Citation: Progoulaki, M. (2012), The choice of seafaring profession, in T. Pawlik (ed.

),
Handbook of Container shipping Management: Volume 3- Human Element in Container
Shipping, Bremen: ISL. pp.11-38.

1.1 The choice of seafaring profession

Dr. Maria Progoulaki, University of the Aegean, Department of Shipping,

Trade and Transport

1.1.1 Introduction

What is the dream profession for people in their early childhood? It may be
common for a child to want to be a policeman, a doctor, a rock star, an
astronaut, a nurse, or even a pirate. How many children dream to become
seafarers? Shipping carries more than 90% of world trade; without shipping, half
the world would starve and the other half would freeze. This job is done by
almost 100,000 merchant ships, manned by over one million seafarers from all
over the world (IMO 2008). Against an estimated total world population of 6.7
billion, these figures draw a stunning conclusion: that the feeding and heating
needs of the entire world are dependent on just over one million seafarers1. The
International Maritime Organization (IMO)2 draws the attention to the vital
service that seafarers offer to the shipping industry, an industry that contributes
significantly to global and sustainable development and prosperity by carrying
the world‟s commerce safely, securely, efficiently and at a fraction of the
environmental impact and cost of other modes of transport.

BIMCO/ISF studies have highlighted an anticipated shortage of some 27,000

officers worldwide by the year 20153. Especially in some traditional maritime
countries, there is an apparent reluctance on the part of young people to choose
seafaring as a profession. And even for those young people who do make that
choice, their careers at sea are often short as they are either unwilling or unable
to take on higher duties or, even more importantly, they actively choose not to

1 IMO (2008), p. 4
2 In 2008 the IMO launched the campaign "Go to Sea!" with the aim to promote seafaring
as an attractive option for young people, one which can provide them with rewarding
and long-term prospects, not only at sea but also in the broader maritime industry.
Further information available at http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/HotTopics/GoToSea/
Pages/Default.aspx, last access 12 February 2012.
3 BIMCO/ISF (2005; 2010)
11
12 Progoulaki M.

remain at sea4. It must be stated that nowadays there is one generation of well-
trained officers missing that could fill the gap between those close to retirement
and the young seafarers who have just started their careers5. If the global pool of
competent and efficient seafarers is to meet future demand, then seafaring must
be presented to younger generations as a viable career choice.

This chapter introduces the reader to the criteria that affect a person‟s decision
making to become a seafarer and to follow the seafaring career. Chapter 1
summarizes key terms and the basic career development theories. A special
insight to the results of studies in the field of factors influencing the choice of
seafaring profession follows in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 discusses aspects of
seafaring and shipping that represent vital information in the choice of the
seafaring career, along with the basic steps in career decision making process.
The profile of the future seafarer and his/her career potentials are analysed in
Chapter 4, and the epilogue stands in Chapter 5.

1.1.2 Useful definitions and career development theories

The meanings that young people in the age of career decision attach to the terms
of occupation and career are potentially limiting factors in their career behaviour
and decision-making6. Pyne and Bernes7 mention that if adolescents think of a
career as a long-term commitment to a single (usually professional) occupation,
they may quickly disengage from any career planning, in the belief that it has no
relevance to their lives. Thus, it is important to define terms that are related to
job and career, and clarify the differences between the words that are commonly
used to describe one‟s employment. According to the following definitions 8:
(a) Work: is an activity involving mental or physical effort done in order to
achieve a result; work as a means of earning income; the period of time
one spends in paid employment.
(b) Job: describes a responsibility or duty; task or piece of work, especially
one that is paid; paid position of regular employment.
(c) Profession: refers to a paid occupation, especially one that involves
prolonged training and a formal qualification.

4 IMO (2008)
5 Krüger-Kopiske, K.K. (2008), p. 102
6 Pyne, D./Bernes, K. (2002), p. 3
7 Loc.Cit.
8 Definitions drawn from Oxford English Dictionary, http://oxforddictionaries.com, last
access 12 February 2012
The choice of seafaring profession 13

(d) Vocation: describes a strong feeling of suitability for a particular career or

occupation; person‟s employment or main occupation, especially regarded
as worthy and requiring dedication.
(e) Career: means working permanently in or committed to a particular
profession; an occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person‟s
life and with opportunities for progress.
Only by defining the different sides of employment one can understand the
importance of training, remuneration, personal interest and dedication. These are
some of the most important factors that influence a person‟s choice of
profession, the individual‟s career development, as well as organisations‟
retention and turnover rates.

The field of career development has been examined widely by psychologists and
career counsellors. Career development is the process that analyses and relates
one‟s work and role in it with the environment and one‟s personal interests.
There are five career theories that have guided the career counselling practice
and research the last decades internationally9. These are: Theory of Work-
Adjustment10, Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment11, Self-
concept Theory of Career Development12, Theory of Circumscription and
Compromise13, and Social Cognitive Career Theory14. According to the „Theory
of Work-Adjustment‟, career choice and career development are a continual
process of adjustment and accommodation in which the person seeks to work in
environments that will cover one‟s personal needs, while the work environment
seeks to match its requirements with the person‟s characteristics and needs. The
theory of „Vocational Personalities in Work Environment‟ postulates that the
interest on a profession expresses, and thus, is related to, the individual‟s
personality, and this interest can be conceptualised into six typologies, i.e.
realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. According
to „Self-concept Theory‟, self-concept is generated by the complex interactions
among one‟s experiences, one‟s physical and mental growth and the
environment‟s characteristics15. Development of self-concept is considered a

