. There is a period elapsed between the spark or fuel injection and the
pressure rise due to combustion called ignition delay period.

Expansion ( Power stroke, both valves closed ): Piston is moved downward toward BDC as
a result of the explosion of the charge.

Exhaust stroke (exhaust valve open ): Exhaust valve opens before the end of expansion
stroke to allow high pressure gases in the cylinder to expand in a blow down process. i.e. at
the beginning of the exhaust stroke, blow down process. At the beginning of the exhaust
stroke, the valve opening is big enough to reduce the built up pressure in front of the piston.
Also, the intake valve opens before intake stroke so that the area of flow is large at the start
of the intake stroke. This valve overlap is useful to increase the volumetric efficiency and
reduce the loss in useful work ( Figure 4. ).

9
10
11
2.2 Two Stroke Cycle Engine
The whole cycle is completed in two strokes only ( one crank revolution ). The process of
charging and discharging the cylinder occur while the piston is approaching BDC, before the
end of expansion stroke and after the beginning of compression stroke.

The pressure head required for the flow of fresh charge into the cylinder via intake ports is
produced in the crankcase, Figure 5 or by a blower driven by the crank shaft.

The exhaust port is opened near expansion stroke permitting the blow down of exhaust gases
reducing pressure in the cylinder and the charge flows into and is slightly compressed in the
crank case compartment. Intake ports are uncovered by the piston soon after the opening of
exhaust and the compressed charge flows into the cylinder. Part of the charge flows out of the
exhaust port at the end of the scavenging period ( loss in charge, Figure 6 ).

3. Comparison Between 4-Stroke & 2-Stroke Cycles:

2 - Stroke Cycle 4 - Stroke Cycle

1. Twice as many power stroke but power Less power
output is about 1.3 times more than 4-
Stroke engines because of poor scavenging
and low volumetric efficiency.

2.Mechanical simplicity ( ports instead of More complicated design

valves ).

3.Reduced maintenance.

4.Bad fuel economy ( escape of charge ). Controlled fuel economy

5.Cooling & lubrication difficulties. ( Oil is Simpler cooling and lubricating system to
added to the fuel in some designs leading every moving part
to more unburned hydrocarbons.

4. Main Engine Components:

4.1 Reciprocating type:

Figures 7 & 8 show the main engine components for an inline cylinder arrangement and V -
Type engine.

4.2 Rotary type:

Figure 9 shows the main parts of a rotary ( wankel ) engine. Note that parts here are much
less than those found in a reciprocating engine ( very much lighter in weight ).

12
13
14
15
5. Diesel Engines

The charge ( air only ) is fed to the engine during the intake stroke and is compressed during
the compression stroke. Before reaching TDC, fuel is injected ( very small
droplets…atomized ) where the pressure and temperature are sufficient to autoignite the fuel (
no need for a carburetor ). A fuel injection pump is needed to deliver fuel ( at right amount
and right time ) to the engine cylinder through the injectors. Diesel engines run either in 4 -
stroke or in 2 - stroke cycles. Figure 11 illustrates a model of a 4 - stroke diesel engine.

5.1 Diesel vs Gasoline Engines

Diesel Engine Gasoline Engine
Fuel Economy Better fuel economy ( higher Less efficient
thermal efficiency )

Charge Air only Air + Fuel

Compression Ratio High rc ( 15 to 22 ) Low rc ( 10 )

Reliability More reliable, needs less Less in reliability, needs

maintenance, longer life, frequent maintenance
cooler running conditions

Pulling power Better because of higher Less than CI engine

torque over a wide range of
speeds

Weight Heavy and bulky ( much Less weight ( better than

greater pressure inside the CI engine in this respect )
cylinder is considered in
design )

Noise & vibration High specially at low speeds Much lower noise and
(more recent models vibration levels
nevertheless have that much
noise )

Emissions Smoke ( reduced by proper Invisible gases which are

adjustment and operation ) toxic and have adverse
effect on public health
Safety Fuel used is less dangerous in Flammability chances are
handling greater

Cost Higher cost Lower cost ( gross )

16
17
18
6. Turbochargers

Turbochargers are used to increase the maximum power that can be odtained from a given
displacement engine. Figure 11 shows a turbocharged four cylinder spark-ignition engine.
The turbo-charger, a compressor-turbine combination, uses the energy available in the engine
exhaust stream to achieve compression of the intake flow. The air flow passes through the
compressor (2), intercooler (3), carburetor (4), manifold (5), and inlet valve (6),as shown. It
should be noted that in some turbocharged spark-ignition engines, the carburetor is placed
upstream of the compressor. Figure 12 shows the cutaway drawing of a small automotive
turbocharger.

7. Stratified Charge Engines

Designed to combine the best features of both SI and CI engines and to operate the engine at
optimum compression ratio for best efficiency by

1. Direct injection of fuel in combustion chamber during compression to avoid spontaneous

ignition problems.

2. Igniting fuel as it mixes with air with a spark plug.

3. Controlling engine power by varying the amount fuel injected per cycle.

19
Questions:

1. List five differences in SI and CI engines.

2. What is the relation between the number of revolutions of the crankshaft and the
camshaft.

3. State two advantages of a 2-stroke cycle engine over a 4-stroke cycle engine.

4. State two advantages of a 4-stroke cycle engine over a 2-stroke cycle engine.

5. What are the advantages of using a diesel engine rather than a gasoline engine in 2-
stroke cycle engine.

6. What is the benefit gained from the valve overlap

7. What valves are open during power stroke, intake stroke and exhaust stroke.

20
 Experiment # 2

DISMENTLING OF A SINGLE CYLINDER SI ENGINE

21
 EXPERIMENT # 2

OBJECTIVE: To dismantle an spark ignition engine by using clinton engine kit.

PROCEDURE: Read the following instructions thoroughly and follow them in order to
dismantle the engine. Note that items dismantled should be kept in front of you in an
organized manner to facilitate the assembly procedure afterward.

A. Preliminary Steps:
1. Discharge the fuel from fuel tank.
2. Discharge oil from crankcase sump.

B. Dismantling:
1. Take petrol hoses out of the fuel tank and carburetor inlet.
2. Dismantle fuel tank ( three screws with 10 mm socket ) as shown in figure (1).

