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Tesis Doctoral: Diversidad, patrones de uso y valoración socioeconómica de las

palmeras en los bosques neotropicales
Thesis · February 2016
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Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología
Diversidad, patrones de uso y

valoración socioeconómica
de las palmeras
en los bosques neotropicales
Tesis Doctoral:
Narel Yaroslava Paniagua Zambrana
nyaroslava@yahoo.es
Director:
Dr. Manuel J. Macía
Departamento de Biología,
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Madrid, Noviembre 2015

“Si caminas solo irás más rápido,
si caminas acompañado llegarás más lejos”
A Rainer, mi compañero
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RESUMEN
Esta Tesis Doctoral se basa en datos de campo recopilados durante 20 meses en cuatro
países (Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia), tres ecorregiones (Amazonía, Andes y
Chocó), tres grupos humanos (indígenas, mestizos y afroamericanos), 41 etnias
amerindias, 68 comunidades y 2201 informantes entrevistados. La autora de esta
Tesis realizó trabajo de campo en Perú y Bolivia. En el Capítulo 1 se presenta una
introducción general acerca de la importancia del conocimiento tradicional y los
patrones de distribución en sociedades rurales, y se destaca la importancia de las
palmeras como grupo modelo de estudio. A continuación se presentan los objetivos de
cada uno de los capítulos que conforman la Tesis Doctoral. En el Capítulo 2 se
presenta el protocolo estándar utilizado para la toma de datos etnobotánicos de las
palmeras y los factores socioeconómicos de los informantes. En el Capítulo 3 se
analizan los datos recopilados en campo acerca del uso medicinal y veterinario de las
palmeras, con una amplia revisión bibliográfica de los últimos 60 años en el noroeste
de Sudamérica. Los resultados de este estudio muestran que los usos medicinales y las
especies de palmeras más importantes se comparten a escala regional y con ello
cubren las necesidades básicas de salud de la población. En el Capítulo 4 se
analizaron las relaciones entre el conocimiento tradicional a nivel personal y a nivel
de hogar con 14 factores socioeconómicos previamente identificados como
importantes para la población, para evaluar su poder predictivo a escala regional a
nivel de ecoregión, país y grupos humanos. Los resultados muestran que la asociación
del conocimiento tradicional en el uso de las palmeras es muy local. Aunque se
encontró una mayor relación entre las localidades de las tierras bajas (Amazonía y
Chocó) en comparación a las de los Andes, los patrones obtenidos no permiten
realizar generalizaciones o extrapolaciones regionales, incluso dentro una misma
ecoregión. En el Capítulo 5 evaluamos comparativamente los procesos de transmisión
del conocimiento tradicional en el uso de las palmeras a escala de ecoregiones, países
y grupos humanos en 25 localidades del noroeste sudamericano. Analizamos el
conocimiento etnobotánico de las palmeras dividiendo la población en cinco
generaciones de edad e identificamos los usos que son ampliamente compartidos (por
todos los grupos de edad) y los que son únicos (exclusivos de una generación). Los
resultados indican una alta variación en los procesos de transmisión del conocimiento
etnobotánico de las palmeras, principalmente relacionados con las características
socioeconómicas locales. En la mayoría de las localidades, los usos más ampliamente

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compartidos fueron en las categorías de Alimentación humana y Construcción,
mientras que los que fueron mayoritariamente únicos se incluían en Medicinal y
veterinario, Utensilios y herramientas y Cultural. En el Capítulo 6 se analizaron los
factores socioeconómicos que están relacionados con el conocimiento tradicional de
dos especies de palmeras (Euterpe precatoria y E. oleracea) conocidas con el nombre
local de “asai”. Y con notable importancia comercial en comunidades amazónicas de
Perú y Bolivia, y que ambas se conocen con el nombre local de "asaí". Los resultados
de este trabajo indican que el mayor uso de E. precatoria, que es nativa en ambos
países, lo realizan los mestizos debido a que la especie tiene importancia económica
por la venta del palmito y los frutos. Sin embargo, el uso de E. oleracea, que es
introducida en la región por su gran importancia económica con la venta del palmito,
está más homogéneamente distribuido en la sociedad. Finalmente, en el Capítulo 7 se
presentan las principales conclusiones de la Tesis Doctoral.
Palabras clave: Arecaceae, biodiversidad cultural, bosques tropicales, conocimiento

tradicional, conservación, desarrollo sostenible, etnobotánica, indígenas.

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AGRADECIMIENTOS
El camino que ha llevado a tener concluida esta Tesis está construido de cientos de
momentos inolvidables, personas, lugares, encuentros, pensamientos y acciones, todas
ellas conectadas invisiblemente a las miles de palabras escritas en este trabajo. Estoy
profundamente agradecida a todas las personas de una u otra forma me apoyaron,
ayudaron y acompañaron en este camino.
A mi director de tesis, Manuel J. Macía, por su colaboración y apoyo constante en
todas las fases de este trabajo.
Al Dr. Henrik Balslev en el departamento de Ecoinformática y Biodiversidad de la
Universidad de Aarhus en Dinamarca, y a todos los amigos y colegas del equipo del
Proyecto Impacto de la cosecha de palmeras en los bosques tropicales (PALMS) por
la amistad y por todo lo compartido y aprendido en las reuniones y el trabajo de
campo.
Al 7o Programa Marco de la Unión Europea, contrato no 212631 (http://www.fp7-
palms.org), a las becas Russel E. Train Education for Nature Program de la WWF y
Anne S. Chatham del Garden Clubs of America, que financiaron esta investigación.
Al Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, por el respaldo institucional y todo el apoyo
brindado. En especial a la Dra. Mónica Moraes, quien me introdujo al mundo de las
palmeras y ha acompañado mi trabajo con ellas, sin duda me hizo uno de los regalos
más especiales en mi vida. Al Dr. Stephan Beck, con quien casi sin darme cuenta
comencé mis primeros pasos en la etnobotánica, gracias por todo lo que siempre
aprendo contigo! A todos los amigos y colegas con los que he compartido momentos
inolvidables: Rosaisela, Renate, Laura, Geraldine, Serena, Mónica, Rossy, Edgar,
Angélica, Don Carlos, Freddy y los chicos del Madidi, gracias por tanto siempre. A
Luis Marconi, por su invalorable e importante ayuda con la estadística, y a Karina
Apaza por los mapas. En Perú, a la Dra. Betty Millán, Directora del Museo de
Historia Natural por toda su colaboración durante el desarrollo de nuestro trabajo en
Perú. A Cesar Grandez, de la Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana en
Iquitos por su valiosa colaboración en la Amazonía Peruana. A INBIA Perú por
colaborarnos con la obtención de permisos y toda la logística durante el trabajo de
campo en el norte del Perú. Al programa etnobotánico del William L. Brown Center
del Missouri Botanical Garden en St. Louis, por su colaboración para el desarrollo de
nuestro trabajo en el norte peruano, y a todos los colegas del centro en St. Louis por
compartir conmigo su conocimiento y experiencia que aportaron muchas buenas ideas

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a esta tesis. A los dirigentes y a las organizaciones locales tanto en Bolivia como en
Perú por toda su colaboración con los permisos y el apoyo logístico que nos permitió
trabajar con sus comunidades. En Bolivia a Miguel Nuñez Presidente de la Consejo
Educativo del Pueblo Yuracaré (CEPY) y a la Confederación Indígena Yuracaré
(CONIYURA); Alberto Ortiz presidente de la Central Indígena de la Región
Amazónica de Bolivia (CIRABO) y Maro Ortiz Capitán Grande de la TCO Chácobo-
Pacahuara; a la Central Indígena de Pueblos Lecos de Apolo (CIPLA); a la Central
Indígena de los Pueblos Amazónicos de Pando (CIPOAP) y la TCO Yaminahua-
Machineri, y a la Federación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Pando
(FSUTCP). En Perú a Cecilio Yojaje de la Federación Nativa del Río Madre de Dios
y Afluentes (FENAMAD); al Parque Nacional y Reserva Natural Pacaya Samiria; a
Artidoro Tapuyima Teniente-Gobernador de Lamas Wayku; a Juan José Sangama
Apu Comunal de Aviación y a Oscar Paati Antuce presidente de la Organización
Central de las comunidades Aguaruna del río Alto Marañón (OCCAAM).
Entrevistar a mas de dos mil personas no fue una tarea fácil, y no habría sido llevada
adelante sin la colaboración de todas las personas que nos apoyaron en este proceso.
En Bolivia, mi profundo agradecimiento a Erika Blacutt, con quien tras un mismo
propósito recorrimos cientos de kilómetros y cada uno de ellos hizo que muestra
amistad fuera mucho mas fuerte. Gracias a Rodrigo Quiroga y Roosemberg Hurtado.
En Perú, a Carolina Tellez y Carlos Vega, gracias por su compromiso con nuestro
trabajo, su profesionalismo y ahora su amistad. En Colombia y Ecuador, a Juan Carlos
Copete, Marybel Soto, Lina Camelo y Mateo Jaimes que colaboraron a Rodrigo
Cámara en la realización de las entrevistas.
Mi más profundo agradecimiento a cada una de las personas, familias y comunidades
que visitamos en Bolivia y Perú, que nos abrieron las puertas de sus casas, y por
medio de cada detalle que compartieron con nosotros nos permitieron conectarnos con
ese invisible y maravilloso mundo que los rodea. Todos desinteresadamente dedicaron
su valioso tiempo para responder pacientemente cada una de nuestras preguntas,
compartieron todo su conocimiento, y muchos de ellos recorrieron con nosotros los
bosques en busca de las palmeras. Esperamos que este trabajo contribuya y apoye ha
hacer realidad un deseo que ahora también es el nuestro, el conservar su conocimiento
y sus bosques. En especial agradecemos a Gumercindo Pradel que acompañó nuestro
trabajo y nos introdujo en cada una de las familias en las comunidades Yuracaré. A
Pae Chávez, “Don Pae”, que fue nuestra voz y la de los Chácobo durante nuestro