9 Leung, A. (2008), p. 116

10 Dawis, R.V. (1992; 2002; 2005), Dawis, R.V./Lofquist, L.H. (1984), cited in Leung,
op.cit., p. 116
11 Holland, J.H. (1997), cited in Leung, op.cit., p. 118
12 Super, D.W. (1969; 1980; 1990), in Leung, A. (2008), p. 120 and Herr, E.L. (1997),
Savickas, M.L. (2002)
13 Gottfredson, L. (1981; 2002; 2005)
14 Bandura, A. (1997) and Lent, R.W. et al. (2002), Lent, R.W. (2005)
15 Super, D.W (1969). However other scientists (Herr, E.L. 1997; Savickas, M.L. 2002)
emphasize on the effects of social context and the reciprocal influence between the
person and the environment.
14 Progoulaki M.

continual process, since self-concept is believed to be non-static. As the person

encounters new experiences and progresses through developmental stages, the
self-concept evolves. The „Theory of Circumscription and Compromise‟
supports that although genetic characteristics strongly influence the person‟s
interests, skills, values, personality, yet, the expression of a person‟s
characteristics is influenced by the environment. Career development is viewed
as a self-creation process in which individuals look for avenues or niches to
express their genetic proclivities within the boundaries of their own cultural
environment16. Finally, according to the „Social Cognitive Career Theory‟ a
person‟s career goals and choice of profession are developed through an
interaction among self-efficacy, outcome expectations and interest over time.
The choice of career is a continual process in which the person and the
environment mutually influence each other. The first step is to specify the
primary career goals of the person, then proceed to actions that aim at achieving
these goals, and finally assess the performance experience and get feedback
regarding the suitability of the goals and the proficiency of the actions.
According to this theory, the person‟s goals and interests might need to be
compromised because of the influence from factors such as the person‟s culture,
social barriers or lack of support17.

Apart from the strong theoretical base that these five career theories offer,
Parsons‟ theory is considered seminal in careers guidance. The basic concept of
his theory is summarised in three principles18 that guide the choice of a
vocation19: (i) a clear understanding of one‟s self, one‟s aptitudes, abilities,
interests, ambitions, resources, limitations and their causes; (ii) a knowledge of
the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages,
compensation, opportunities and prospects in different lines of work, and (iii)
true reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts. In brief, the outline
of Parsons‟ method of vocation counselling includes the following steps20: (1)
Collect personal data, (experiences, interests, etc.) (2) Conduct self-analysis
(examine personal characteristics), (3) Analyse the person‟s own choice and
decision, (4) Analysis of the person‟s profile in relation to the choice of
profession by a counsellor (e.g. in terms of character, education, experience,
family, ancestry, resources and limitations), (5) Outlook of the vocational field,

16 Leung, op.cit., p. 123

17 Ibid., p. 126
18 Parsons, F. (1909), p. 5
19 Parsons‟ book titled "Choosing a vocation" (1909) published by Houghton Mifflin is
currently out of print. References are drawn from Evangelista L. notes available in
www.orientamento.it/risorse/parsons.htm, last access 6 January 2012.
20 Parsons, op.cit., p. 45
The choice of seafaring profession 15

where the assigned counsellor has to hold some industrial knowledge21, (6)
Induction and advice, (7) General helpfulness in fitting into the chosen work.
The important information useful in the career decision and development
process of a person in seafaring, as suggested by Parsons, may include statistics
regarding world and national maritime labour force, capital investment in the
industry in various regions or worldwide (showing for instance, the number of
establishments, number of workers, salaries paid). It is apparent that the decision
making for a selection of career requires a thorough analysis of the individual‟s
personality, life and social environment (internal factors), as well as the
conditions of the working environment (external factors); the last includes the
micro and macro working environment, which is the vessel and the maritime
industry respectively and will be analysed in Chapter 3.

1.1.3 Review of factors affecting the choice of seafaring profession

A number of studies have underlined the shortage of qualified seafarers for the
world shipping industry. The shortage of seagoing personnel especially among
OECD countries and Europe led some researchers into the examination of the
factors that affect a person‟s choice to follow the seafaring occupation. Some
surveys focused on European or OECD seagoing personnel, while others on
certain nationalities of seafarers. More than 10 years ago, the project on
"Harmonisation of European Maritime Education and Training Schemes-
METHAR"22 identified a serious decline of interest of young people in seafaring
and an insufficient supply of ship officers from EU countries. Following
METHAR research the European Commission funded the project on "Thematic
Network on Maritime Education, Training and Mobility of Seafarers-
METNET"23. METNET revealed that the main reasons for young people not
choosing seafaring as a career include the perception the candidates have
regarding the career prospects of the occupation, both onboard and ashore, the
long time being away from home, friends and relatives, as well as the negative
image of the shipping industry. Moreover, an assumed uncertainty of
employment for this occupation, and the perceived insufficient financial reward
in comparison to the expected workload and hardship onboard, were also

21 Parsons, (op.cit., p. 46) notes that investigations should focus on: (1) lists and
classifications of industries and vocations, (2) the conditions of success in the various
vocations, (3) general and up-to-date information about the industries, (4) available
apprenticeship systems and opportunities, (5) the available vocational courses in the
person‟s region and country, (6) employment agencies and opportunities.