Fig. (1) Fuel Tank

3. Dismantle the tank bracket by loosing four bolts, figure (2).

Fig. (2) Tank Bracket

4. Dismantle the starter rope assembly by loosing the four screws

22
5. Dismantle the engine cover ( blower housing ) as shown in figure (3).

Fig. (3) Blower housing

6. Dismantle the spark plug using the correct tool.

7. Dismantle the cylinder head ( 6 nuts ) as shown in figure (4).

8. Dismantle the gasket of cylinder head as shown in figure (4).

Figure (4) Cylinder head and gasket

23
 9. Dismantle the cowl and starter pulley by loosing the 7/8 inches bolt as in figure (6).

Figure (5) Starter pulley

10. Dismantle the electronic ignition system, figure(6).

Figure (6) Electronic ignition

11. Dismantle the flywheel as shown in figure (7).

Figure (7) Flywheel

24
12. Dismantle the oil sump by loosing four ( 13mm ) nuts as illustrated in figure 8.

Figure (8) Oil sump

13. Loosen the two bolts ( 7/16 inches ) of connecting rod as shown in figure (9). Be careful
for the journal bearing.

Figure (9) Connecting rod assembly

14. Remove the piston with the piston rings out of the engine assembly as in figure (10).

25
 Figure (10) Piston and piston rings

15. Dismantle the carburetor assembly.

16. Dismantle the exhaust system as shown in figure (11).

Figure (11) Exhaust system

17. Pull the crank shaft out as shown in figure (12). Be careful for the ball bearings.

Figure (12) Crank shaft

Inspect all parts, clean and prepare them for assembly (during the next lab)

26
 Experiment # 3

ASSEMBLING OF A SINGLE CYLINDER SI ENGINE

27
 EXPERIMENT # 3

ASSEMBLY OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

OBJECTIVE: To assemble a spark ignition engine by using clinton engine kit.

PROCEDURE: Inspect all parts, clean them, wipe them dry and follow these instructions in
order to assemble the engine.

1. Apply a light coating of oil to all moving parts.

2. Place the crank shaft in its position in the cylinder block paying attention to the bearing
Fig 1.

Fig. (1) Crank shaft

3. Assemble piston ( with its rings placed in right position ) as shown in Fig 2. Fasten the
two blots tightly.

28
 Fig. (2) Piston and piston rings

4. Assembly the exhaust system as shown in Fig 3.

Fig. (3) Exhaust System

5. Assemble the Carburetor assembly.

6. Assemble the oil sump in place ( tighten 4 bolts ) as illustrated in Fig 4.

Fig. (4) Oil sump

29
7. Assemble the flywheel as shown in Fig 5.

Fig. (5) Flywheel

8. Assemble the electronic ignition system as shown in Fig 6.

Fig. (6) Electronic ignition

30
9. Assemble cowl and starter pulley and tight the 7/8 inch bolt as shown in Fig 7.

Fig. (7) Starter pulley

10. Place a new gasket for installing the cylinder head and then assemble the cylinder head
(6 nuts) as shown in Fig 8.

Fig. (8) Cylinder head and gasket

31
11. Assemble the engine cover ( blower housing ) as shown in Fig 9.

Fig. (9) Blower housing

12. Fix the spark plug in its position using the right tool.

13. Assemble the starter rope assembly.

14. Assemble the tank bracket in the right position ( 4 bolts ) as shown in Fig 10.

Fig. (10) Tank Bracket

32
15. Assemble the fuel tank as shown in Fig 11.

Fig. (10) Fuel tank

16. Connect the fuel hose in its place ( between fuel tank and carburetor ).

17. Add oil to the crankcase to the required level ( use dip stick ).

18. Add fuel to the fuel tank.

19. Operate the engine.

33
 Experiment # 4

CONSTANT SPEED TEST OF A DIESEL ENGINE

34
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

CONSTANT SPEED TEST,

&
HEAT BALANCE OF A DIESEL ENGINE

Objective: To obtain the performance characteristics of the diesel engine at constant speed
and variable loads.

Engine specifications: Petter diesel single cylinder water cooled four stroke engine

Bore :
Stroke :
Power and speed ( BS continuous rating ) :
Cubic capacity :
Compression Ratio :
Lubrication oil pressure :
Compression pressure :
Fuel injection release pressure :
Inlet valve opens :
Inlet valve closes :
Exhaust valve opens :
Exhaust valve closes :
Fuel tank capacity :
Oil capacity :
Lubricating oil :
Fuel :

Theory
The theoretical analysis for the ideal air-standard diesel cycle can be found in most
thermodynamics texts. However, information on the performance testing of a diesel engine is
not often included in recent thermodynamics texts. Performance testing will be covered in
your thermodynamics notes and most of the information can be found in references [1] and
[2]. A brief review of basic engine performance calculations is provided here for
convenience. Details of engine performance curves etc. can be found in reference [3].

The engine is operating on the Diesel cycle which is represented by the following P-v and T-
s diagrams as shown in Fig. 1.

35
Figure 1. The P-v and T-s process diagrams for the ideal diesel cycle.

where,
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

Heat added at constant pressure is given by, see fig.1.

QH = m cp ( T3 - T2 )

Heat rejected at constant volume is given by, see fig.1

QL = m cv ( T4 - T1 )

Net work done is given by

ΣW = QH - QL

The thermal efficiency of the cycle ηth , is given by

ηth = 1 - ( QL / QH )

Compression Ratio, rc is given by

rc = ( v1 / v2 ) = ( T3/T2 )

Cut-off Ratio, r is given by

r = ( v3 / v2 ) = ( T3 / T2 )

The isentropic processes are given by

( T2 / T1 ) = ( T3 / T4 ) = rc k-1

36
where, k ( = cp/cv )is the ratio specific heats, therefore, the thermal efficiency of the ideal
cold, air-standard diesel cycle ηth,diesel is given by
ηth,diesel = 1 - rc (1-k) [(r k-1)/(k(r-1)]

Instrumentation
1. Water cooling system
2. Fuel flow rate measuring system
3. Load balance on prony brake
4. Thermometers

Procedure
1. Obtain zero load on prony brake.
2. Determine load increments to be used (no load, ¼ load, ½ load, full load).
3. Set cooling water flow rates and wait for steady conditions to obtain first set of readings.