viii
trabajo de campo. A Eladio Chao que acompañó nuestra visita en las comunidades y
los bosques Tacana. A Rodrigo Idabo, Jose Luis Beyuma y Soledad Rotani que nos
acogieron en sus casas y nos guiaron en las comunidades campesinas de Riberalta. A
José Flores e Ida Yamichi que acompañaron nuestra visita a las comunidades Leco de
la región de Apolo y también en la largas caminatas hacia los bosques montanos. En
las comunidades Chanka a Artidoro Tapuyima y Simeon Sangama, por su amistad, su
predisposición y todo su apoyo. A Mateo Biaeja que nos introdujo a la cultura Ese
Eja, fue su traductor y el nuestro, y caminó junto a nosotros en sus bosques. A orillas
del río Amazonas a Esau Rodriguez y su familia por su hospitalidad y colaboración, y
a Olivia López por la maravillosa experiencia cosechando fibra de la chambira. A
Emilio Denkentai, Enrrique Bashian y Nerio Katip por guiar y ser nuestros
traductores en nuestra visita a las comunidades Awajun del río Marañón. A Fernando
Farro por toda su paciencia y colaboración visitando las comunidades en la región de
Inambarí.
A Pedro, Inés y Mariola, hicieron que mi primera estadía en Madrid fuera inolvidable,
gracias por hacer que ese duro invierno fuera tan cálido y divertido. A los amigos de
la Unidad de Botánica de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid: Rut Caparrós, Nagore
García, Rafael Medina, Gabriel Arellano y Belén Estébanez, gracias por los muchos
momentos compartidos (dentro y fuera de la Universidad) y por su apoyo y compañía
durante mis estancias en Madrid.
A mi padres, Fanny y Alberto, mis primeros maestros y guías en la vida, gracias por
todo su amor, por siempre dejarme soñar y darme las alas para volar. A Beto y Cindy,
por haberme regalado las dos maravillosas razones por las que día a día quiero hacer
de éste un mundo mejor: Matías y Santiago, mis Amores Chiquitos. A mi nueva
familia, Karin y Annette, por la maravillosa forma en las que siempre me hacen sentir
su cariño.
A Rainer, mi compañero en la vida y en esta pasión que es la etnobotánica. Por darme
siempre la fuerza para avanzar, por toda su paciencia, por ser la motivación y la
inspiración detrás de cada paso en el camino de esta tesis, y en todos los aspectos de
mi vida. Gracias mi Schatzi por hacer posible el poder compartir contigo todo lo
aprendido y descubierto al finalizar cada uno de los días en el campo, tu compañía
hizo esa etapa más inolvidable aún, y por todo tu profesionalismo y colaboración
durante la redacción de la tesis.
Muchas gracias a todos!

ix

x
ÍNDICE
Resumen v
Agradecimientos vii
Índice xi
Capítulo 1
Introducción general 1
Introducción general 2
La importancia y el valor de conocimiento tradicional 2
Patrones y tendencias observadas en relación al conocimiento tradicional y la
etnobotánica 4
Etnobotánica y los factores socioeconómicos que explican la variación y el
cambio en el conocimiento tradicional 6
Género 7
Edad 8
Etnicidad/Contexto cultural 8
Educación formal 9
Idioma 10
Migración/Lugar de nacimiento 11
Integración en las economías de mercado 11
Accesibilidad a los mercados/Riqueza material 12
Procesos de cambios ecológicos y degradación del hábitat 12
Área de estudio: la región noroeste de Sudamérica 12
Las palmeras como grupo modelo de estudio etnobotánico 15
Datos empleados en la Tesis Doctoral 17
Estructura y objetivos de la Tesis Doctoral 19
Bibliografía 24
Capítulo 2
Toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables socioeconómicas
en comunidades rurales 39
Resumen y palabras clave 40

Introducción 41
Selección de las comunidades de estudio 42
Preparación de materiales de trabajo antes del viaje 44
Planificación del trabajo en las comunidades 44
Llegada a la comunidad 45

xi
Reunión de presentación del proyecto a la comunidad 46
Entrevista con el dirigente local 46
Censo de la comunidad 47
Reunión de planificación y elaboración del
cronograma de trabajo 47
Selección de los informantes 48
Informantes expertos 49
Informantes en general 49
Entrevistas y toma de datos etnobotánicos 51
Consideraciones previas 51
Los tipos de entrevistas 52
Entrevistas estructuradas 52
Entrevistas semiestructuradas 52
Entrevistas informales 54
Devolución de la información a las comunidades 55
Agradecimientos 55
Referencias 55
Anexos 56
Capítulo 3
Patterns of medicinal use of palms across northwestern
South America 69
Abstract and keywords 70

Introduction 71
Materials and Methods 73
Study region 73
Bibliographical search 73
Data collection during fieldwork 74
Data organization 74
Data analysis 76
Results 77
Medicinal palm uses by ecoregion and country 77
Palms in medicinal use subcategories and different
medicinal uses 79
Blood and cardio-vascular system 92
Cultural diseases and disorders 92
Dental health 92
Digestive system 93
Endocrine system 93
General ailments with unspecific symptoms 93
Infections and infestations 94
Metabolic system and nutrition 94

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Muscular-skeletal system 95
Nervous system and mental health 95
Poisoning 95
Pregnancy, birth and puerperium 96
Reproductive system and reproductive health 96
Respiratory system 97
Sensory system 97
Skin and subcutaneous tissue 97
Urinary system 98
Veterinary 98
Other medicinal uses 99
Non specified medicinal uses 99
Medicinal palm uses in different human groups 99
Medicinal palm uses by indigenous groups 104
Outstanding medicinal palm species by ecoregion and countries 104
Discussion 110
Use patterns in relation to ecoregions and countries 110
Subcategories of health disorders treated with palms 112
Medicinal palm uses by different human groups 113
Medicinal palm uses by indigenous groups 114
Outstanding medicinal palm species 114
Conclusions 115
Acknowledgements 116
References 116
Appendices 129
Capítulo 4
The influence of socioeconomic factors on traditional knowledge:
a cross scale comparison of palm use in northwestern
South America 175

Introduction 177
Methods 178
Study region 178
Data collection 179
Data analysis 180
Results 184
Descriptive analysis of socioeconomic variables and
palm-use knowledge 184
Multivariate analysis and palm-use knowledge 185
Palm-use knowledge by use-categories and socioeconomic
factors 191

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Discussion 198
Conclusions 201
References 203
Appendices 207
Capítulo 5
Understanding transmission of traditional knowledge across
northwestern South America: A case study of palms
(Arecaceae) 213

Introduction 215
Methods 217
Study region 217
Data collection 217
Data analysis 218
Results 220
Transmission of TK across age cohorts 220
Transmission of TK across use categories 220
Common TK 226
Unique TK 229
Discussion 230
Patterns of TK transmission across different scales 230
TK transmission across different use domains 233
Conclusions 235
References 236
Appendices 241
Capítulo 6
The socioeconomic context of the use of Euterpe precatoria Mart.
and E. oleracea Mart. in Bolivia and Peru 249

Introduction 251
Methods 255
Data collection 255
Data analysis 256
Results 258
Uses of Euterpe precatoria and E. oleracea in Peruvian and
Bolivian Amazon 258
The significance of socio-economic variables in palm-use
knowledge 262

xiv
Discussion 268
Conclusions 271
References 272
Appendices 277
Capítulo 7
Conclusiones generales 279
Conclusiones generales 280
Apéndice
Devolución de la información etnobotánica a las comunidades 289
Devolución de la información etnobotánica a las comunidades 289

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CAPÍTULO 1
Introducción general
1
INTRODUCCIÓN GENERAL
Durante las últimas décadas, múltiples trabajos realizados en diferentes campos

científicos han destacado los efectos negativos que están produciendo los cambios
socio-económicos globales sobre la biodiversidad (Machlis 1992; Wood et al. 2000).
Y aunque es ampliamente reconocido que la biodiversidad es un recurso esencial del
que dependen tanto familias y comunidades a escala local, como naciones
especialmente las que basan su economía en los recursos naturales a escala global
(Cunningham 2001; Maffi & McNeely 2001), pocas iniciativas de conservación
tienen en cuenta las diversas formas en las que los grupos humanos hacen uso de ella
a distintas escalas (Posey 1999; Gardner et al. 2009; Porter-Bolland et al. 2012).
Como una reacción a este enfoque ha emergido el concepto de diversidad biocultural,
que considera que tanto la diversidad biológica como la diversidad cultural están
intrínsecamente relacionados (Baer 1989). El concepto de diversidad biocultural surge
de la comprensión de que existe una superposición geográfica entre la diversidad
biológica y la diversidad lingüística, esta última como una representación significativa
de la diversidad cultural (Harmon 1996; Posey 1999). En consecuencia, muchos
estudios empíricos que han estudiado la diversidad biocultural a gran escala (i.e.
continental e intercultural) han mostrado cómo la riqueza de especies se relaciona
intrínsecamente con la diversidad lingüística (Harmon 1996; Stepp et al. 2004; Maffi
2005a). Muchas de las zonas de mayor diversidad biológica del planeta están
habitadas y corresponden a lugares con una gran diversidad lingüística (Gorenflo et
al. 2012). Por lo tanto, dado que tanto la diversidad biológica como la cultural varían
a través de las distintas escalas de estudio, su integración es crucial para tener una
compresión global de la diversidad biocultural (UNESCO 2008; Pretty et al. 2009).
La importancia y el valor del conocimiento tradicional
El conocimiento tradicional se ha definido como “el conocimiento, las innovaciones y

las prácticas de las comunidades indígenas y locales relacionadas con los recursos
naturales, que se han desarrollado mediante las experiencias de las comunidades a
través de los siglos, adaptándose a las necesidades, culturas y ambientes locales, y que
son transmitidos de generación en generación” (CDB 2011). Sin embargo, como esta
2
definición existen otras que también han sido aceptadas, aunque no existe un
consenso acerca de todos los aspectos relacionados con el conocimiento tradicional
que deberían ser incluidos en su definición, ya que muchas de sus implicaciones aún
están por examinarse (Zent & Maffi 2009; Davis & Ruddle 2010).
Los esfuerzos para documentar y evaluar el conocimiento tradicional han crecido
exponencialmente en las últimas décadas, estimulados por el incremento en la
percepción acerca de su valor y utilidad (Berkes et al. 2000; Berkes 2007). Este
incremento se ha dado como una consecuencia directa de la evidente y rápida
disminución de la diversidad biológica y cultural a escala global (Krauss 1992;
Harmon 2002; Maffi & McNeely 2001).
Numerosos trabajos han demostrado la importancia y la contribución que tiene el
conocimiento tradicional en áreas como la salud comunitaria (Vandebroek et al. 2004;
2008; Alves & Rosa 2007; McDade et al. 2007; Mignone et al. 2007), la nutrición
(Stepp & Moerman 2001; Vandebroek & Sanca 2006; Reyes-García et al. 2005b;
2008), la educación y el mantenimiento de la herencia cultural (Armstrong et al. 2007;
Kraipeerapun & Thongthew 2007; Vandebroek et al. 2008; Reyes-García et al. 2010;
Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a) y en la conservación y manejo de la biodiversidad (Berkes
et al. 2000; Huntington 2000; Colding & Folke 2001; Shanley & Stockdale 2008). Sin
embargo, los investigadores y muchos grupos sociales, incluidos los propios grupos
humanos (indígenas, afroamericanos, mestizos), han expresado su preocupación
acerca de la desaparición de este conocimiento tradicional a un ritmo alarmante, por
lo que se hacen urgentes medidas proactivas que ayuden a protegerlo y preservarlo
(Benz et al. 2000; Voeks & Leony 2004; Reyes-García et al. 2013; Cámara-Leret et
al. 2014a).
Aunque es posible señalar una serie de leyes y reglamentos promulgados tanto a nivel
internacional, nacional e incluso local que tienen por objetivo preservar, reforzar y
proteger el conocimiento tradicional y sus prácticas (p.e. Declaración de las Naciones
Unidad sobre los derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas (ONU 2007); Convenio de
Diversidad Biológica, Artículos 8(j) y 15 (CBD 1992); Protocolo de Nagoya (SCBD
2011); IPBES (Díaz et al. 2015)), su impacto y eficiencia aún son inciertos (Elvin-
Lewis 2006; UNEP 2011; Soberon & Peterson 2015). En este sentido, el desarrollo de
indicadores del conocimiento tradicional representan uno de los temas mas
recientemente desarrollados en la búsqueda de políticas mas eficientes (Zent & Maffi
3