22 METHAR (2000)
23 METNET (2003)
16 Progoulaki M.

underlined. The expected living conditions onboard, especially in terms of

foreign and culturally diverse crew also seemed to play a negative role in the
attractiveness of the occupation. Finally, the technical profile of the occupation
and the low social acceptance and low prestige of the ship officer‟s profession in
most countries of the European Union were also mentioned as important reasons
for not choosing the seafaring occupation.

The "Mapping of career paths in the maritime industries"24 was a study aiming to
provide an overview and/or global estimates of the possible and actual career
paths of seafarers, the demand for seafarer‟s manpower requirements at sea and
in relevant shore-based maritime industries, and the barriers to the mobility of
qualified seafarers between the sectors. Findings showed that the most
significant reasons for an individual‟s choice of seafaring career was the
location of home or place of upbringing, influence from the family, perception
for good career prospects, a long-term interest in the sea and the chance for
travelling around the world. Further, an important reason for staying at sea was
found to be the person‟s long held ambition to become a sailor, and a strong
appreciation of the job and the seafaring life. Moreover, fast promotion to higher
rank, and a parallel increase in the pay were very influential in the decision to
make a maritime career. Finally, another important factor mentioned was the
relationship between employer-ship owner and employee-seafarer. Especially
officers, who mostly enjoy permanent contracts with shipping companies, may
be more committed to their employers, and, therefore, have a higher retention
rate at sea industries25. The results showed that among the most common factors
influencing the decision to search for a profession ashore were pressure from the
family and a commitment to pursue a sudden job opportunity. Other reasons
mentioned focused on difficult social conditions on board (caused by small
number of crew, cultural differences, stress and long hours of work) and
generally fatigue and loneliness.

In the frames of the study on the "Future global supply and demand for seafarers
and possible measures to facilitate stakeholders to secure a quantity of quality
seafarers"26, a survey among a large sample of maritime students in six
countries27 was conducted, with the aim to examine what attracts young people
to the shipping industry and to the seafarer‟s profession. Results showed that
despite the broad belief that the promotion of the importance of seafaring life

24 Southampton Solent University (2005)

25 Ibid., p. 15
26 Japan International Transport Institute-JITI /The Nippon Foundation (2010)
27 Survey was conducted in twelve maritime institutions based in India, Croatia, Norway,
Japan, Republic of Korea and the Philippines.
The choice of seafaring profession 17

and shipping from a young age is effective, only 1/3 of the respondents have had
such knowledge prior beginning their studies in Maritime Universities/ Marine
Academies. The majority of the students though, stated that they had the
ambition to become seafarers from the time they were high school students. It is
worth noting that almost 1/5 of them changed their mind after attending nautical/
maritime courses. The majority‟s motives to become sailors were the expected
satisfying compensation, perceived good working conditions and perceived high
status of the shipping industry.
Respondents were negatively influenced by factors such as lack of freedom
onboard and celebrating holidays onboard. The main reason for wanting to move
to a land-based work in the future was the family28.

The "Young Seafarers‟ Focus Group"29 consisted of young seafarers of seven

different nationalities and aimed to give them the opportunity to express their
views on their career and life at sea, and on what attracts and retains them to the
shipping industry. Results showed that the main reasons for going to sea were
considered to be the salary and related tax frame, family tradition, and
opportunity to see the world. Moreover, the seafarer‟s lifestyle, which includes
hard work but long breaks, paid vacation (leave pay) and short contracts. For
some of the participants seafaring offers job opportunities and was considered a
challenging and interesting work. Further, seafaring was believed to attract more
practical people, while the person needs to experience life on board before
spending time on academic education30. In the question whether these students
consider seafaring a career for life, they mentioned the obstacle of hard work,
which is believed to be unsuitable to older age, as well as the job insecurity
stemming from the contractual character of the occupation (contractual
workers). Finally, a positive influential factor for seafaring as a career was
considered to be the family tradition, while the creation of family was
mentioned as a difficulty for women who wish the seafaring career.

The European Community Ship owners Association‟s report on "Enhancing

recruitment and training in the maritime sector in Europe"31 presented results of
a questionnaire survey on the reasons why young people choose careers at sea.
The factors that were marked by ECSA members as important in encouraging
young people to apply for maritime training places included: the knowledge that
officer salaries are attractive, long leave periods, availability of future jobs at
shore in the maritime cluster, the wish to work in a non office-restricted
environment, the influence by an acquaintance (family member or friend) who

28 JITI/The Nippon Foundation op.cit., p. 15

29 INTERTANKO/ITF (2009)
30 INTERTANKO/ITF op.cit., p. 5
31 ECSA (2010)
18 Progoulaki M.

already worked at sea, sponsored or partially paid training, the attractiveness of

travel opportunities, the limited availability of jobs ashore, and the insufficient
qualifications of the young people to find a job ashore32. In addition to these
results, the report also presented the respective results from a survey among
young Filipinos33. The reasons for Filipinos to apply for maritime training
included: the good pay conditions, sponsored training, perceived good work in
an international environment, the opportunity to travel, personal liking for ships
and sea, recommendations by family or friends, unavailability of the preferred
first career option or other job options.

A survey from the largest seafarers‟ labour supplying country, the Philippines34,
showed that seafarers view their job a way „out of poverty‟, but are also attracted
to career at sea. While Filipino seafarers came mostly from poor rural
backgrounds, the love of a career at sea also was uppermost among their
reasons35. In the analysis of the respondents‟ answers (both officers‟ and
ratings‟), it was revealed that they choose the profession mainly for economical
and financial reasons (to offer a better life to their families, offer education to
their siblings or children, or pay a loan). The motive to go to sea is quite strong
among Filipino seafarers, despite the expected difficulties and risks associated
with work at sea, because „‟they have no choice, there are very few
economically attractive job opportunities‟‟36. A small part of the respondents
justified their choice to their family‟s (parents or relatives) same occupation or
to the family‟s advice and guidance to follow this occupation. Only a few of the
Filipino respondents did mention the adventurous profile of the occupation as a
motive, and others the relation they had with the sea from a young age.