Recorded Measurement
1. Barometric pressure
2. Room temperature
3. Dynamometer
4. Engine shaft speed
5. Load on the dynamometer
6. Rate of fuel consumption
7. Rate of cooling water flow
8. Inlet temperature of the water flow
9. Outlet temperature of the water flow
10. Exhaust gas temperature
11. Inlet manifold pressure
12. Exhaust manifold temperature
13. Rate of air consumption

All of the above should be taken from the same time slice. As the engine will be operating at
a constant condition during the recording period we can consider the reading to have been
taken at the same time. From the acquired data the performance of the diesel engine can be
evaluated.

Results
The variation of the following parameters with load should be obtained.
Indicated horse power (Pig), Brake horsepower (Pb), Specific fuel consumption (sfc), Air/fuel
ratio (A/F), Mechanical, Fuel conversion (Thermal), and Air standard efficiencies (ηm, ηf,
ηas,) and a complete heat balance.

37
A. CONSTANT SPEED TEST:

1. Brake Power ( Pb )

Pb = ( W * N * 0.7457) / 4500
where,
W is the load on the dynamometer (lb)
N is the engine speed (rpm)
Pb is the brake power (kW)

2. Specific Fuel Consumption ( sfc )

mf = ( ρf * Vf ) / t
where,
mf is the flow rate of fuel (kg/sec.)
ρf is the density of fuel (kg/m3)
Vf is the volume of fuel (m3)

therefore,
sfc = mf / Pb
where,
sfc is the specific fuel consumption [kg/(kW-sec)]

3. Air Mass Flow ( ma)

ma = ρa * Cd * Ao * ( 2 * ∆po / ρa) ½
and
∆po = ρw *g* ∆hw
where,
ma is the flow rate of air (kg/sec)
ρa is the density of air at room temperature (kg/m3)
Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the orifice plate = 0.686
Ao is the x-sectional area of the orifice plate (m2)
∆hw is the manometer pressure drop across the orifice plate (meter of H2O)

4. Water Mass Flow Rate

mw = ρw * Cd * Ao * ( 2 * ∆po / ρw ) 1/2
and
∆po = ρHg *g* ∆hHg
where,
mw is the flow rate of water (kg/sec)
ρw is the density of water at average temperature (kg/m3)
ρHg is the density of Hg at room temperature (kg/m3)
Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the orifice plate = 0.686
Ao is the x-sectional area of the orifice plate (m2)
∆hHg is he manometer pressure drop across the orifice plate (meter of Hg)

38
5. Air / fuel Ratio ( A / F )

( A / F ) = ( ma / mf )

6. Energy available in the fuel

Qf = mf * QHV
where,
QHV is the Heating Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
Qf is the energy input (kW)

7. Mechanical Efficiency ηm , is given by

ηm = ( Pb / Pig )
where,
Pig is the indicated power of the engine

8. Fuel conversion efficiency ηf or thermal efficiency (ηth), is given by

ηf = ( Pb / Qf )

B. ENERGY BALANCE:

1. Energy supplied by the fuel E f (or Qf )

Ef = mf * QHV

2. Energy consumed by the load EL

EL = Pb

3. Energy lost through cooling water EW

EW = mw * cpw ( Two - Twi )

where,
cpw is the specific heat of water at average temperature [kJ/(kg-0C)]
Twi is the temperature of water at inlet to the engine (0C)
Two is the temperature of water at outlet from the engine (0C)

4. Energy lost through exhaust gases EE

EE = ( ma + mf ) [cp ( TEo - TEi )]

where,
cp is the specific heat of exhaust gases (or air) at average temperature [kJ/(kg-0C)]
TEi is the temperature of exhaust gases (or air) at inlet to the engine (0C)
TEo is the temperature of exhaust gases at outlet from the engine (0C)

39
5. Other loses Eo

Ef = Eo + EL + EW + EE
or
Eo = Ef - ( EL + EW + EE )

DATA SHEET

Engine speed N =

Specific gravity of fuel Sf =

Heating valve of fuel QHV =

Specific gravity of Mercury SHg =

Orifice plate diameter for air Doair =

Orifice plate diameter for water Dowater =

Coefficient of discharge of each orfice plate Cd =

1 2 3 4 5
0
Room TR( C )
Temperature
Load W (lbs)

Fuel t (sec)
for 50 ml
Cooling ∆hHg(mm)
water
T inlet ( oC )

T outlet ( oC )

Exhaust ∆hw (mm)

gases
T inlet ( oC )

T outlet ( oC )

40
RESULTS
Parameter Units Formula 1 2 3 4 5
Load W
P = EL
Fuel mf
Qf = Ef
sfc

ηf
Cooling ∆po,water
water mw
Ew
Exhaust ∆po,air
gases mair
mE
EE
A/F
Other Eo
Energy ef
per unit eL
mass of eW
fuel eE
eo

41
 Experiment # 5

VARIABLE SPEED TEST OF A DIESEL ENGINE

42
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

VARIBLE SPEED TEST OF A DIESEL ENGINE

Objective : To test a CI engine for maximum power.

Theory : In a full power test of a CI engine at variable speed, the problem is more difficult
than for the SI engine because there is no sharp limit of output at any speed. Following the
procedure of the SI-engine test, the brake is adjusted until the lowest operating speed is
obtained with the fuel pump injecting a quantity of fuel sufficient to make the exhaust gas of
the engine slightly colored. This indicates that the engine is near full load, because some of
the fuel is being wasted in smoke. Since the CI engine inducts a constant amount of air on the
intake stroke, a small amount of fuel injected into the engine will not need all of the air in the
cylinder. This occurs at part load. As the load is increased, greater amounts of fuel are
injected and more and more of the air is required for combustion. At some stage, further
injection of fuel leads to part of the fuel not being fully oxidized and to the production of
smoke. Even at this condition, part of the air in the engine may not be used because of failure
of the injected fuel to find the air. In the SI engine, the throttle was opened to the limit; in the
CI engine, there is no sharp limit and the color of the exhaust smoke is a good guide to
follow. A manufacturer may publish test curves showing a favorable output at all speeds, but
such a curve could not be compared with another test unless the exhaust conditions of smoke
were equal. It must be realized that smoke-color observations are not an absolute index of
degree of loading, because the smoke may be the result of other conditions, such as poor
atomization, very late injection, inadequate compression, and unbalanced fuel feed to
different cylinders. However with an engine in good condition, the smoke indication may be
considered a relatively satisfactory index of degree of loading[3].