2009). Estos indicadores tienen por objeto identificar y medir los componentes clave
del conocimiento tradicional y proporcionar así una base clara y sistemática para el
seguimiento de los cambios a lo largo del tiempo (Hammond et al. 1995). Los
indicadores más comunes son los sociales, los económicos y los ambientales, pero los
indicadores culturales solo se han integrado recientemente (Maffi 2005b).
Patrones y tendencias observadas en relación al conocimiento tradicional y la

etnobotánica
Durante las últimas décadas, ha aparecido una creciente tendencia para aplicar
métodos cuantitativos en las investigaciones etnobotánicas (Phillips et al. 1994;
Galeano 2000; Reyes-García 2006a; 2007a; Albuquerque 2009; Albuquerque et al.
2013). La aplicación de técnicas cuantitativas en la etnobotánica y otros campos
relacionados al conocimiento tradicional lo han transformado en un campo de
investigación más riguroso, basado en los principios de la precisión, replicación,
comparabilidad, predicción y deducción (Prance et al. 1987; Begossi 1996; Höft et al.
1999; Albuquerque & Hanazaki 2009). El diseño de las investigaciones utiliza
técnicas replicables de colección de datos (p.e. entrevistas estructuradas aplicadas a
muestras poblacionales) y plantea hipótesis de trabajo y predicciones que permiten
analizar patrones, procesos y mecanismos del uso de las plantas útiles a múltiples
escalas utilizando análisis estadísticos, lo que permite comparar patrones de uso y
manejo de los recursos que son difíciles de estudiar solo con el uso de métodos
descriptivos (p.e. Phillips & Gentry 1993a; 1993b; Phillips 1996; Campos &
Ehringhaus 2003; Macía 2004).
La investigación cuantitativa en la etnobotánica ha permitido obtener información en
las distintas dimensiones del conocimiento tradicional. Inicialmente con un interés
concentrado principalmente en investigar las plantas, los usos o los ecosistemas como
unidades de análisis, solo permitió entender la importancia del ambiente para los
grupos locales (Medin & Atran 1999). Pero en la actualidad, las investigaciones han
comenzado a centrarse en las personas como unidades de análisis, lo que ha
contribuido a un mejor entendimiento de los factores que influyen en el conocimiento
y uso de los recursos naturales a nivel individual, y/o de los beneficios que se pueden
tener a partir de éste (Reyes-García et al. 2007a), y por extrapolación a nivel de

4

comunidades (Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a; 2014c; Paniagua et al. 2014).

La creciente acumulación de investigaciones cuantitativas ha ayudado en la
comprensión del estado actual y las tendencias del conocimiento tradicional a lo largo
de diferentes ámbitos geográficos y en muchas culturas diferentes, permitiendo
obtener entre muchos otros casos, información relacionada a los siguientes aspectos
del campo etnobotánico:
i) la valoración del uso potencial de los recursos, la relación entre la diversidad total
de plantas disponibles y las plantas que la gente usa (Boom 1987; Prance et al. 1987;
Phillips & Gentry 1993a; Duivenvoorden et al. 2001; Sánchez et al. 2005; Thomas et
al. 2008; De la Torre et al. 2009).
ii) la influencia de las características morfológicas, filogenéticas y ecológicas de las
plantas para su uso (Phillips & Gentry 1993b; Ruokolainen & Vormisto 2000;
Lawrence et al. 2005; Byg et al. 2006; Thomas et al. 2009; De la Torre et al. 2009;
Cámara-Leret et al. 2014c).
iii) la frecuencia e intensidad de uso de ciertos recursos (especies y/o familias) y/o
dominios del conocimiento etnobotánico (Macía et al. 2001; Sánchez et al. 2001;
Ladio & Lozada 2004; Reyes-García et al. 2005a; 2005b).
iv) valores de importancia y preferencias de uso (Phillips & Gentry 1993a; 1993b;
Byg & Balslev 2004; Lawrence et al. 2005; Silva et al. 2006; Tardío & Pardo-de-
Santayana 2008).
v) la valoración comercial de los recursos naturales para las comunidades locales y
regionales (Peters et al. 1989; Macía et al. 2005; Sánchez et al. 2005; Reyes-García et
al. 2006b).
vi) la significancia de factores socioeconómicos, culturales y ambientales en relación
al conocimiento etnobotánico, tanto a nivel individual como a nivel de comunidades y
regiones (Phillips & Gentry 1993b; Campos & Ehringhaus 2003; Byg & Balslev
2004; Byg et al. 2007; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007; De la Torre et al. 2009; Godoy
et al. 2009; Zent 2009).
Aunque muchos de estos estudios reflejan un relación específica entre una cultura y
sus recursos naturales, la falta de métodos comunes y protocolos estandarizados de
investigación imposibilita discernir si tales resultados reflejan patrones y/o
comportamientos que son similares o divergentes entre diferentes culturas y a
distintas escalas espaciales de análisis (Albuquerque & Medeiros 2012). Varios

5

estudios basados en revisiones sistemáticas y meta-análisis han sido utilizados para

buscar patrones regionales y/o globales en el uso de las plantas (Moerman et al. 1999;
Molares & Ladio 2009, Sosnowska & Balslev 2009; Macía et al. 2011; De la Torre et
al. 2012; Medeiros et al. 2013). Sin embargo, en muchos de estos casos las
comparaciones se dificultan o incluso se hacen imposibles de realizar debido a la
diversidad de métodos y técnicas empleadas, que además frecuentemente no se
detallan en las publicaciones y por tanto no se pueden replicar (Davis & Wagner
2003; Davis & Ruddle 2010). Evidenciar la existencia de estos patrones puede ser una
herramienta útil en la generación de estrategias para la conservación biocultural a
escalas regionales, sin dejar de considerar las peculiaridades y las características
inherentes a cada una de estas regiones.
Etnobotánica y los factores socioeconómicos que explican la variación y el

cambio en el conocimiento tradicional
Un gran número de estudios han tratado de mostrar cómo los factores sociales,
culturales, económicos, ambientales y geográficos influyen en el conocimiento
tradicional acerca del uso de las plantas (Ladio & Lozada 2001; Campos &
Ehringhaus 2003; Byg & Balslev 2004; Byg et al. 2007; Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2007). El interés en su estudio y entendimiento está relacionado con la importancia
que tiene el conocimiento del uso de los recursos en la selección de las estrategias de
vida de las personas (Reyes-García et al. 2008). Este tipo de conocimiento,
desarrollado por las comunidades locales a través de experiencias de adaptación a su
ambiente, es dinámico y continuamente se está modificando y/o adaptando a las
nuevas condiciones ambientales, culturales, sociales y económicas de los individuos y
las comunidades que habitan (Berkes et al. 2000; Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García
2013). En último término, estos cambios podrían llevar a la pérdida de los sistemas
locales de conocimiento (Benz et al. 2000; Reyes-García et al. 2013), que sería una
tragedia para hacer frente a los cambios futuros.
Un amplio número de factores han sido relacionados con la variación y el cambio
observados en el conocimiento tradicional. Factores como el género, la edad, origen
étnico, lugar de nacimiento, mantenimiento de la lengua y el nivel de educación han
sido registrados como variables importantes a nivel individual (Luoga et al. 2000;

6

Byg & Balslev 2004; Byg et al. 2006; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007; 2014). Por otro
lado, el tamaño de la familia, las actividades relacionadas con la integración a la
economía de mercado (p.e. venta de animales y productos agrícolas), disponibilidad
de trabajo asalariado, o la tenencia de bienes materiales (p.e. tierras, herramientas,
medios de transporte) se han relacionado de manera más directa con factores
socioeconómicos que influyen más directamente al nivel de los hogares (Byg &
Balslev 2004; Reyes-García et al. 2005a). Finalmente, el acceso a centros de
comercio, facilidades de transporte, servicios de salud, educación y servicios básicos
(p.e. agua, luz), así como el mantenimiento de su cultura, los sistemas de tenencia de
la tierra y la historia de asentamiento de los distintos grupos humanos, han tenido una
mayor relevancia a nivel de la comunidad (Scatena et al. 1996; Pichón 1997; Takasaki
et al. 2001; Byg et al. 2007; Vandebroek 2010). A continuación mostramos algunos
de los ejemplos más sobresalientes que han permitido mostrar la influencia de los
factores socioeconómicos sobre el conocimiento etnobotánico actual:
Género - Las diferencias en el conocimiento de hombres y mujeres han sido

relacionadas con la división de tareas de trabajo y los roles familiares y en la
comunidad, que a su vez están vinculados con el contexto cultural, social y
económico en el que las personas se desarrollan (Ohmagari & Berkes 1997; Hanazaki
et al. 2000; Stagegaard et al. 2002; Byg & Balslev 2004; Pfeiffer & Butz 2005;
McDade et al. 2007). Por ejemplo, varios estudios han mostrado que los hombres
tienen un mayor conocimiento etnobotánico general y en diferentes categorías de uso,
debido a su participación en actividades como la caza y pesca, apertura y limpieza de
campos de cultivo, recolección de material en el bosque, construcción de casas y
fabricación de herramientas y utensilios, entre otras (Styger et al. 1999; Luoga et al.
2000; Byg & Balslev 2004). Al mismo tiempo, otros trabajos comparativos han
mostrado que las mujeres (especialmente las de mayor edad) poseen un mayor
conocimiento acerca del uso medicinal y alimentario de las plantas, debido a su
responsabilidad familiar en el cuidado y salud de los niños (Kainer & Duryea 1992;
Figueiredo et al. 1993; Hanazaki et al. 2000; Lozada et al. 2006), o porque
culturalmente suelen ser las depositarias clave de este tipo conocimiento y de su
transmisión a las nuevas generaciones (Begossi et al. 2002; Voeks & Leony 2004). En
otros casos está más relacionado a que las mujeres están más familiarizadas con los