A survey among Greek students in Marine Academies37 aimed to examine the

anthropological and social profile of the young people that choose to attend
courses in shipping and maritime studies, their motives, the source of
information about the Greek Marine Academies and their career development.
The majority of the respondents had the belief that they originate from a land
with maritime tradition, and acknowledged the employment prospects in the
field of shipping, especially in the place of their origin. The survey revealed that
only a minor percentage of the students‟ parents were also graduates of Greek
Marine Academies and that the vast majority of the students‟ parents did not
have any relation with the maritime and shipping industry, thus family tradition

32 Ibid., p. 15-16
33 Dearsley, D.A. (2010), cited in ECSA op.cit., p. 15
34 Amante M.S.V. (2003)
35 Ibid., p. 19
36 Ibid., p. 20
37 Pallis, T./Bissias, I. (2011)
The choice of seafaring profession 19

in seafaring was not an influential factor. The personal interest in shipping, the
expected good future career potentials and the good reputation of the Marine
Academy were the main reasons for their choice. The main source of
information regarding studies in Marine Academies came from the respondents‟
acquaintances (friends and relatives), and less from the campaign for the
promotion of the seafarer‟s profession.

Most of the respondents had an established career ambition to become merchant

marine officers, also supported by their statement that following the first months
of the students‟ attendance to the courses, the majority wished to continue their
studies until graduation.

Impacts of globalization on Norwegian seafarers‟ shipboard organisational lives

were examined on a survey38 that revealed that the national tradition in the
maritime industry was a strong motive and reason for the seafarers to choose
their occupation. Also, several factors that have an impact in the decision
making for choosing the career making in seafaring emerged. The factors that
were related to the globalisation of the maritime industry and influence the
respondents included the maritime heritage, the national flag compared to the
open registries, the change of the ship‟s management from ship-based to shore-
based practices, the lack of skills-based training on communication among
members of multicultural crew, the time spent on board and ashore, and others.

Another survey among Lithuanian students39 showed that the young people are
motivated to follow the seafarer‟s profession by the influence of both external
and internal financial, social and psychological factors. The good salary, career
prospects and the ability to maintain the family‟s welfare were considered the
most important economical motives. Further, social motives included factors
such as the person‟s wish to receive education, the well-respected and
responsible profile of the seafarer‟s occupation, as well as the fact that this
profession is considered as „‟one of the most perspective for those who live in
seaside region‟‟40. Finally, psychological factors referred to the person‟s interest
and dream to become a sailor. The authors concluded that „‟maritime education
and training institutions have to explain to young people all merits of maritime
profession and show possibilities for them to find emotional attractiveness and
realization of their interests to the choice of maritime professions‟‟41.

38 Mack, K.S. (2010)

39 Kalvaitiene, G. et al. (2011)
40 Ibid., p. 6
41 Loc. cit.
20 Progoulaki M.

A recent research among Danish seafarers (officers and non-officers) explored

the aspects of the seafaring profession which motivate and de-motivate people to
stay on in their profession. More than half of the respondents defined work-
home balance and time away from home as a potential reason to leave the
seafaring profession. Moreover, almost one third of the officers and one fourth
of the non-officers named loneliness as a reason to leave the sea. It is worth
noting that the work-home balance was also stated as one of the „best‟ aspects of
seafaring. Further, the level of challenge and level of responsibility were
acknowledged as important motivating factors, mainly by the officers.
As „best‟ aspects were rated, by both groups of respondents, the perceived
challenging character of the seafarer‟s work, independence in the job, freedom
and unique experience at sea, as well as job responsibilities42. Payment was
identified as a motivating factor, while career opportunities and opportunities for
further training were rated as less important. On the other hand, one fourth of the
officers‟ group identified the foreign colleagues as a reason to leave seafaring.
The area of work organisation, the excessive bureaucratisation caused by the
ISM Code, the fear of criminalisation and generally, regulatory requirements
were highlighted as great de-motivators to remain in the seafaring profession.
Especially among half of the officers‟ group, the applied human resource
management (HRM) practices by the shipping companies were mentioned as a
potential reason to leave seafaring. The non-officers‟ group viewed leadership
onboard as a regular reason for leaving seafaring43.

1.1.4 Seafarer’s career decision making: information about the profession

Seafaring is recognised as a „special‟ profession with lots of unique demands44.

Parsons states that it is crucial in the career decision making that the person has
information about the profile of the occupation. This information in the case of
seafaring includes – but is not restricted to – the following aspects (see Tab.1).