If the CI engine is equipped with a throttle stop, to limit the quantity of fuel injected per
stroke of the pump, then the test is run exactly as in the case of an SI engine. However, the
result is not a full-power test of the engine, but a full-power test of the engine at a certain fuel
pump position. In other words, if the exhaust is watched during the test, the color of the
smoke in the exhaust may change with each speed change instead of remaining constant.

Variable-speed test of a CI engine at part load are run in the same manner as for the SI
engine.

References :

1. Black, W.Z., and Hartley, J.G., “Thermodynamics”, 2nd edition, 1991.

2. John B. Heywood, “Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals”, 1988.

3. Obert, E.F., “Internal Combustion Engines,”, 1968.

43
 DATA SHEET

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engine speed
N(rpm)

Room Temp.
T(room) (oC)

Time for
50ml fuel
t(sec)
Dyn. Load
W(lbs)

RESULTS

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engine speed
N(rpm)

Brake Power
Pb (kw)

Fuel flow
mf (kg/sec)

Sp. fuel cons.

sfc

44
Experiment # 6

MORSE TEST

45
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

MORSE TEST

Objective: To obtain approximate indicated power of a multi-cylinder engine without using

an indicated diagram.

Theory: The engine under test is coupled to a dynamometer, and urn at a certain speed. The
brake power ( Pb ) of the engine is then measured with all the cylinders firing. When one
cylinder is ‘cut-out’, this of course reduces the engine speed. The load on the dynamometer is
gradually reduced to bring the engine rpm back the to the test speed. When the engine speed
has been restored, the brake power is again measured. ( note that the purpose of returning to
the original speed is to keep the pumping and friction losses nearly constant ). The difference
in the two values of brake power gives the gross indicated power ( Pig ) of the ‘cut-out’
cylinder. This procedure is adopted for each cylinder in turn, the sum of the differences in
brake power gives the indicated power of the engine.

It must be remembered that this result is only an approximation, since the pumping and
friction losses of a ‘cut-out’ cylinder are not the same as when it is firing. The test should also
be carried out quickly in order to reduce the effect of cooling of the ‘cut-out’ cylinder.

Let,
Pb = brake power of the engine with all cylinders firing
Pb1, Pb2, etc. = brake power of cylinder 1, 2, etc. respectively
Pig1, Pig2, etc. = gross indicated power of cylinder 1, 2 etc. respectively
Pf1, Pf2, etc. = friction power of cylinder 1, 2, etc. respectively.

The brake power is calculated from the dynamometer reading as follows

Brake Power = W * N * 0.7545 / 4500 (kw) (1)

where,
W = dynamometer load, lbs.
N = engine speed, rpm

With all cylinders firing:

Pb = ( Pig1 - Pf1 ) + ( Pig2 - Pf2 ) + ………….+ ( Pign - Pfn )

or
Pb = ( Pig1 + Pig2 + ……+ Pign ) - (Pf1 + Pf2 + ……+ Pfn ) (2)

Where ‘n’ is the number of cylinders.

When no.1 cylinder is cut-out its indicated power Pig1 is also cut out, but the friction power
Pf1 of this cylinder remains, thus

Pb1 = ( Pig2+ Pig3 + ……+ Pign ) - (Ff1 + Ff2 + ……+ Ffn ) (3)

Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 gives

46
 Pb - Pb1 = Pig1

Similarly

Pb - Pb2 = Pig2
The total gross indicated power will be then be

Pig = ( Pb x n ) - (Pb1 + Pb2 + ………. + Pbn ) (4)

The mechanical efficiency (ηm) is defined as the ratio of the power delivered by the engine
(Pb) to the total power developed within the engine (Pig), thus

ηm = (Pb / Pig) x 100 (5)

The percentage of power loss due to friction within the engine is given by

%Pf = (Pf / Pig) x 100 (6)

47
 Data

Engine speed,
N(rpm)
Dyn (Kw) Dyn (Kw) Dyn (Kw) Dyn (Kw)
All Cylinder
firing, Pb
No.1 Cyl. Out,
Pb1
No.2 Cyl. Out,
Pb2
No.3 Cyl. Out,
Pb3
No.4 Cyl. Out,
Pb4

Result

N Pig Pb Pf ηm Pf
(rpm) (Kw) (Kw) (Kw) ( %) (%)

48
 Experiment # 7

CONSTANT SPEED TEST OF A GASOLINE ENGINE

49
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

CONSTANT SPEED TEST AND HEAT BALANCE OF A GASOLINE ENGINE

Engine specifications
Compression Ratio :
Cubic capacity :
Bore :
Stroke :
Fuel :
Firing Order :

The engine is operating on the Otto cycle which is represented by the following P-v and T-s
diagrams as shown in Fig. 1.

where,
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

Heat added at constant volume is given by, see fig.1.

QH = m cv ( T3 - T2 )

Heat rejected at constant volume is given by, see fig.1

QL = m cv ( T4 - T1 )

Net work done is given by

ΣW = QH - QL
The thermal efficiency of the cycle ηth , is given by

ηth = 1 - ( QH / QL )
Compression Ratio, r is given by

50
r = ( v1 / v2 ) = ( v4 / v3 )

The isentropic processes are given by

( T2 / T1 ) = ( T3 / T4 ) = r k-1
where, k is the specific heats ratio

therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal cold, air-standard Otto cycle ηotto , is given by

ηotto = 1 - ( 1 / r k-1 )

Experimental Procedure
The physical operation of the equipment will be explained during the lab lecture. The
procedure is designed to obtain sufficient data to permit evaluation of both thermodynamic
and mechanical efficiencies of the engine under test.

Recorded Measurement
1. Barometric pressure
2. Room temperature
3. Dynamometer
4. Engine shaft speed ( RPM )
5. Load on the dynamometer
6. Rate of fuel consumption
7. Rate of cooling water flow
8. Inlet temperature of the water flow
9. Outlet temperature of the water flow
10. Exhaust gas temperature
11. Inlet manifold pressure
12. Exhaust manifold temperature
13. Rate of air consumption

All of the above should be taken from the same time slice. As the engine will be operating at
a constant condition during the recording period we can consider the reading to have been
taken at the same time.
From the acquired data the performance can be evaluated.