7

ambientes más próximos a las comunidades, en los que cultivan distinto tipo de
plantas (jardines, huertos o chacras, e incluso en los barbechos) a diferencia de los
hombres que conocen mejor las áreas de bosque maduro más alejadas de las
comunidades (Caniago & Siebert 1998) y suelen tener mayor influencia del exterior
(Ross & Medin 2005).
Edad - La edad es la variable social más común utilizada para evaluar el cambio
diacrónico o la continuidad en el conocimiento tradicional. Habitualmente, los
procesos de transmisión de conocimiento se han asociado directamente con la
acumulación de conocimiento a medida que las personas se hacen mayores y
requieren cubrir sus necesidades de subsistencia (Phillips & Gentry 1993b; Lamont et
al. 1999; Zarger 2002; Byg & Balslev 2004; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2007; Godoy
et al. 2009; Luziatelli et al. 2010). Sin embargo, algunos autores asocian la existencia
de diferencias en el conocimiento de los diferentes dominios etnobotánicos entre las
diferentes generaciones con la pérdida de conocimiento (Figueiredo et al. 1993;
Hanazaki et al. 2000; Lizarralde 2001; Heckler 2002; Voeks & Leony 2004), la
aculturación de los distintos grupos humanos (Benz et al. 2000; Zent 2001;
Albuquerque et al. 2011) o la modernización (Figueiredo et al. 1997; Almeida et al.
2012). La edad por sí sola, no explica el por qué del cambio en el conocimiento
tradicional, por lo que con frecuencia se ha analizado su relevancia en combinación
con variables sociales, económicas y ambientales (p.e. Byg & Balslev 2004; Lozada
et al. 2006; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007; Hanazaki et al. 2013).
Etnicidad / Contexto cultural - Numerosos estudios han documentado la diferencia

en el conocimiento y uso tradicional de las plantas entre grupos indígenas y no
indígenas (p.e. mestizos, afroamericanos o colonos) viviendo en una misma área.
Algunas conclusiones más relevantes se relacionan con que los primeros tendrían los
niveles más altos de conocimiento tradicional y que los patrones de distribución de las
distintas categorías etnobotánicas son un reflejo de la conservación de sus tradiciones
y de su tradicional conocimiento y uso del bosque (Benz et al. 2000; Ladio 2001;
Campos & Ehringhaus 2003; Byg & Balslev 2004; Byg et al. 2007; de la Torre et al.
2009; Balslev et al. 2010). Sin embargo, un creciente número de estudios han
enfatizado la importancia de estudios etnobotánicos con distintas poblaciones de

8

mestizos (Benz et al. 1994; Begossi 1996; Jovel et al. 1996; Figueiredo et al. 1997),
encontrando que los mestizos pueden depender de los recursos locales tanto como las
comunidades indígenas (Hanazaki et al. 2000; Begossi et al. 2002). En la región
amazónica, los mestizos poseen niveles de conocimiento tradicional muy altos, como
resultado de su gran movilidad e interacción con otros grupos humanos, indígenas y
no indígenas, y además en algunos casos, por su larga permanencia en las áreas que
habitan (Hanazaki et al. 2000; Jovel et al. 1996; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007;
Souto & Ticking 2012).
Educación formal - La adquisición de educación escolarizada ha sido relacionada con

la adquisición de conocimiento tradicional, aunque su efecto no es uniforme. Varios
estudios han documentado el efecto negativo de la adquisición de una educación
formal en la tenencia de conocimiento tradicional (Grigorenko et al. 2004; Voeks &
Leony 2004; Rocha 2005). Este efecto ha sido relacionado con el hecho de que la
adquisición de una educación formal frecuentemente aleja a los niños de su ambiente
físico y cultural natural donde han crecido, cambiando su orientación hacia métodos
formales de aprender, limitando la oportunidad de aprender y participar en las
actividades tradicionales y de subsistencia junto a sus padres (Sillitoe 1988; Luoga et
al. 2000; Zarger 2002; Ladio & Lozada 2004; McDade et al. 2007). Los sistemas de
educación que se aplican en varias comunidades locales limitan el uso de los idiomas
nativos (Ohmagari & Berkes 1997; Benz et al. 2000; Luoga et al. 2000) y
conjuntamente con procesos de emigración hacia centros urbanos para completar su
educación, interrumpen el flujo del conocimiento tradicional, que se transmite
principalmente de forma oral (Sillitoe 1988) y en la mayoría de los casos requiere del
aprendizaje in situ (Byg & Balslev 2004). Sin embargo, existen también otros
estudios en los que se registra que un alto grado de educación de las personas motiva
el aprendizaje acerca de su medio ambiente y recursos naturales, lo que ayuda a
generar una conciencia ambiental y al uso de prácticas sostenibles en el uso de los
recursos, ya que las personas interactúan e intercambian conocimiento con otros
miembros de su comunidad y con ello se genera una mayor valoración cultural
(Godoy 1994; Godoy & Contreras 2001; Heckler 2002;Paniagua Zambrana et al.
2007; Reyes-García et al. 2007b). Otros estudios por el contrario, no han mostrado
ninguna correlación entre adquisición de educación y tenencia de conocimiento

9

tradicional (Godoy et al. 1998; Guest 2002). Si bien estos resultados divergentes
pueden simplemente ser el reflejo de diferentes realidades locales, es importante
reconocer que la educación interactúa con otras variables de cambio social, como el
lugar de residencia en relación al del lugar de nacimiento, la adquisición de
alfabetización, la fluidez del lenguaje materno y de otro idioma adquirido (como el
caso del español en el noroeste de América del Sur), la ocupación del territorio por
diversos grupos humanos, empresas o circunstancias diversas, el contacto con los
forasteros y experiencias personales o profesionales, entre mucha otras, deben tenerse
en cuenta para obtener una mejor comprensión de cómo y dónde la educación ha
influido en la transmisión del conocimiento tradicional.
Idioma – El uso de la lengua local tiene una importancia crucial en la preservación

del conocimiento tradicional y la cultura de los pueblos, debido a la significancia del
léxico local en la denominación de las plantas, sus usos y los ecosistemas (Crystal
2000; Nettle & Romaine 2000). Sin embargo, pese a su gran importancia pocos
trabajos han documentado el impacto del cambio lingüístico en el conocimiento
tradicional desde una perspectiva cuantitativa. Algunos trabajos demostraron que el
conocimiento sobre el uso de las plantas es más diverso y ampliamente compartido
entre grupos que hablan la lengua indígena que entre los mestizos que hablan español
(Benz et al. 2000). Asimismo, otros estudios encontraron que la fluidez en el idioma
nacional (i.e. español) se correlacionó negativamente con el conocimiento
etnobotánico entre grupos indígenas (Zent 2001; Reyes-García et al. 2005a), aunque
en contraste también se han reportado casos en los que el bilingüismo está relacionado
con un mayor conocimiento, un patrón que ha sido relacionado con los estados en el
proceso del aprendizaje. Durante los primeros años de vida, el aprendizaje está
frecuentemente vinculado al lenguaje local de la comunidad. A medida que los niños
crecen, el aprendizaje tiene más influencia de la educación formal (en la escuela), la
que frecuentemente limita el uso del lenguaje nativo. Desde la adolescencia hacia la
etapa adulta, el aprendizaje involucra la adquisición de experiencias prácticas que son
necesarias para el establecimiento de su nueva familia (Ohmagari & Berkes 1997;
Hunn 2002; Reyes-García et al. 2007b). En todas estas etapas, el lenguaje proporciona
a las personas el mecanismo para la socialización y la transferencia de conocimiento,
10

ya sea intergeneracional o intercultural, permitiéndoles de esta manera la adquisición

de un conocimiento que proviene de distintas fuentes.
Migración / Lugar de nacimiento - A menudo se ha considerado que las poblaciones

inmigrantes tienen un conocimiento menos detallado, preciso y adaptativo del lugar
donde viven que los grupos residentes por largo tiempo en las mismas áreas. Aunque
esta hipótesis ha sido aceptada por varios estudios (Atran & Medin 1997; Atran 2001;
Atran et al. 2002), se ha demostrado también que la colonización de nuevos ambientes
y el tiempo de residencia en determinados lugares, permite a los inmigrantes adecuar
y crear nuevas técnicas y conocimientos, que a su vez les permite realizar un mejor
aprovechamiento de los recursos de su medio (Pichón 1997; Atran et al. 2002).
Algunos estudios han mostrado que los colonos pueden tener un conocimiento de
plantas útiles similar al de los grupos indígenas que ocupan las mismas ecorregiones
(Pinedo-Vásquez et al. 1990; Phillips et al. 1994; Galeano 2000; Lawrence et al.
2005; Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007), e incluso en un estudio en Brasil se ha
registrado que un porcentaje considerable del conocimiento etnobotánico reportado
por los indígenas ha sido adquirido a través de su contacto con los colonos (Campos
& Ehringhaus 2003). Por lo tanto, la acumulación del conocimiento adquirido a lo
largo de la vida de las personas, así como su modificación y re-evaluación, se basa en
sus experiencias pasadas y presentes, lo que influencia el uso de los recursos en un
nuevo ambiente (Scatena et al. 1996; Zarger 2002). Sin embargo, esta capacidad de
aprender/crear nuevo conocimiento está condicionada también por los patrones de
organización social de las comunidades y el grado y nivel de comunicación que
tengan con los grupos locales (Atran & Medin 1997; Atran et al. 2002).
Integración en las economías de mercado - El grado de acceso a los mercados, las

carreteras y vías de comunicación y el acceso a bienes y servicios modernos han sido
reportados como factores importantes que han influido significativamente en el
conocimiento tradicional y el uso de los recursos naturales. Varios estudios han
analizado si tendría un impacto negativo en el conocimiento tradicional la transición
desde una economía basada en la subsistencia hacia una economía de mercado
(Godoy 2001; Vadez et al. 2004; Godoy et al. 2005, Reyes-García et al. 2005a). Los
resultados más importantes obtenidos indican que la integración en los mercados