Aspects related to:

Maritime industry
(a) Ship owing: - Ship owning regions and countries;
- Potential employers- Ship owners/ managers per country and
shipping sector
- Economic conditions/ Freight rates/ Operational costs
(b) Maritime labour - Maritime labour supplying countries

42 The last among officers‟ group only.

43 Haka, M. et al. (2011), p. 28
44 Ibid., p. 21
The choice of seafaring profession 21

market: - Availability (numbers and qualifications) of national seafarers

- National legislation regarding employment of national and
foreign seafarers
(c) Third party ship - Information provided and job opportunities
management/ - Perception of employ (who is the employer)
Crewing - Costs/ fees
companies/ - Illegal actions
manning agents:

(d) Legislative - ISM, ISPS, STCW, MLC, and others

framework: - Criminalisation
Ship and crew
(e) Characteristics of - Safe manning/ number of crewmembers
the ship (size, - Need for certain skills and knowledge
technology, age,
and others):
(f) Trip, time spent - Duration of trip
onboard and ashore, - Time spent in ports
workload: - Access to port facilities
- Administrative duties/ Amount of paperwork
- Hours of work/ rest
(g) Communication - Regular means of communication and cost
with shore/ family: - Internet facilities
(h) Terms of - Contractual relation
employment: - Terms of seafarers’ employment agreements
- Wages
- Social security
(i) Maritime education - Access to MET means (ashore/ by distance)
and training: - Training on board (on-the-job training)
- Need for updated knowledge and information
(j) Exposure to - Piracy
hazards: - Injuries on board and access to health care/ hospital
- Mortality of seafarers
(k) Socio- - Work-home balance
psychological - Hierarchy
matters: - Crew welfare (catering, accommodation, recreation)
- Loneliness/ isolation/ marginality
- Stress
- Foreign colleagues/ multinational- multilingual crew
Tab. 1: Important information in the seafaring career decision making
22 Progoulaki M.

More specifically, with regard to the information about the maritime industry:
(a) Ship owning:
It is important for the candidate and active seafarer to be aware of the market
conditions that may affect his/ her employment. For instance, the largest ship
owning countries are Greece, Japan, Germany and China, controlling about half
of the world tonnage45. In container shipping especially, the three countries with
the highest containership operating capacity46 are Denmark, Switzerland and
France, which jointly have a market share of almost 30%47. Young students who
want to follow the seafaring profession shall be able to identify their potential
employers; e.g. the leading service operators of container ships in the world 48.
Moreover, freight rates are key information for the condition of the shipping
market (in the macro-economic level), as well as for the shipping companies-
potential employers (in the micro-level). For instance, the Baltic Dry Index, a
key barometer which tracks the cost of hiring ships to move goods such as coal,
iron ore and grain across the world, tumbled on February 3rd 2012 to 647 points
- the lowest level since August 198649. The condition of the freight market has
an impact in the shipping companies‟ incomings. Considering the significant
role of manning expenses in the total operational costs – where crewing can
represent 33-50%,50 the level of seafarers‟ wages may be affected (although
there are also other influential factors).
(b) Conditions of maritime labour market:
The top maritime labour supplying countries in the world, with regard to
officers‟ supply, are Philippines, China, India, Turkey, Ukraine, Russia, United
States of America (US), Japan, Romania and Poland. On the other hand, ratings
are mainly supplied by China, Indonesia, Turkey, Russia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Bulgaria, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and US51. This information is
important for the seafarers who have to compete in the world maritime labour
arena for the next „sign on‟. Competition takes place among countries, as well as
among individuals; for this it is useful to have a picture of the availability (in
terms of numbers-quantity and competencies-quality) of national and foreign
seafarers. It is also vital for the candidate seafarers to be aware of the national
legislation that affects their employment on national-flagged and national-owned
vessels. The safe manning, apart from the minimum number of crew required as

45 UNCTAD (2011), p. 148

46 In terms of total TEU vessel capacity.
47 UNCTAD, op.cit., p. 149
48 A detailed list can be found in UNCTAD, op.cit., p. 45
49 Article in Safety4Sea (2012)
50 Willingale, M. (1998)
51 BIMCO/ISF (2010)
The choice of seafaring profession 23

„skeleton‟ onboard, may set limits on the employment of foreign seafarers (as in
the case of Greece52).
(c) Third party ship management/ crewing companies/ manning agents:
Crewing companies and manning agencies evolved with the development of
third party ship management. The role of these companies in the maritime
labour supply and demand chain is crucial nowadays, both as a link, for the
provision of information and job posts, as well as a wall between the ship owner
and the seafarer. The bond between the employer and the employee has broken
with the operation of this type of mediators53, with several impacts on the job
satisfaction and loyalty of the seafarers. The internationally organised ship
managers sometimes have several hundreds of vessels in their portfolio and are
able to source crew from all over the world as per requirements of their
principals, saving the owner from accounting and administration54. Further, the
role of crewing companies‟ and manning agents‟ in social responsibility and
illegal operation have been questioned55. It is worth noting that the entry to the
seafarers‟ labour market involves a cost incurred by seafarers, ranging from zero
to various fees. For instance, in the case of new labour supply nations of south
and south-east Asia, expenses related to cost of training, certification and
entrance payable to the manning agent have been incurred by seafarers and their
families56.
(d) Legislative framework:
International Conventions, Transnational and National Policies and Joint
Working Agreements comprise the legal framework that affects the working
conditions of a seafarer. The most important are those that have a universal and
mandatory application, i.e. ISM Code, STCW, SOLAS, MARPOL and ISPS. In
addition, Oil Pollution Act (OPA), Tanker Management and Self-Assessment
Guide (TMSA) and many ILO Conventions (ratified by different countries), also
affect the operation of seafaring57. Finally, the most related to seafarer‟s rights is
the – pending to be ratified – Maritime Labour Convention (MLC). The
legislative framework sets the „rules of the game‟ for all stakeholders, and
consequently for seafarers‟ rights and obligations. One should also consider the
image of the shipping industry, the aftermath of marine accidents, where in a
number of cases58 ships' masters and seafarers were detained ashore following