Results
The variation of the following parameters with load should be obtained.
Brake power ( P ), Specific fuel consumption ( sfc ), Air/fuel ratio ( A/F ), Mechanical
efficiency ( ηm ), Fuel conversion efficiency ( ηf ).

51
A. CONSTANT SPEED TEST:

1. Brake Power ( P )

P (hp) = ( W(lb) * N(rpm) ) / 4500

P (kw) = P(hp) * 0.7457

2. Specific Fuel Consumption ( sfc )

mf = ( ρf * Vf ) / t
where, mf is the flow rate of fuel (kg/sec.)

sfc = mf(kg/s) / P(kw)

3. Air Mass Flow ( ma)

ma = ρa * Cd * Ao * ( 2 * g * ∆ha ) 1/2
∆ha = ( ρw * ∆ha ) / ρa

4. Water Mass Flow Rate

mw = ρw * Cd * Ao * ( 2 * g * ∆hw ) 1/2
∆hw = ( ρHg * ∆hHg ) / ρw

5. Air / fuel Ratio ( A / F )

( A / F ) = ( ma / mf )

6. Energy available in the fuel

Qf = mf * QHV
where, QHV = Heating Value of the fuel

7. Mechanical Efficiency ηm , is given by

ηm = ( P / IP )
where, IP is the indicated power of the engine

8. Fuel conversion efficiency ηf , is given by

ηf = ( P / Qf )

52
B. ENERGY BALANCE:

1. Energy supplied by the fuel E f (or Qf )

Ef = mf * QHV

2. Energy consumed by the load EL

EL = P

3. Energy lost through cooling water EW

EW = mw * cpw ( Two - Twi )

4. Energy lost through exhaust gases EE

EE = ( ma + mf ) ( hE - hA )
= ( ma + mf ) [cp ( TE - TA )]

5. Other loses Eo

Ef = Eo + EL + EW + EE
or
Eo = Ef - ( EL + EW + EE )

53
DATA SHEET

Engine speed N =

Specific gravity of fuel Sf =

Heating valve of fuel QHV =

Specific gravity of Mercury SHg =

Orifice plate diameter for air Doair =

Orifice plate diameter for water Dowater =

Coefficient of discharge of each orfice plate Cd =

1 2 3 4 5
0
Room TR( C )
Temperature
Load W (lbs)

Fuel t (sec)
for 50 ml
Cooling ∆hHg(mm)
water
T inlet ( oC )

T outlet ( oC )

Exhaust ∆hw (mm)

gases
T inlet ( oC )

T outlet ( oC )

54
RESULTS
Parameter Units Formula 1 2 3 4 5

Load W
P = EL
Fuel mf
Qf = Ef
ηf
Coolin ∆hw
g
water Vw
mw
Ew
Exhaus ∆hair
t
gases Vair
mair
hi
he
mE
EE
sfc
Other Eo
Energy ef
per unit eL
mass of eW
fuel eE
eo

55
 Experiment # 8

VARIABLE SPEED TEST OF A S.I. ENGINE

56
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

VARIABLE SPEED TEST OF AN S.I. ENGINE

Objective : To test an SI engine for maximum power.

Theory : For a maximum power test on an SI engine, the throttle is fully opened and the
lowest desired speed is maintained by the brake or external load adjustment. The spark is
adjusted (if manual) to give maximum power at this speed. The engine is run for a period of
time until the water and lubricating oil have been brought to definite operating temperatures.

When the engine is operating in approximate temperature equilibrium, the test is started by
the watch governing the fuel consumption. The test is ended at the time the fuel-consumption
test has been completed. During this interval of time, the average speed (N), brake load (W),
temperatures, etc. are recorded. Recorded data include all data necessary to calculate the
required results as well as all data to necessary reproduce the test.

After the completion of this run, the brake or load on the dynamometer is adjusted until the
speed has changed by the desired amount while the spark is adjusted for maximum torque
(unless automatic control of the spark is specified). Equilibrium conditions of temperature are
again obtained, and the procedure of the preceding paragraph is repeated.

DATA SHEET

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engine speed
N(rpm)
Room Temp.
T(room) (oC)
Time for
50ml fuel
t(sec)
Dyn. Load
W(lbs)

RESULTS

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Engine speed
N(rpm)
Brake Power
Pb (kw)
Fuel flow
mf (kg/sec)
Sp. fuel cons.
sfc

57
 Experiment # 9

OCTANE RATING BY RESEARCH METHOD

58
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

OCTANE RATING BY RESEARCH METHOD

Objective: Determination of the knock characteristics of motor gasoline for use in spark
ignition engine, in term of ASTM Research Octane Number.

Theory:
What is knock: In SI engine, spark plug is responsible for a flame at the end of the
compression stroke. This flame travels across the combustion chamber at its normal velocity
and release chemical energy. The unburned gases ahead of the flame front are compressed
and their temperature and pressure increases. If the temperature of the unburned mixture
increases above the self ignition temperature before the flame front reach, spontaneous
ignition or auto-ignition will occur and spread in all the chamber to complete the combustion
process quickly. The result of this auto-ignition is sharp rise in pressure which may lead to an
audible sound called knock.

Factors That Control Knock in SI Engine:

A. Temperature: Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture by any of the
following factors will increase the possibility of knock in the SI engine.
1. Raising the compression ratio by supercharging
2. Raising the inlet air temperature.
3. Raising the coolant temperature.
4. Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls by increasing the
load ( Opening the throttle).
5. Advancing the spark timing.
B. Density: Increasing the density of the unburned mixture by any of the following factors
will increase the possibility of knock in the SI engine.
1. Increasing the load ( Opening the throttle).
2. Super charging the engine ( Raising the compression ratio).
3. Advancing the spark timing.

C. Time Factor: Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-igniting
conditions by and of the following factors will increase the possibility of knock in the SI
engine.
1. Increasing the distance the flame has to travel in order to traverse the combustion
chamber.
2. Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture and thus decreasing the speed of the flame.
3. Decreasing the speed of the engine, thus decreasing the turbulence of the mixture and
increasing the time available for pre-flame reactions.