11

externos conduce solamente a una extracción de recursos especializada en ciertos

productos y a la homogeneización en las actividades agrícolas, mediante la sustitución
de productos locales por productos importados de afuera, originando una mayor
heterogeneidad socioeconómica y socavando la existencia de conocimientos
tradicionales comunes. Sin embargo, contrariamente a estos resultados, otros autores
encontraron que las diferentes actividades por las que las poblaciones locales se
vinculan al mercado, están asociadas con la conservación de su conocimiento
tradicional (Godoy et al. 1998). Por ejemplo, la venta de productos agrícolas o un
trabajo asalariado se han asociado con un menor grado de conocimiento acerca de sus
recursos locales, pero la integración en el mercado a través de la venta de productos
forestales maderables y no maderables se asoció con un conocimiento mayor de la
vida silvestre.
Accesibilidad a los mercados / Riqueza material - La mayor distancia a los mercados

ha sido un factor relacionado positivamente con la posesión de un mayor
conocimiento tradicional (Benz et al. 2000; Byg & Balslev 2004). Sin embargo, su
efecto se puede atenuar cuando se consideran otros factores que también pueden
influir en el acceso a los mercados (p.e. ingresos en efectivo y la posesión de recursos
materiales) (Reyes-García et al. 2005a). La posesión de riqueza material es
obviamente el factor más influyente en las decisiones tomadas para cambiar el
modelo tradicional económico y realizar inversiones en prácticas agrícolas extensivas,
crianza y venta de animales domésticos, adquisición de herramientas y medios de
transporte, y con ello poder disponer de trabajadores asalariados y acceso a créditos
que han influido en el desinterés por el conocimiento y uso tradicional de los recursos
naturales en función de moverse por un modelo más rentable y productivo (Barham et
al.1999; Godoy et al. 2000; Byg & Balslev 2004; Takasaki et al. 2001). Sin embargo,
existen casos en los que los diferentes patrones de riqueza material no necesariamente
generan diferentes patrones de uso, lo que se ha relacionado con las percepciones de
lo que las personas consideran “una buena vida”, integrando la preservación de sus
valores culturales, su identidad sociocultural y su historia (Scatena et al. 1996;
Coomes & Barham 1997; Coomes & Burt 2001). Otros estudios han analizado el
impacto del acceso a los mercados sobre la percepción del valor de la biodiversidad
para los grupos locales. Por ejemplo, en comunidades donde se comercializan

12

productos forestales maderables y no maderables, se ha observado que el mercado

ejerce una influencia significativa en la valoración de importancia de estas especies:
las especies con un alto valor comercial en el mercado se consideran también las más
importantes para las poblaciones locales (Pinedo-Vásquez et al. 1990; Shanley &
Rosa 2004; Lawrence et al. 2005). Al igual que en los ejemplos anteriores, estas
percepciones de valor pueden ser diferentes de acuerdo a la forma en la que las
personas se vinculan con el mercado (i.e. el tipo de productos que comercializan) y a
su origen cultural (mestizos vs. indígenas locales) (Shanley & Rosa 2004; Lawrence
et al. 2005).
Procesos de cambios ecológicos y degradación del hábitat - La pérdida de los

hábitats naturales y la extinción local de las especies debido a las actividades humanas
se han identificado como una causa importante en la variación y cambio del
conocimiento tradicional (De la Torre et al. 2012; Hanazaki et al. 2013). El grado de
deforestación y su proximidad a las comunidades de estudio se ha relacionado
negativamente con la importancia cultural de las plantas y su uso, atribuyendo en
algunos casos la desaparición del conocimiento a la desaparición de las especies
(Shanley & Rosa 2004; Rocha Silva & Cavalcante Andrade 2006). Otros estudios
recientes, han asociado estos cambios ambientales (especies y hábitats) con
diferencias observadas en el conocimiento inter-generacional (Dallimer et al. 2009;
Hanazaki & Gerhardinger 2010), lo que podría afectar a la composición y abundancia
de las especies útiles conocidas entre una generación y otra (Hanazaki et al. 2013).
Los cambios ambientales que se dan a lo largo del tiempo podrían causar cambios en
la percepción de las personas acerca de sus recursos, llegando incluso a percibirse
entre las diferentes generaciones (Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García 2013).
ÁREA DE ESTUDIO: LA REGIÓN NOROESTE DE SUDAMÉRICA
El área de estudio de esta Tesis Doctoral comprende los bosques del noroeste de
Sudamérica, en Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia. Incluye a (i) los bosques
húmedos de la cuenca de la Amazonía al este de los Andes por debajo de los 1000 m
de altitud (Renner et al. 1990; Jørgensen & León-Yánez 1999); (ii) los bosques
húmedos montanos de ambas vertientes en los Andes por encima de los 1000 m de

13

altitud (Beck et al. 1993); y (iii) los bosques húmedos de las tierras bajas del Pacífico
de Colombia y el norte de Ecuador por debajo de los 1000 m de altitud (Macía et al.
2011) (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1: Grupos étnicos estudiados en los cuatro países del noroeste sudamericano
donde se recopiló 1) información etnobotánica de palmeras en campo (Rojo); 2)
información etnobotánica en la bibliografía (Blanco) y 3) información tanto de
bibliografía como de campo (Azul).
14

Estos ecosistemas han proporcionado a los habitantes locales, indígenas, mestizos y

afroamericanos, una amplia diversidad de recursos, que van desde productos extraídos
de las plantas como fuente de alimento, materiales de construcción, fabricación de
utensilios y herramientas y medicina, hasta cientos de animales que son fuente de
proteínas, que ocasionalmente les generan ingresos económicos directos por la venta
de productos, pero que al mismo tiempo les ofrece valores culturales, estéticos y
éticos que son clave para el desarrollo de sus culturas (Ehrlich & Ehrlich 1992). La
forma en la que estos grupos humanos conocen y ha hecho uso de sus recursos es el
reflejo de su historia, su cultura y su continua relación con el bosque. El impacto del
manejo tradicional de los recursos no es muy obvio, pero cada vez resulta más
evidente que la composición de los bosques, incluso los aparentemente “vírgenes”,
han sido influenciados por las actividades humanas anteriores (Willis et al. 2004;
Clement et al. 2015).
LAS PALMERAS COMO GRUPO MODELO DE ESTUDIO

ETNOBOTÁNICO
La importancia etnobotánica de las palmeras (Arecaceae) en comparación con otras

familias de plantas ha sido ampliamente documentada en los bosques neotropicales
(e.g. Wallace 1853; Balick 1984; Prance et al. 1987; Kahn & Moussa 1994;
Borchsenius & Moraes 2006; Galeano & Bernal 2010; Moraes 2014). En estas
regiones su importancia cultural y económica es evidente tanto en las comunidades
rurales indígenas y no indígenas, como en las ciudades (e.g. Schultes 1974; Bates
1988; Kahn & Mejía 1988; Bernal 1992; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev 1992; Paniagua
Zambrana et al. 2007; Balslev et al. 2008; Brokamp et al. 2011).
Numerosos estudios han destacado su importancia clave para cubrir las necesidades
de subsistencia de las poblaciones locales (Morcote-Ríos et al. 1998; Coomes & Burt
2001; Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Byg & Balslev 2004; Macía 2004; Sosnowska
2012). En el noroeste de Sudamérica, las palmeras proveen cientos de recursos en
todo el espectro posible de utilidades (e.g. Alexiades 1999; Paniagua Zambrana et al.
2007; Sosnowska & Balslev 2009; Macía et al. 2011). Muchas de estas especies y la
materia prima que proporcionan se usan localmente por los diferentes grupos
humanos, pero además son fuente de ingresos económicos cuando se comercializan

15

(Hecht et al. 1988; Borgtoft Pedersen & Balslev 1992; Flores & Ashton 2000; Balslev
et al. 2010). Algunos productos son comercializados a escalas más amplia y han
alcanzando importancia regional e incluso nacional (Bernal et al. 2011; Brokamp et
al. 2011).
Su gran importancia etnobotánica está estrechamente relacionada con sus
características ecológicas. Las palmeras son conspicuas y abundantes en los diferentes
tipos de bosque del noroeste sudamericano (Henderson et al. 1995; Pitman et al. 2001;
Macía & Svenning 2005; Pintaud et al. 2008; Balslev et al. 2011; ter Steege et al.
2013) y están distribuidas en todos los estratos del bosque y tipos de suelos (Kahn
1986; Kahn & de Granville 1992; Vormisto 2002; Balslev et al. 2011). En
Sudamérica se han registrado 457 especies de palmeras, y solo entre los cuatro países
estudiados son 336 (Balslev et al. 2014), de las que aproximadamente un 58% de las
especies se usan (Macía et al. 2011). Latitudinalmente se tienen el mayor número de
especies y endemismos en Colombia (246 especies, 13% endémicas), seguida de Perú
(148, 16.2%), Ecuador (141, 10.6%), y Bolivia (86, 5.8%). La Amazonía es la
ecorregión más diversa con el 48% de las especies y la que también tiene los más
altos reportes de uso (90% de las especies); mientras que en los Andes con el 39% de
las especies y el Chocó con el 35.4%, los reportes de uso son menores aunque
similares (53% y 49% de las especies respectivamente) (Balslev et al. 2014; Macía et
al. 2011). Algunas especies tienen una enorme importancia debido a su amplio
número de usos. Cinco especies de palmeras han sido identificadas como las mas
importantes para la población local en las tres ecorregiones: Bactris gasipaes, Iriartea
deltoidea, Oenocarpus bataua, O. mapora y Socratea exorrhiza (Macía et al. 2011).
La actual deforestación y fragmentación de los hábitats reduce las poblaciones y los
rangos de distribución de muchas especies de palmeras (de la Torre et al. 2009;
Balslev 2011). Estos cambios en la diversidad y abundancia de las palmeras podrían
afectar la disponibilidad de los numerosos recursos que proveen para muchas
poblaciones locales, con importantes implicaciones socioeconómicas que podrían
afectar a la planificación del uso de la tierra y la conservación se sus recursos (Balslev
2011).
16