52 Theotokas, I. et al. (2006)

53 Papademetriou, G. et al. (2005)
54 Krüger-Kopiske, op.cit., p. 103
55 Progoulaki, M./Roe, M. (2011)
56 Alderton et al.(2004), p. 78
57 For instance, ILO Convention C108/185 (revised) on Seafarers‟ Identity Documents,
which has only recently been ratified by the Philippines, following a large number of
denials to seafarers‟ shore leave in Brazil and elsewhere.
58 McDonald, R. (2005), p. 5
24 Progoulaki M.

incidents which had occurred on ships on which they served. The so-called
„criminalisation‟ of the seafarer‟s occupation affects the profile of the
profession59 since it creates a fear among seafarers for being blamed for
environmental accidents.

Apart from the aspects of the external environment in the macro-level, specific
to the working and living environment factors, i.e. the ship and the crew, play an
important role in many stages of the seafarer‟s career decision making process.
The seafarer becomes aware of these aspects mainly through experience, while
information obtained by friends, relatives, teachers, the media and other means
are also important. These aspects mainly include:
(e) Characteristics of the ship (size, technology, age, etc.):
While in the past larger ships required a larger crew in order to operate safely,
the last years technologically advanced vessels require less crewmembers. For
instance, the 61,000-tonne Safmarine Chilka by A.P. Moller-Maersk is the first
of a series of so-called WAFMAX (West Africa Maximum) that is expected to
be operated by a total complement of just nine men.60 The size of the crew
affects in many ways the seafarer‟s job satisfaction. Apart from the workload,
crew size has an impact on the social life onboard. Technology of the ship also
may require certain knowledge and skills from the crew, which the seafarer
needs to hold prior embarkation, or at least needs to develop during training on
board. Such is the case of experience in container handling, for instance. Age of
vessel may require extra time and effort for maintenance while sailing, if
possibly in the case of an old ship.
(f) Trip, time spent onboard and ashore, and workload:
With special regard to container shipping, Levinson says that „‟the container
made shipping cheap, and by doing so changed the shape of the world economy.
[…] Merchant mariners, who had shipped out to see the world, had their
traditional days-long shore leave in exotic harbours replaced by a few hours
ashore at a remote parking lot for containers, their vessel ready to weigh anchor
the instant the high-speed cranes finished putting huge metal boxes off and on
the ship‟‟61. In general, due to containerisation, highly advanced vessels and port
facilities, cargo can be loaded and unloaded in shorter time, compared to the
past. This minimizes the available time for visiting the port. Also, other factors,
such as a strict legislative framework with regard to crew‟s shore leave, or even
the size of the vessel and its ability to enter certain ports, have dissolved the
travelling ambition and the dream to visit unknown places. Shipping innovation
means increased separation from traditional ports (where seafarers of past days
might have enjoyed extended shore leave) resulting in further isolation,

59 Progoulaki, M. et al. (2006), p. 901

60 Maersk News (2012)
61 Levinson, M. (2006), p. 2
The choice of seafaring profession 25

confinement and boredom for seafarers62. Duration of trip, directly linked to the
length of the contract of employment, influences job satisfaction among
seafarers. There are cases where seafarers spend more than nine months onboard
(e.g. in the case of Filipino seafarers)63, and others where seafarers share equal
time at sea and ashore, a form known as maritime „job sharing‟ or „one on- one
off (1:1)‟64, thus, achieving a balance and gaining stability of home life and
certainty in the superintending ranks65. Working hours while at sea have been
described as comparable to shore workers with double shifts66, while a wide
range of administrative tasks must be undertaken by crew members, „‟essentially
outside their primary functions of ensuring safe and efficient sailing and the
correct stowage of the cargo‟‟67.
(g) Communication with shore/ family via internet:
„‟As technical capability advances and costs become manageable, shipboard
internet access could change the face of work and leisure at sea and it could
become as indispensable and commonplace afloat as it is ashore‟‟68.
Communications facilities on board are an important factor in deciding whether
to accept employment and join a ship69. The importance of internet access is
highlighted for training purposes, managing one‟s finances, as well as keeping
in touch with family and friends. With special regard to internet, STCW
Convention70 emphasizes on the importance of „‟improving the quality of life at
sea by bringing it more closely in line with the career alternatives available
ashore and by enhancing the facilities provided on board ships, including
accessing the internet‟‟.
(h) Terms of Employment:
Only a minority of seafarers are employed on a permanent indefinite contract
with continuous payment over the whole period. This normally only applies to
officers and ratings from OECD countries on vessels flying a national flag71. For
the majority of seafarers all over the world, the contractual relation between
employer (ship owner/ manager or crewing/ manning agent) and employee ends
upon seafarer‟s signing off. However, the observed shortage of certain ranks of
seafarers has led the shipping companies to the adoption of crew retention
policies through financial and non-financial rewards on a regular basis72. As for

62 Mack, op.cit., p. 264

63 Progoulaki, M. (2008)
64 Mack, op.cit., p. 264
65 OECD (2003), p. 47
66 Mack, op.cit., p. 264
67 Silos, J.M. et al. (2012), p. 857
68 Matthews, S. (2010a), p. 6
69 Matthews, S. (2010b), p. 6
70 STCW (2010), p. 56
71 Krüger-Kopiske, op.cit., p. 105
72 Progoulaki, op.cit.
26 Progoulaki M.