D. Composition: The properties of the fuel and the fuel-air ratio are the primary means for
controlling knock, once the compression ratio and engine dimensions are selected. The
probability of knock is decreased by
1. Increasing the octane rating of the fuel.
2. Either rich or lean mixtures.
3. Stratifying the mixture so that the end gases are less reactive.
4. Increasing the humidity of the entering air.

59
Why knock is objectionable:
1. The impact on the engine components and structure can cause failure, and the noise form
engine vibration is always objectionable.
2. It is difficult to ensure that the erratic pressure rise from uncontrolled auto-ignition will
occur at the most favorable point in the cycle. A disadvantage especially applicable to
multi-cylinder engines.
3. The pressure difference in the combustion chamber cause the gas to vibrate and scrub the
chamber walls. This action reduces the film resistance and allows an increased loss of
heat to the coolant.
4. The lack of control of the combustion process leads to pre-ignition and local overheating.

Knock Rating of SI Fuels:

The knock rating of a gasoline is found by comparing the knock with that of a blend of
primary reference fuels ( PRF ). These fuels are n-heptane with an octane number ( ON ) of
0; and 2,2,4-trimethyl pentane (called iso-octane ) with an octane number of 100. An octane
rating ( OR ) of 80 indicates that a test fuel will yield the same knock reading in a standard
engine under prescribed operating conditions as a solution 9 by volume ) of 80 parts of iso-
octane and 20 parts of n-heptane (and the test method must also be specified). The scale is
extended above 100 by adding tetra-ethyl lead ( TEL ) to iso-octane.

Procedure:
The engine must first be calibrated under the specified conditions of Table 9.1 but with a
definite blend of reference fuels and a definite compression ratio. The knock obtained under
these method is a louder knock ( heavier ) than that in the motor and other methods because
of the differences in operating conditions and the knock meter is adjusted to read 55 units.
This procedure standardized the intensity of knock which can now be reproduced at different
compression ratios ( but with fuels of different octane numbers ) as shown by a knock meter
reading of 55.

The unknown octane rating of a test fuel is determined in the following manner:
1. The engine is operating with test fuel.
2. The air-fuel ratio adjusted for maximum knock.
3. The compression ratio is then varied until the knock intensity is standard ( 55 unit ).
4. The compression ratio locked at this setting, known blends of reference fuels are placed
in the two auxiliary carburetor bowls.
5. Each fuel is tested in turn and the knock meter reading are recorded.
6. The original knock meter reading ( of 55 ) will be bracketed by two readings from two
known reference fuels.
7. One blend will have a higher octane number than the unknown sample and the second
blend will have a lower number ( the difference is restricted to about two octane numbers,
since the knock meter is nonlinear ).
8. Linear interpolation of the knock meter readings for the three fuels is then made to find
the octane rating of the sample, or unknown fuel.

Apparatus :
1. The knock testing unit consists of a single cylinder engine (CFR engine) of continuously
variable compression ratio, as shown in figure 4.
2. ASTM Iso-octane (2,2,4 trimethyl pentane)
3. ASTM n-Heptane.
4. Toluene.

60
Standard Operating Conditions :
Engine speed = 600 rpm
Spark running constant = 130 BTC
Oil pressure = 25 to 30 psig
Oil temperature = 135 +/- 150 F
Coolant temperature = 212 +/- 150 F
Intake air temperature = specified for the prevailing barometric pressure.

Observations:
1. Knock meter reading for reference fuel (1) = Kr1 =
2. Octane number for reference fuel (1) = ON1 =
3. Knock meter reading for reference fuel (2) = Kr2 =
4. Octane number for reference fuel (2) = ON2=
5. Knock meter reading for the sample fuel = 55
6. Octane number of the sample fuel =x

x = ON2 + { ( ON1 - ON2 ) * ( 55 - Kr2 ) / ( Kr1 - Kr2 ) }

Results:
The octane number of the given fuel by Research Octane method is ……………….

Lab Report:

Answer the followings:

1. Define the phemomena of knicking in SI Engine?

2. What influence do the following factors have on knocking in SI Engine?

a) supercharging
b) decreasing the coolant temperature
c) advancing the spark timing
d) increasing the load
e) decreasing the speed
f) decreasing the distance of the flame in the combustion chamber

3. What are the consequences of the knicking in SI Engine?

4. What are physical and chemical delay times in combustion of fuel in CI Eninge?

5. What is the difference between the knock in SI and CI Engine?

61
 Experiment # 10

ENGINE DIAGNOSTICS

62
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

ENGINE DIAGNOSTICS

Objective : To determine the car engine performance by using the electronic analyzer.

Apparatus: Peerless model 925 analyzer. AC-Delco Engine analyzer.

Method: The cable from the analyzer is connected to a car, this will be done by the
instructor, the following tests will be carried out.

a. Initial set-up
b. Starting system
c. Engine idle
d. Timing advance
e. Charging system
f. Cylinder balance

Results: All the results and the readings are recorded in the print sheet and final conclusion
is determined by you about the car tested.

Conclusion: Write comments about the advantages of using this method and any
suggestions in your opinion, if important.

63
 ENGINE CONNECTIONS

EXTERNAL COIL IGNITION SYSTEM

Note: If the car has an external ignition coil system, then, use Fig.1 to connect the analyzer to
the engine. If the engine has an internal coil ignition system, then, change the pick-up lead
No. 01-2400 in from (1) by HEI pattern pick-up lead No. 01-63460 as shown in Fig.2.