DATOS EMPLEADOS EN LA TESIS DOCTORAL
Esta Tesis Doctoral fue realizada en el marco del proyecto PALMS “Impacto de la
cosecha de palmeras en los bosques tropicales” (www.fp7-palms.org), y como parte
del grupo del grupo de trabajo 3 (WP3) “Productos que ofrecen las palmeras a las
poblaciones locales” coordinado por el Dr. Manuel J. Macía. Los datos etnobotánicos
de campo fueron recopilados entre marzo del 2010 y diciembre del 2011, por dos
estudiantes de doctorado de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid que formaron parte
del mencionado grupo de trabajo. Ambos estudiantes registraron la información
etnobotánica de forma independiente y coordinada utilizando una misma metodología
de trabajo (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2010; Cámara-Leret et al. 2012). Narel Paniagua
Zambrana realizó entrevistas en la Amazonía y Andes de Perú y Bolivia, y Rodrigo
Cámara Leret en la Amazonía, Andes y Chocó de Colombia y Ecuador. La
información bibliográfica acerca de los usos medicinales de las palmeras en los cuatro
países, utilizada para el desarrollo de uno de los capítulos, fue recopilada por Pedro
Armesilla durante 12 meses entre el 2009-2010, y complementada una vez finalizado
el trabajo de campo en el 2012.
En total se realizaron 2201 entrevistas en 68 comunidades indígenas, mestizas y
afroamericanas, y en 41 etnias indígenas diferentes (Tabla 1.1). Narel Paniagua
Zambrana realizó 1193 entrevistas, en 41 comunidades indígenas y mestizas,
incluyendo 16 etnias indígenas diferentes (Fig. 1.2 y 1.3). Todos los datos de campo
obtenidos en los cuatro países se fusionaron en una única base de datos general para
su análisis posterior. Para este propósito se utilizó la definición de uso propuesta por
Macía et al. (2011), que lo define como un uso asociado a una determinada especie,
una categoría y una subcategoría de uso, para una parte específica de la palmera. La
clasificación de los datos etnobotánicos en categorías y subcategorías de uso siguió la
propuesta de Macía et al. (2011), basada en una modificación a la clasificación
propuesta por Cook (1995), y que fue adaptada a las regiones tropicales. En total se
registraron 140 especies de palmeras útiles, 2262 usos diferentes y 87.886 registros de
uso, que son los usos individuales mencionados por un informante (Tabla 1.2).
17

Tabla 1.1: Lista de las 68 comunidades, distribuidas por país y ecorregión, donde
2201 personas fueron entrevistadas en el noroeste de Sudamérica.
País Ecorregión Comunidad Grupo humano / Etnia No.

Colombia Amazonía Angostura Indígenas mixtos entrevistas
16
Camaritagua Indígenas mixtos 10
Curare Indígenas mixtos 19
Loma Linda Indígenas mixtos 8
Los Ingleses Indígenas mixtos 5
Yucuna Indígenas mixtos 19
Centro Providencia Indígena / Makuna 33
San Francisco Indígena / Miraña 7
San Martin de Amacayacu Indígena / Tikuna 88
Andes Sibundoy Indígena / Camsá 82
Juisanoy Indígena / Camsá-Inga 11
Santiago Indígena / Inga 76
Chocó Aguacate Indígena / Emberá 44
Villanueva Indígena / Emberá 44
Puerto Pervel Afrocolombiano 86
Ecuador Amazonía Kapawi Indígena / Achuar 34
Kusutkau Indígena / Achuar 10
Wayusentsa Indígena / Achuar 21
Dureno Indígena / Cofán 55
Pacuya Indígena / Cofán 13
Zábalo Indígena / Cofán 14
Andes Mindo Mestizo 87
Nanegalito Mestizo 86
Chocó Chigüilpe Indígena / Tsa'chila 33
El Poste Indígena / Tsa'chila 2
Peripa Indígena / Tsa'chila 17
Puerto Quito Mestizo 88
Perú Amazonía Cusu Chico Indígena / Aguaruna 13
Nueva Samaria Indígena / Aguaruna 20
Yamayakat Indígena / Aguaruna 36
Palma Real Indígena / Ese Eja 89
San Martin Indígena / Cocama-Mestizo 87
Nuevo Progreso Mestizo- Indígena / Urarina 21
Villa Santiago Mestizo- Indígena / Amakaeri 40
El Chino Mestizo 79
San Juan Mestizo 4
Santa Ana Mestizo 89
Santa Rosa Mestizo 24
Santo Domingo Mestizo 7
Union Progreso Mestizo 14
Andes Aviacion Indígena / Chanka 22
Lamas Wayku Indígena / Chanka 68
18

Tabla 1.1: continuación
País Ecorregión Comunidad Grupo humano / Etnia No.

Bolivia Amazonía Alto Ivon Indígena / Chácobo entrevistas
56
Motacuzal Indígena / Chácobo 24
Tokyo Indígena / Chácobo 7
Puerto Tujure Indígena / Pacahuara 1
San Silvestre Indígena / Tacana 29
Sta. Rosa de Maravilla Indígena / Tacana 12
Puerto Yaminahua Indígena / Yaminahua 18
Nuevo San Juan del Isiboro Indígena / Yuracaré 6
San Antonio Indígena / Yuracaré 14
San Benito Indígena / Yuracaré 17
Sanandita Indígena / Yuracaré 13
Secejsama Indígena / Yuracaré 16
Buena Vista Indígena / Tacana-Mestizo 36
San Isidro Indígena / Tacana-Leco 18
25 de Mayo Mestizo 23
26 de Octubre Mestizo 38
Alto Satariapo Mestizo 9
El Hondo Mestizo 9
Santa María Mestizo 41
Tres Arroyos Mestizo 15
Andes Illipanayuyo Indígena / Leco 24
Irimo Indígena / Leco 50
Munaypata Indígena / Leco 18
Pucasucho Indígena / Leco 21
Santo Domingo Indígena / Leco 33
Correo Indígena / Leco-Mestizo 32
ESTRUCTURA Y OBJETIVOS DE LA TESIS DOCTORAL
Esta Tesis Doctoral es un compendio de manuscritos, escritos en formato de artículos,

de los cuales tres están publicados, uno está en revisión en una revista internacional y
uno es un manuscrito pendiente de enviarse a una revista internacional. Debido a esta
estructura, se encontrarán algunas reiteraciones en los capítulos, referente a la zona de
estudio y los métodos.
19

Capítulo 1: Introducción general a la Tesis Doctoral
Capítulo 2: Protocolo para la toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables

socioeconómicas en comunidades rurales. Se presenta el protocolo desarrollado para
la recopilación de información etnobotánica del uso de las palmeras e información
socioeconómica de los informantes que habitan los bosques húmedos de Colombia,
Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia. Se describen cronológicamente y detalladamente todos los
pasos a seguir desde la planificación del trabajo y la selección de informantes, hasta el
desarrollo de las entrevistas. Se presentan los formularios y todo el detalle de la
información que será recopilada en las entrevistas realizadas. Con la presentación de
toda esta información se pretende que este protocolo pueda ser aplicado en futuras
investigaciones en las regiones tropicales, permitiendo generar información
comparativa a mayores escalas. Este capítulo ha sido publicado como un artículo
científico: Paniagua-Zambrana, N., M. J. Macía & R. Cámara-Leret. 2010. Protocolo
para la toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables socioeconómicas en
comunidades rurales. Ecología en Bolivia 45(3): 44-68.
Tabla 1.2: Distribución del número de especies de palmeras útiles, número de usos
etnobotánicos y registros de uso recopilados durante el trabajo de campo desglosado
por países y ecorregiones.
No. especies No. No. registros No. No.
País Ecorregión
útiles usos de uso informantes comunidades
Todos Total 140 2262 87.886 2201 68

Amazonía 102 1664 62.749 1277 48
Andes 47 507 13.488 610 13
Chocó 49 550 11.649 314 7
Colombia Total 100 1353 25.879 548 15
Amazonía 67 990 16.070 205 9
Andes 21 121 1.959 169 3
Chocó 44 411 7.850 174 3
Ecuador Total 68 572 14.654 460 12
Amazonía 47 331 8.622 147 6
Andes 18 119 2.233 173 2
Chocó 26 237 3.799 140 4
Perú Total 61 717 28.329 613 15
Amazonía 57 625 24.236 523 13
Andes 28 237 4.093 90 2
Bolivia Total 40 453 19.024 580 26
Amazonía 36 372 13.821 402 20
Andes 16 167 5.203 178 6
20

Figura 1.2: Algunas de las comunidades donde se realizaron las entrevistas

etnobotánicas: Perú: A: Nuevo Progreso (Río Chambira, Loreto); B: San Martín de
Tipishca (Río Samiria, Loreto); C: Yamatakat (Río Alto Marañón, Amazonas); D:
Lamas Wayku (San Martín); E: Santa Rosa (Inambarí, Madre de Dios); F: Palma Real
(Madre de Dios): Bolivia: G: Tres Arroyos (Pando); H: Alto Ivón (Beni); I: San
Antonio (Chapare); J: Irimo (Apolo, Larecaja). (Fotografías: N. Paniagua-Zambrana,
R.W. Bussmann).
21

Figura 1.3: Algunas de las personas y los diferentes grupos humanos a los que
pertenecen: Perú: A-D: Mestizos (Río Tahuayo, Loreto); E-F: Awajun (Río Alto
Marañón, Amazonas); G-H: Chanka (San Martín); I-J: Ese Eja (Río Madre de Dios);
Bolivia: K-L: Mestizos (Riberalta, Beni); M: Chácobo N-O: Yuracaré (Chapare); P:
Pacahuara (Beni); Q-S: Leco (Apolo, Larecaja). (Fotografías: N. Paniagua-Zambrana,
R.W. Bussmann).

22

Capítulo 3: Patterns of medicinal use of palms across northwestern South America.