the wages, crew salaries can vary per rank and skills, type and flag of the vessel,
nationality of seafarer and employer‟s crew cost policy. The terms of the
seafarers‟ employment agreements vary (e.g. in the wage levels, probation
periods, etc.), however international bodies (ILO, ITF) set the minimum wage
and some standard terms of employment. Social security also is a matter that is
determined by the national regulations of the country of origin of each seafarer.
(i) Maritime Education and Training:
With the increasing concern for safety, quality and qualification of the seagoing
staff, regular training becomes necessary to keep the whole crew updated.
Access to training facilities ashore varies per country, while the related cost is
often sponsored by the employer. Further, training takes place on-the-job, where
older seafarers train the cadets. Distance learning is promoted by the 2010
amended STCW, along with other e-learning methods.
(j) Exposure to hazards:
Seafarers are among the most isolated demographic working groups in the
world, with limited access to medical care, both in emergency situations as for
primary health care too73. Shipping disasters (from collisions, foundering or
weather conditions, etc.) are nowadays a rare cause for fatalities at sea74.
However, exposure to asbestos and benzene for instance, may develop diseases
many years after exposure. Piracy and incidents of armed robbery against ships
plague shipping nowadays, especially in the coast of East and West Africa, the
Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. Numerous reports of crewmembers
being kidnapped, taken hostage and many more about ships being hijacked raise
a high risk in shipping operation. Ewert75 claims that „‟the global container
shipping services provide a wide variety for illegal activities, such as human
trafficking, smuggling, drug trafficking, stowaways and terroristic operations
targeting containerships in whole or using containers as transport facilities, with
direct and/or indirect impacts on the crew‟‟.
(k) Socio-psychological matters:
Seafaring is associated with special mental, psychosocial and physical stressors
that cannot be compared with jobs ashore76. Social marginality is an
occupationally induced characteristic of the lifestyle of merchant seamen 77.
There are also indications that reduced crew size and quick turnaround ships
operations increase the psychological effects of social isolation. The
combination of high stress and isolation may cause psychosomatic disorders,
including fatigue. The multicultural manning has been accused for high potential

73 Oldenburg, M. et al. (2010), p. 252

74 Bloor, M. (2008)
75 Ewert, K. (2008), p. 80
76 Oldenburg, op.cit., p. 251
77 Forsyth, C.J./Bankston, W.B. (1984), p. 123
The choice of seafaring profession 27

of communication problems and has been identified as a stressor by scientists78.

Living conditions on board, in terms of catering, accommodation and
recreational facilities have an impact to the seafarer‟s satisfaction and thus, his/
her psychosocial condition. Other stress factors involve watch keeping at seaport
clearance and port manoeuvres and other routine activities on the voyage79.
Finally, there are indications that compared to officers with long sea service,
maritime academy students are more vulnerable to work-related stress because
of social isolation, physical onerousness, lack of control and lack of support80.

In terms of personal characteristics of those who decide to go to sea, Schager81

comments that „‟life at sea is demanding and there is no reason whatsoever why
nervous, stress-prone, easily-exhausted, unbalanced, disorganized or anxious
people should receive training for the responsible work on a ship„s bridge. There
are plenty of other jobs in society, […] where personal traits like these are quite
acceptable and where limits and tolerances are broader than at sea. There are
plenty of other interesting and important jobs to choose where misjudgements
and mistakes mostly are without serious consequences.‟‟

1.1.5 Seafarer’s career decision making: process, requirements, potentials

Career decision-making (CDM) should be considered a lifelong process82. In

seeking to explain this process, however, it is useful to think in terms of a series
of choice points83 occurring over time, with each choice influencing each
subsequent choice. As Fig.1 depicts, individuals take career decisions based on a
number of factors, which they experience before and during the course of their
seagoing life. A range of external and internal factors affects the individual in
the various stages of the seafarer‟s career decision-making and career
development. External factors include conditions of the maritime industry as
described earlier, as well as the world and national economy, society, and others.
Internal factors on the other side involve the personality and culture
characteristics of the person, his/ her financial state, as well as information and
influence from friends and relatives. In addition, education, skills, interests play
a role to decision-making process.

78 Oldenburg, op.cit., p. 251 and Rydstedt, L.W./Lundh, M. (2010), p. 173

79 Oldenburg, M. et al. (2009), pp. 98-99.
80 Jezewska, M. et al. (2006), p. 67
81 Schager, B., (unknown date), p. 1
82 Charner, I. (1979a,b), cited in Cassie, J.R.B./Robinson, F.G. (1982), p. 166
83 Myers, R.A. (1971), cited in Cassie, J.R.B./Robinson, F.G. (1982), p. 166
28 Progoulaki M.

The first decision has to do with the selection of Maritime Education and
Training institution, i.e. Maritime Universities/ Marine Academies. „Sandwich
courses‟ are commonly used in this type of vocational training, in order to
combine theoretical foundation with onboard training. A number of students
decide to drop out at this point. The two main reasons for dropping out from
MET studies seem to be disenchantment with the profession after the first
exposure to shipboard practice and difficulties in coping with academic
requirements, while the two main reasons for completing MET but not going on
ships seem to be again disenchantment with the profession and the attractiveness
of good job opportunities ashore which do not require shipboard experience.84
Those that decide to become seafarers need to continue upgrading their
education in combination with sea service. At several points some people drop
out and follow a different career.