64
 DIAGNOSTIC TUNE UP CENTER ENGINE ANALYSIS
Car make & model : _______________________ Mileage : ________________________
Cylinders : _______________________________ Firing order : ____________________
No TEST SPECIFICATION READ GOOD BAD AFFECTS CORRECTIVE STEPS
OUT
2A Battery voltage under 11.5 - 12.4 volts Engine starting Note and proceed to tests 3A, 3B, and 3C.
light load
2B Ignition switch Less than 1 volt Engine starting 1. Check ignition switch.
2. Check starter motor solenoid by-pass circuit.
Repair, and/or replace as required.
2C Primary resistor 4.8 volts Overall engine 3. Check primary resistor and ignition switch.
performance 4. Check starter motor solenoid by-pass circuit.
Repair, and/or replace as required.
3A Cranking current Refer to operator’s manual Engine starting Refer to operator’s manual.
3B Cranking volts Not less than 9 volts Engine starting Refer to operator’s manual.
3C Cranking speed 80 - 225 rpm Engine starting Refer to operator’s manual.
4A Engine idle speed Gas mileage, 1. Set idle speed according to manufacturer’s
Idling characteristics, specs.
Exhaust emission 2. Perform PCV test, as outlined in manual.
4B Point dwell Passing safely, Set dwell to specifications.
overall engine
performance
4C Dynamic primary Green band of dynamic Starting, acceleration, 1. Check distributor lead wire.
resistance primary resistance scale and cruise 2. Check breaker plate ground.
performance 3. Check distributor ground.
4. Check for resistance points.
4D Air/Fuel ratio Fuel economy, 1. Tune car to manufacturer’s specs.
Exhaust emissions 2. Clean, adjust and service carburetors required to
manufacturer’s specs.
5 Power balance Equal rpm fall off Engine idling 1. Check ignition wires.
smoothness. 2. Make compression check.
Power characteristics 3. Repeat or replace as required.
Carburetor balance Equal rpm fall off Exhaust emissions. 1.Compare to test and power balance.
Engine idling 2. Adjust idle mixture screws according to
manufacturer’s specs.
6A Ignition output Scale reading in green band Engine starting. 1. Set dwell to specs.
available Passing safely. 2. Check point and condenser.
Cruise power. 3. Check coil polarity.
4. Check with known good coil.
6B Coil polarity Scale reading in green band Overall engine Reverse coil “minus” and “plus” leads.
performance
6C Ignition output Approximate equal scale Overall engine Replace defective ignition wire(s), distributor cap,
required readings in green band performance and/or spark plug(s).
6D Ignition output Not more than 20 divisions Passing power, 1. Replace spark plugs.
required increase acceleration and 2. Check all wiring.
(under load) engine starting.
7A Initial ignition timing Engine spark knock, Adjust to manufacturer’s initial timing specifications.
power, exhaust
emission, economy.
7B Mechanical spark Maximum engine If little or no advance is shown,
advance @ 2000 rpm power check weights for balance.
7C Total spark advance Total engine 1. Check vacuum hoses for kinks, sharp bends,
@ 2000 rpm efficiency throughout leaks or blockage.
range of operation. 2. check for vacuum at vacuum outlet.
3. Check distributor vacuum unit.
4. Repair or replace defective components.
8A Charging system Starting If above specifications, see manual notes.
characteristics as If below specifications, go to steps 8B and 8C.
related to battery state
of charge and battery
life.
8B Regulator volts Starting If the indication is O.K. when button is depressed,
characteristics as regulator is O.K.
related to battery state If below green band, refer to notes in the operator’s
of charge and battery manual.
life.
8C Charging amps w/o A/C 30-42 amps Starting 1. Check generator drive belt.
with A/C 45-65 amps characteristics as 2. Check all wiring.
related to battery state 3. If generator output is within 10 amperes of
of charge, operating rated output, the generator is O.K., however,
efficiency of regulator adjustment or replacement is
accessories and indicated.
battery life.
 Experiment # 11

EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS

66
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS OF A S.I ENGINE

Objective: Measurement of exhaust gases emitted from a spark-ignition engine using

an exhaust gas analyzer (MEXA Unit) for measuring both carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide and also oxygen percentage in exhaust gases is measured during this
experiment.

Testing Equipment
The engine test cell consists of the engine, the dynamometer, the cell controller
(CADET 10 Unit), the combustion analysis system (CAS Unit), and the exhaust
emission analyzer (MEXA Unit). Two engines are available for testing, a Ford 2-liter
four-cylinder carbureted engine, and a Mercedes 3.2 liter six-cylinder fuel-injected
engine. The test engine can be coupled easily to a 250 kW eddy-current
dynamometer. This dynamometer allows the measurement of the engine output. The
dynamometer is electrically controlled by the cell controller which is a computer
based system capable of being operated manually or automatically. The cell
controller, also monitors all the engine parameters and displays them on a screen. The
combustion analysis system is a separate system that receives some raw data related
to the combustion process in the engine and analyzes them using a computational
software. The exhaust emission analyzer measures the on-stream concentrations of
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), Total hydrocarbons (THC), oxygen
(O2), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).

Operating Procedure (general)

• Turn on the water cooling system and switch on the engine and the throttle
actuator.
• Switch on the Cadet-10 Unit (cell controller) and the CAS unit.
• Start the gas analyzer by switching on the OVN heated analyzer (located inside
the engine room), and after the OPE light changes to single flash, turn on the main
switch on the MEXA Unit.
• After the MEXA computer boots up, confirm the date and time then select the
standby mode and allow some time for the system to warm-up.
• From the Cadet-10 main program, start up new test for the specific engine you
have.
• Start the engine and allow some time for warm-up.
• After all the alarms are cleared on the MEXA program, you can start measuring
the emission concentrations.

Experiment Procedure
• Set the engine to the specified speed and load using the knobs on the controlling
keyboard.
• Select the measuring mode on the MEXA computer (after all the alarms are
cleared).
• Adjust the air/fuel ratio using the specific tool. Make sure to remove the tool after
making the adjustment. Allow some time for the engine to stabilize.

67
• Read the emission concentrations on the MEXA computer.
• Readjust the air/fuel ratio to the next value and take the readings.
Theory:
To fully utilize the gas analysis capabilities of any exhaust gas analyzer (MEXA Unit
etc.), it is important to understand the nature of each gas and what is indicated by their
varying concentrations.
An emission-controlled engine requires exacting idle mixture adjustments. In areas
that require car owners to pass a tailpipe emission test, the engine can no longer be
adjusted only for best idle. There is a chance that the car will not pass stringent idle
emission requirements.
Most vehicle manufacturers have specifications for CO emissions at idle as well as
recommended methods of adjustment to meet these requirements.
The exhaust gas analyzer measures the concentrations of Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Hydrocarbons (HC), Oxygen (O2), and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) in the exhaust gas
at the tailpipe.