Realizamos una revisión exhaustiva de la información etnobotánica acerca del uso
medicinal de las palmeras publicada en los últimos 60 años en el noroeste de
Sudamérica (n=129) y la complementamos con un extensivo trabajo de campo
realizado entre 2010 y 2011 (n=1956 entrevistas). Se analizan los datos a nivel de
ecorregión, país y grupos humanos para el conjunto de los datos. Este capítulo está
aceptado para publicación como un artículo científico: Paniagua-Zambrana, N., R.
Cámara-Leret & M. J. Macía. In Press, 2015. Patterns of medicinal use of palms
across northwestern South America. Botanical Review 81(2). DOI 10.1007/s12229-
015-9155-5.
Capítulo 4: The influence of socioeconomic factors on traditional knowledge: a cross

scale comparison of palm use in northwestern South America. En este capítulo
analizamos la influencia de las variables socioeconómicas sobre el conocimiento
tradicional del uso de las palmeras a escala regional. Específicamente evaluamos el
poder predictivo de 14 factores socioeconómicos, previamente identificados como
importantes en la determinación de diferencias en el conocimiento a nivel personal y a
nivel de hogar, en 25 localidades distribuidas en las tres ecorregiones de nuestra zona
de estudio. Usando el protocolo estándar entrevistamos a 2050 informantes, en 53
comunidades indígenas, mestizas y afroamericanas en los cuatro países. Este capítulo
ha sido publicado como un artículo científico: Paniagua-Zambrana, N. Y., R. Cámara-
Leret, R. W. Bussmann & M. J. Macía. 2014. The influence of socioeconomic factors
on traditional knowledge: a cross scale comparison of palm use in northwestern South
America. Ecology and Society 19(4): 9. DOI 10.5751/ES-06934-190409.
Capítulo 5: Understanding transmission of traditional knowledge across

northwestern South America: a case study of palms (Arecaceae). En este estudio
examinamos los procesos de transmisión del conocimiento tradicional a través de las
tres ecorregiones, cuatro países y tres grupos humanos en 25 localidades del noroeste
de Sudamérica. En cada localidad evaluamos la distribución del conocimiento acerca
del uso de las palmeras en cinco rangos de edad, tanto del conocimiento general como
el distribuido en 10 categorías de uso. Complementariamente analizamos qué tipo de
conocimiento es ampliamente compartido (conocido por todas las cohortes de edad) y

23

cuál es único (exclusivo de un rango de edad). Este capítulo se encuentra en revisión

en una revista internacional: Paniagua-Zambrana, N., R. Cámara-Leret, R. W.
Bussmann & M. J. Macía. Enviado a Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society el 16
de octubre de 2015.
Capítulo 6: The socioeconomic context of the use of Euterpe precatoria Mart. and E.
oleracea Mart. in Bolivia and Peru. En este capítulo identificamos cuales de los 14
factores socioeconómicos están relacionados con el conocimiento de las dos especies
de palmeras que ofrecen recursos de alta importancia comercial en 10 comunidades
indígenas y mestizas en la Amazonía de Perú y Bolivia. Euterpe precatoria que es
nativa en los bosques de la región y E. oleracea que está comenzando a ser cultivada
como resultado de su importancia económica en la región. Este capítulo desarrollado
por Paniagua-Zambrana, N., R.W. Bussmann & M. J. Macía es un manuscrito que se
pretende enviar a la revista Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.
Capítulo 7: Conclusiones generales de la memoria de Tesis Doctoral.
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38
CAPÍTULO 2
Toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables

socioeconómicas en comunidades rurales
Este capítulo ha sido publicado como:

Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y., Macía, M.J., Cámara-Leret, R. (2010). Toma de datos
Ecología en Bolivia 45(3): 44-68.
39
RESUMEN
En este artículo se presenta el protocolo para la obtención de información

etnobotánica y variables socioeconómicas usado por el grupo Products provided by
palms to local people en Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia, dentro del proyecto Palm
harvest impacts in tropical forests. Cronológicamente se presentan los diferentes
pasos a seguir: (1) selección de las comunidades de estudio, (2) preparación de
materiales de trabajo antes del viaje, (3) planificación del trabajo en las comunidades,
(4) selección de los informantes expertos e informantes en general, y (5) tipos de
entrevistas y toma de datos etnobotánicos. Sería excelente si este protocolo se pudiera
utilizar en otras regiones neotropicales o incluso en regiones tropicales de otros
continentes, lo que permitiría poder comparar los patrones de uso de las palmeras entre
diferentes países, ecorregiones, hábitats, grupos humanos y categorías de uso.
PALABRAS CLAVES: Arecaceae, etnobotánica cuantitativa, metodología,

Neotrópico, palmas
40
INTRODUCCIÓN
Una de las características centrales de la disciplina de la etnobotánica es la

multidisciplinariedad de enfoques y la gran variedad de perspectivas que permiten
estudiar múltiples aspectos de la relación entre el ser humano y las plantas (Martin
1995, Alexiades 1996). Desde esta perspectiva, los estudios etnobotánicos se pueden
desarrollar a diferentes niveles que, entre otros engloban: estudios a escala regional,
en un tipo de bosque o ecosistema, de una etnia o un grupo humano, de una categoría
etnobotánica, de un cierto tipo de uso específico, de una única especie o de un grupo
de especies de plantas, como es nuestro caso con las palmeras.
Se han elegido las palmeras como grupo modelo de estudio para analizar los factores
que influyen en el conocimiento ecológico tradicional de diversos grupos humanos,
las interrelaciones entre el uso de las especies y el medio en el que viven. Las
palmeras tienen una notable diversidad y un enorme espectro de utilidad en los
bosques del Neotrópico, ya que posiblemente es la familia de plantas más útil para las
poblaciones locales (indígenas, afroamericanas, mestizas o colonos) que habitan en
ellos (Balick 1984, Plotkin & Balick 1984, Galeano 1992, Kahn & de Granville 1992,
Henderson et al. 1995, Borchsenius et al. 1998, Macía 2004, Borchsenius & Moraes
2006, Albán et al. 2008, Pinatud et al. 2008, Sosnowska & Balslev 2009).
En este artículo se describe el proceso metodológico completo para realizar estudios
etnobotánicos de toma de datos de campo en el marco del proyecto Palm harvest
impacts in tropical forests en Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia, desde los primeros
pasos con la selección de las comunidades hasta su ejecución final con la realización
de las entrevistas. En concreto, se describen los métodos y las técnicas que se
utilizarán para el desarrollo del trabajo planteado por el grupo de trabajo Products
provided by palms to local people (http://www.fp7-palms.org/work-packages/wp-
3.html). Si bien se presenta el caso de los países mencionados arriba, el protocolo
puede servir para realizar estudios en otras regiones además del Neotrópico.
El protocolo de investigación para la recolección de información etnobotánica de las
palmeras y de las variables socioeconómicas en comunidades rurales se presenta
cronológicamente, siguiendo una serie de pasos a desarrollar para alcanzar los
siguientes objetivos de investigación:
41
1.! Describir comparativamente la diversidad de palmeras útiles y los patrones de uso
en los bosques pluviales del noroeste de Sudamérica a distintas escalas, entre:
−! Países: Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia.
−! Ecorregiones: Amazonia, Andes y Costa Pacífica húmeda (Chocó).
−! Hábitats: bosque amazónico de tierra firme, bosque amazónico
inundado, bosque montano húmedo y bosques del Chocó.
−! Distintos grupos humanos: indígenas, afroamericanos, mestizos y
colonos.
−! Categorías y subcategorías de uso.
2.! Analizar los factores que determinan la distribución y transmisión del
conocimiento en el uso de las palmeras desde una perspectiva ecológica,
socioeconómica, cultural e histórica para las distintas comunidades humanas.
3.! Estudiar la relación entre los patrones de uso de las palmeras y sus características
morfológicas, ecológicas y filogenéticas.
4.! Determinar si las características de uso de las palmeras están relacionadas con su
diversidad y abundancia en los bosques próximos donde viven las poblaciones
humanas.
5.! Analizar la influencia de la accesibilidad de las poblaciones humanas a centros
urbanos y mercados sobre el uso de las palmeras.
6.! Evaluar el grado de manejo, cultivo y comercialización de las palmeras y los
productos que se obtienen de ellas en los bosques tropicales pluviales.
SELECCIÓN DE LAS COMUNIDADES DE ESTUDIO

Antes de comenzar una investigación etnobotánica, el primer paso es obtener los
permisos de trabajo y las autorizaciones pertinentes de las instituciones oficiales y de
las comunidades humanas con las que se pretende trabajar.
De acuerdo con los objetivos de la investigación en este proyecto, se seleccionarán
dos regiones de estudio en la Amazonía de Colombia y Ecuador, tres regiones en la
Amazonía de Perú y Bolivia, una región en los Andes de cada uno de los cuatro países
y una región en el Chocó de Colombia y Ecuador (Tabla 2.1).
42
Tabla 2.1: Distribución del número de regiones y localidades de estudio en las
distintas ecorregiones y tipos de bosque en cada uno de los países sudamericanos.
Colombia Ecuador Perú Bolivia Número de

Ecorregión Tipo de bosque comunidades
Número de regiones de estudio /
estimado
Número de localidades
Bosque de tierra firme e
Amazonía 2/4 2/4 3/6 3/6 60
inundado
Andes Bosque montano 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 24
Costa Pacífica
Bosque del Chocó 1/2 1/2 - - 12
(Chocó)
Total 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 96
A su vez en cada una de estas regiones se trabajará en dos localidades distintas, con el
objetivo de poder comparar la información etnobotánica regional entre distintos
grupos humanos que comparten la misma diversidad de palmeras. Las regiones y
localidades de estudio deben estar distanciadas por un mínimo de 50 km, con lo que
se estima que habrá cierta independencia en el conocimiento ecológico tradicional de
las palmeras por sus habitantes. Finalmente en cada localidad de estudio se trabajará
en un número de comunidades variable, dependiendo del número de habitantes, hasta
alcanzar el número mínimo de entrevistas definido. Se estima que el trabajo de campo
se realizará en un promedio de tres comunidades distintas por cada localidad. Se
registrarán las coordenadas geográficas y altitud en todas las comunidades de trabajo.
Los criterios para la selección de las comunidades en las que se realizará el trabajo
etnobotánico serán en función de los siguientes parámetros:
1.! Origen étnico. Se estudiaran y diferenciarán los siguientes grupos humanos: 1)
indígenas, 2) afroamericanos, 3) mestizos, 4) colonos, y 5) comunidades
mixtas en las que conviven varios de los grupos humanos descritos y que en
cada caso, se considerarán como un grupo humano aparte. En cada localidad
de estudio se tratará de trabajar en comunidades que pertenezcan a un mismo
grupo humano.
2.! Accesibilidad. Se estudiará el impacto de la proximidad o lejanía desde las
comunidades hasta las ciudades principales o mercados más próximos, de
acuerdo a la distancia requerida para desplazarse por carreteras, caminos o por
ríos, medida en horas en cada caso.
43
3.! Tipo de bosque. Se seleccionarán comunidades que se encuentren asentadas en
las proximidades de los tres tipos de bosque objeto del estudio: 1) bosque
amazónico de tierra firme e inundado, 2) bosque montano y 3) bosque del
Chocó.
El trabajo etnobotánico que se va a realizar sigue los principios del Código de Ética
de la Sociedad Internacional de Etnobiología (ISE –por sus siglas en inglés) discutido
y adoptado en la Asamblea General de la Sociedad Internacional de Etnobiología
llevada a cabo durante el Décimo Congreso Internacional de Etnobiología, Chiang
Rai, Tailandia, el 8 de noviembre de 2006 y la Declaración de las NNUU sobre los
derechos de pueblos indígenas (United Nations Declaration of Indigenous Peoples).
PREPARACIÓN DE MATERIALES DE TRABAJO ANTES DEL VIAJE