Those who decide to develop a career in seafaring invest in sea service and
advanced maritime education and training. Some of them retire as merchant
mariners, while others decide to follow a different career, either in a different
industry or in a shipping-related field; the last contribute to the retention of the
knowledge and skills they hold in the maritime industry. This is a career
decision making process that takes place in several steps, with the constant
influence from both external and internal factors of the person, as well as from
the occupation itself (i.e. working and living on board).

84 METNET, op.cit., p. 45
The choice of seafaring profession 29

DECISION TO GET MARITIME

EDUCATION & TRAINING

EXTERNAL Cadetship & education

FACTORS ALTER
industry, world & CAREER
national economy,
society, legal DECISION TO BECOME A SEAFARER
framework
Working & living
conditions on board ALTER
INTERNAL CAREER
FACTORS
personal DECISION TO DEVELOP
characteristics, CAREER IN SEAFARING
financial state, culture, Working & living conditions on board,
family, interests, Education & Training ALTER
education, skills, CAREER
information
DECISION TO DEVELOP
MARITIME CAREER ASHORE

Education
ALTER
CAREER
PENSION

Fig. 1: Seafaring career decision making process: influential factors and decisions points

Ship officers who began seafaring with the expectation of sailing until
retirement age had a different attitude to their work than many of those who see
seafaring as a short and early period in their professional career85. There are
indications that it is easier for certain ranks, i.e. engine crew members, to find
similar work outside the industry, where their skills are more easily
transferable86. Deck crew on the other hand, typically seek employment within
the cluster and might need first to acquire additional skills and certificates. Some
seafarers report that the prospect of shore-based employment influences
considerations regarding early retirement. “The issue for the majority of
seafarers is not whether to leave the sea but when”87. In Greece for instance,
most seafarers used to stay at sea until retirement, whereas in Denmark most
officers do not88. In the case of Filipino seafarers89, the expected work life span at
sea was 26 years on average; seafarers‟ intention was to give up their sea careers

85 METNET, op.cit., p. 19
86 Mack, op.cit., p. 260
87 Observation by Main, F. cited in METNET, op.cit., p. 11
88 Southampton Solent University, op.cit., p. 148
89 Amante, op.cit., p. 11
30 Progoulaki M.

is on reaching the age of 50. The retention of seafarers on board is a problem

that has existed for more than thirty years90. However, it is crucial for the
industry that the knowledge and skills that seafarers hold to remain in the
industry. In this vein, seafaring should be promoted as a career in the maritime
industry that begins on board and continues ashore91.

Taking into consideration the career potentials of seafarers both at sea and
shore-based positions, seafarers nowadays are expected to hold a variety of
knowledge and skills, with a focus on technical expertise, but also on managerial
skills. The so-called „hard‟ skills92 of the seafarers remain of first priority,
however „soft‟ skills, such as leadership, communication, conflict management,
cultural diversity management, team working, etc. are gaining ground –
especially after the emphasis that amended STCW gives in related training.
Instead of just technical, offshore skills, planned and systematic management
development programmes are required to provide important business and
management competencies, e.g., decision making, interpersonal, leadership,
organizational knowledge, etc.93 In this vein, the required skills and
competencies for the current and future seafarers – including those that wish or
will be employed ashore as managers-employers – involve qualifications of
„STCW+‟94. This is because today, professionals working in the shipping
industry acknowledge the importance and the value of having a general
understanding of the maritime business environment and the environmental
forces that affect the industry, than just a narrow specialized knowledge closely
linked to job responsibilities95. Having this holistic perspective provides the
maritime professionals with the knowledge, and competency to deal effectively
with a variety of problems encountered on board and at the shore-based
maritime operations96.

1.1.6 Epilogue

90 METNET, op.cit., p. 11
91 Ibid., p. 23
92 Leopold, J./Harris, L. (2009), p.401; Houghton, T./Proscio, T. (2002); Gratton, L. et al.
(1999), p. 43
93 Ng, A. et al. (2009), p. 3
94 The term „STCW+‟ refers to higher levels of maritime professional development, and
means that qualifications involve STCW certifications in addition to competence in
leadership, green shipping, safety culture, innovation, work in multicultural settings,
and others (ETF 2011, p. 28).
95 Melbin, J. (1997); Grewal D./Haugstetter, H. (2007)
96 Progoulaki, M. (2010), p. 194
The choice of seafaring profession 31

„‟among my neighbours, who until recently had at one time or another either worked
on the water or married someone who did, […] the answer to why men went to work
on the deep seemed self-evident: what else were they to do? „‟97

Seafaring has been often a choice of a temporary job. However, those who
choose seafaring as a profession, invest time and effort in sea service and
training both onboard and ashore, to develop a career. The analysis shows that
being a merchant mariner is a demanding occupation. By choosing the seafarer‟s
occupation, one chooses a certain lifestyle. Although many experienced working
on board for only a few trips, seafaring is far more than just a job. The special
working and living conditions onboard, the overall lifestyle of the mariner and
the potentials to work ashore are crucial variables in the career selection and
development process. Apart from love for the sea, the important requirements to
go to sea and stay in the profession are the ability to adapt to new environments,
to communicate effectively and to have thirst for knowledge; the last is
extremely important, since learning and regular training are vital in order to
remain up-to-date. Additional to these – among other important- characteristics,
dedication is what makes seafaring a vocation. „‟No step in life, unless it maybe
the choice of a husband or wife, is more important than the choice of a
vocation‟‟98. Career in seafaring should be by choice, not by chance. For this,
career consulting is needed from the early stage of a person‟s career decision
process.
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