Carbon Monoxide: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is measured in % by volume of the

exhaust gases. It is formed by the incomplete combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber due to lack of oxygen, usually caused by a rich mixture. CO is at
its lowest when the AFR is 14.7:1 or leaner (higher). CO is probably the best indicator
of AFR ( air fuel ratio ) because of its sensitivity to mixture changes.
Oxygen: Oxygen, measured in % by volume of the exhaust gas, is a necessary
ingredient for all combustion. The oxygen content of the exhaust gas can indicate
whether the fuel in the combustion chamber is using all the available oxygen for
combustion. The O2 reading also indicates whether the exhaust gas sample is being
diluted by an air injection system or a leak in the exhaust system, which could lead to
incorrect CO and HC readings. If the AFR is too lean, the O2 will be high. A rich
mixture can cause a low O2 reading. If there is a leak anywhere in the vehicle exhaust
system, the gas analysis system or the exhaust sample hose of the MEXA Unit, high
O2 readings could warn the operator to check the equipment before continuing with
gas analysis testing. Catalytic converters can mask HC and CO readings at the
tailpipe, so O2 is valuable in diagnosing mixture problems as well as electrical or
mechanical malfunctions. The oxygen content of the atmosphere is about 21%. That is
the reading on the MEXA Unit when the probe is open to fresh air. If a single cylinder
misfires on an 8 cylinder engine, 1/8th of the oxygen ( about 2.5% ) will go directly
into the exhaust system because there was no combustion. In a 6 cylinder engine, a
single misfire produces about 3.3% O2. In a 4 cylinder engine, a misfire in a single
cylinder would increase the oxygen reading by about 5% ( 1/4th of 20% ). Oxygen is
at its lowest when the AFR is 14.7:1 or richer (lower).

Hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon, measured in parts per million, ( PPM ) is unburned fuel

leaving the combustion chamber. It is caused when a spark plug misfires or some
other factor does not allow the air/fuel mixture to burn completely in the combustion
chamber. High HC readings can be caused by a spark plug misfire, over-advanced
spark timing, insufficient spark duration, low compression, or an extremely lean
mixture that causes misfiring. HC is an excellent indicator of problems in the ignition
system.

68
Lean Mixture: Excessively lean mixtures can cause overheating within the
combustion chamber which would lead to detonation. The CO, HC, and O2 readings
combined with the plug firing voltage and firing time can provide clues to lean
air/fuel ratios. Lean mixtures appear as very low CO readings with high HC and high
O2 readings. CO is fuel that is only partially burned due to a lack of sufficient oxygen
in the combustion process. With lean mixtures there is usually sufficient oxygen and
the result is low CO readings. However, when too much oxygen ( and, therefore, too
little fuel ) is present, proper combustion will not occur. As a result, unburned fuel
will be exhausted in the form of hydrocarbons ( HC ). The O2 reading will be high
because of the excessive amount of air in the cylinder.

Rich Mixture: Excessively rich mixtures can cause poor mileage, fouled plugs, and
possibly increase engine wear. A rich fuel mixture is usually indicated by a higher CO
reading since a rich mixture is starving for oxygen. HC and O2 will both be low.
Automobile exhaust can reveal many things about engine performance. Carbon
Monoxide ( CO ) and Oxygen ( O2 ) are both indicators of the air/fuel mixture.
Hydrocarbon ( HC ) is an indicator of how well the fuel is being burned. In Fig.1, the
horizontal scale shows the air/fuel ratio from 8:1 through 20:1. The vertical scale
shows exhaust gas composition in % by volume from zero to 18%. The ideal air/fuel
mixture is about 14.7:1 which is called “stoichiometric.”

Notice that at AFR=14.7:1 there is almost zero CO and O2. This means that almost all
of the air-fuel mixture is converted to Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) and Water ( H2O ).
Both of which are harmless. However, incomplete combustion can also cause some of
the other exhaust gases such as CO, HC and O2. “NORMAL” reading will vary from
car to car and catalytic converter equipped engines will have lower readings.

Figure 1. Exhaust gas composition versus air-fuel ratio.

69
 The following table lists the normal emissions readings under various conditions.

INFRARED EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS PARAMETERS FOR HC, CO, O2

IDLE 1500 RPM 2500 RPM CONDITION / POSSIBLE CAUSE

converter Non- converter Non- converter Non-

converter converter converter
HC (PPM) 0 - 150 75 -250 0 - 135 50-200 0 - 75 25 -150
Normal gas reading
CO (%) 0.1-1.5 0.5-3.0 0 - 1.1 0.5-2.0 0 - 0.8 .1 - 1.5 Stable values
(4cyl.-3%)
O2 (%) 0.1-2.0 0.1-2.0 0.1-2.0 0.1-2.0 .1-1.25 0.1-2.0

HC (PPM) 0 -150 75- 250 0 - 135 50 -200 0 - 75 0 - 100 Rich Mixture: Idle mixture too rich: choke
Above 3.0 Above 4.0 Above 3.0 Above3.5 Above 3.0 Above 3.0 set too rich or not opening fully: Power valve
CO (%) 0-0.5 0-0.5 0-0.5 0-0.5 0-0.5 0-0.5 leading: float level too high: restricted air
O2 (%) cleaner: PCV restricted: contaminated
crankcase.
HC (PPM) 0 -150 75 -250 0 -135 50 -200 0 -75 0 -100 Lean Mixture: Low float level: idle mixtures
0 -1.0 0 -1.0 0 -.8 0 -.9 0 -.25 0 -.75 lean: cruise mixture lean: small air leaks:
CO (%) 1.5 -3.0 1.5 -3.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 -2.5 1.0 -2.0 1.0 -2.0 cracked or pulled losses vacuum lines.
O2 (%)

HC (PPM) 50 -850 400-1200 50 -850 400-1200 50 -750 400-1200 Lean Miss fire: Severs air leak: bed spark
0 - 0.3 0 - 0.75 0 - 0.3 0 - 0.75 0 - 0.3 0 - 0.75 plug or wire: stuck PCV; miss
CO (%) 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 2-7 2-7 adjusted/defective carb.
O2 (%)

HC (PPM) 50-850 800-PEG 50-850 800-PEG 50-750 800-PEG Lean Misfire: Over advanced timing: fouled
.1- 1.5 .5- 3.0 .0- 1.1 .5- 2.0 .0- .8 .1- 1.5 plug: open/grounded plug wire: EGR stuck
CO (%) 4 - 12 5-12 4 - 12 5-12 4 - 12 5-12 open.
O2 (%)

DATA SHEET

AFR

70
71