Con el fin de facilitar el trabajo en el campo, antes de realizar un viaje se deben
preparar los siguientes materiales:
1.! Lista de especies de palmeras que puedan existir en el área de estudio
2.! Lista de nombres vernáculos de las distintas especies de palmeras potenciales
en la región que se pretende estudiar.
3.! Lista con los nombres de los dirigentes y otras personas de contacto en las
comunidades seleccionadas, que quizás se podrían obtener en las instituciones
que trabajan en el área o en las organizaciones nacionales o regionales
afiliadas a las comunidades.
PLANIFICACIÓN DEL TRABAJO EN LAS COMUNIDADES

La creación de una relación de confianza entre los investigadores y los miembros de
la comunidad para la buena comunicación y entendimiento, requiere de tiempo. Para
ello es importante conocer la dinámica de la comunidad y las personas que la
conforman, antes de comenzar activamente con el desarrollo de las entrevistas. Esta
fase previa a la realización de las entrevistas, se aprovechará para obtener información
general acerca de las características socioeconómicas e históricas de la comunidad
con los líderes locales, para la elaboración de un censo visitando todas las viviendas y
para realizar las reuniones comunales de presentación del proyecto y planificación del
trabajo con los miembros de la comunidad que se seleccionen (Tabla 2.2). El buen
!
44
desarrollo de todas estas actividades permitirá tener más posibilidades de éxito en la
siguiente fase del trabajo, la realización de entrevistas y colecta de material botánico
de las especies de palmas útiles en la región. El tiempo destinado para la realización
de todas estas actividades es estimado y obviamente podría variar dependiendo de las
condiciones locales de trabajo.
Tabla 2.2: Distribución del tiempo promedio estimado para el desarrollo del estudio
en una comunidad, siguiendo el orden de ejecución.
Actividades previas a las entrevistas Dedicación
Llegada a la comunidad y preparativos de trabajo. Día 1
Entrevista al dirigente(s) local(es) para obtener información

socioeconómica e histórica de la comunidad y sugerencias de informantes Día 1
expertos.
Reunión con los miembros de la comunidad para la presentación del

proyecto, de los investigadores, las actividades a realizar y concretar la lista Día 1
de informantes expertos.
Censo de la comunidad y anotación de los materiales de construcción de

Día 2
las viviendas.
Reunión con todos los miembros de la comunidad para la planificación de

Día 2
las actividades y elaboración del cronograma de trabajo.
Entrevistas
Entrevista con los informantes expertos (mínimo 2). Cuando la diversidad
de palmeras es muy alta consideramos dedicar un día completo de trabajo Día 3 al 6
con cada informante.
Entrevistas con el resto de los informantes, estimando un número promedio
Día 7 al 12
de ocho entrevistas por día
Revisión y complementación de la información etnobotánica con los

Día 13
informantes expertos
Revisión y/o realización de entrevistas complementarias, transcripción de

Día 14
nombres vernáculos con profesores bilingües , imprevistos
Total del promedio de días trabajados por comunidad 14
Llegada a la comunidad
Una vez llegados a la comunidad, los investigadores tienen que contactar primero con
alguno de los dirigentes locales, por lo que es recomendable tener referencia previa de
los nombres y cargos de las personas, si es posible. En este primer contacto con los
dirigentes, consiste en una explicación acerca de la investigación, las actividades que
serán desarrolladas en la comunidad y la organización de una reunión para la
presentación del proyecto a todos los miembros de la comunidad. Esta reunión se
!
45
realizará preferentemente cuando todas las personas han regresado de sus actividades
fuera de la casa, lo que da el tiempo suficiente para que se les comunique y que
puedan asistir.
Reunión de presentación del proyecto a la comunidad

En esta reunión, se presentarán los objetivos, metodología y alcances de la
investigación a todos los miembros de la comunidad. Además se detallan todas las
actividades que se realizarán durante la estancia en la comunidad, incluyendo la
entrevista con el (los) dirigentes(s), el censo de la población, la selección de
informantes expertos e informantes en general, las salidas al campo con los
informantes expertos, las entrevistas en las respectivas viviendas con los informantes
en general, la colecta de especímenes botánico, la forma de retribución a la
comunidad y a todos los colaboradores. Finalmente, se solicita su colaboración para
seleccionar a las personas que podrían considerarse como informantes expertos y
finalmente se acuerda la forma en la que la informaciónr recopilada volverá a la
comunidad. Antes de comenzar con la investigaciónse debe obtener el consentimiento
fundamentado previo de la comunidad y establecer los términos de repartición de los
beneficios en condiciones mutuamente convenidad en línea con la Convención de
Diversidad Biológica (www.cbd.int; en partituclar los artículo 8j y 15) y su futuro
protocolo sobre el acceso a los recursos genéticos y la participación en los beneficios.
Además se debe respetar la legistación nacional en cuanto al acceso a los recursos
genéticos y conocimiento tradicional, y la participación en los beneficios. Si la
comunidad no desea participar, se la debe respetar.
Entrevista con el dirigente local

Esta entrevista se podría realizar (al menos en parte) el mismo día del arribo a la
comunidad, dependiendo del tiempo disponible por los dirigentes. En el caso de no
contar con el tiempo suficiente, es importante programar esta actividad con urgencia,
ya que se debe realizar antes de iniciar las otras tareas.
En esta entrevista se esperan obtener los siguientes datos:
1.! Información socioeconómica e histórica de la comunidad, utilizando el
cuestionario del Anexo 2.1.
46
2.! Información acerca de las actividades diarias de la comunidad, de modo que
nos permita planificar el horario de las entrevistas de manera más efectiva.
3.! Elaboración de un mapa sintético de la comunidad, con la ubicación
aproximada de todas las viviendas, ya que se utilizará como una herramienta
de apoyo en la realización del censo de la comunidad.
4.! Elaboración de un mapa esquemático del área de la comunidad en el que se
muestren los principales tipos de vegetación y en particular sobre la existencia
de palmeras. Este bosquejo será de gran utilidad para el diseño de los
recorridos con los informantes expertos.
5.! Nombres de personas que tengan el mayor conocimiento de plantas y sus usos,
y que por tanto se podrían considerar como informantes expertos.
Censo de la comunidad
El desarrollo de esta actividad estará a cargo de los investigadores y en ocasiones se
podría realizar en compañía de un dirigente o miembro de la comunidad. Esto
permitirá tener un primer contacto más directo y cercano con los miembros de la
comunidad, así como disponer de información de primera mano para seleccionar a las
personas que se entrevistarán en el estudio. Se visitarán todas las viviendas de la
comunidad y para ello se utilizará el cuestionario incluido en el Anexo 2.2.
Reunión de planificación y elaboración del cronograma de trabajo

A partir de la información obtenida en las actividades anteriores, se desarrollará una
segunda reunión con la participación de todos los miembros de la comunidad en la
que se presentará la lista de las personas seleccionadas como informantes e
informantes expertos. En esta reunión se informará sobre la planificación de las
entrevistas personales en las respectivas viviendas de los informantes en general, y el
trabajo en el bosque con cada uno de los informantes expertos.
Una vez que se disponga de información acerca de la dinámica de las actividades
productivas, económicas y sociales en la comunidad, se realizará una planificación
adecuada para optimizar el tiempo diario disponible por cada uno de los informantes
para las entrevistas. Se piensa que los hombres probablemente dispondrán de tiempo
muy temprano por la mañana, antes de comenzar sus actividades o por la noche
cuando hayan regresado de sus actividades fuera de la comunidad. Las mujeres,
!
47
normalmente permanecerán en las casas durante la mayor parte del día, salvo
actividades puntuales (siembra, cosecha) en ciertas épocas del año que las mantienen
fuera de la comunidad junto con los hombres.
El tiempo empleado para el trabajo con los informantes expertos será de un día
completo con cada uno, e incluye la búsqueda de las palmeras, la realización de
entrevistas en el bosque y la posible colección de especímenes. Es recomendable
dedicar el tiempo suficiente para recolectar al menos 5 duplicados del material, con el
fin de distribuirlos a herbarios nacionaes, internacionales y a taxónomos especialistas.
Durante el trabajo en el bosque se realizarán todas las preguntas in situ. En el caso de
ser necesario, al regresar a la casa del informante experto se podrían registrar los
nombres vernáculos en una grabadora. Si se cuenta con la colaboración de profesores
bilingües en la comunidad, se pueden transcribir todos los nombres durante el último
día de trabajo. Las entrevistas a los informantes en general se planificarán para que
tengan una duración de una hora como máximo, salvo excepciones en el caso de
informantes que tengan gran conocimiento del uso de palmeras, o bien por cansancio
o inquietud por parte del informante. En caso necesario, la entrevista puede ser
organizada en varias sesiones hasta concluirla. Basados en una planificación ideal, y
teniendo en cuenta las actividades diarias de cada informante, se puede plantear el
horario de entrevistas para un día de trabajo como lo expuesto en la Tabla 2.3. De
acuerdo a este horario se estima que se podrían realizar un mínimo de seis entrevistas
de una hora de duración durante un día de trabajo; este número podría variar
dependiendo de la disponibilidad de tiempo de los entrevistados. Es importante que
las fechas y horario de visita para la realización de las entrevistas con cada uno de los
informantes se expongan en un sitio visible, por ejemplo en la escuela o en algún
lugar indicado por el dirigente, para que las personas lo puedan consultar y se puedan
hacer cambios en el caso de que lo requieran. Si alguna persona no desea ser
entrevistada, se la debe respetar.
SELECCIÓN DE LOS INFORMANTES

Como se ha mencionado anteriormente, se trabajará con dos tipos de informantes: 1)
informantes expertos, que son personas seleccionadas principalmente por los propios
miembros de su comunidad por poseer un mayor conocimiento sobre el uso de la
palmeras en múltiples aspectos: utilización, procesamiento, recolección y manejo de
!
48
los recursos, e 2) informantes en general, que serán personas elegidas por los
investigadores para obtener información acerca de toda la variación en el
conocimiento de uso de las palmeras en la comunidad.
Tabla 2.3: Horario sugerido y número estimado de entrevistas para un día de trabajo
con informantes en general en una comunidad.
Número de
Franja horaria Entrevistado Observaciones entrevistas
estimadas
Antes de comenzar sus actividades diarias en los
6 a 8 a.m. Hombre 1
campos de cultivo o el bosque.
A lo largo de la mañana, incluso mientras realiza
8 a 12 a.m. Mujer 2–3
las actividades diarias en su casa.
12 a 14 p.m. Almuerzo
Hombre o A lo largo de la tarde, incluso mientras realiza las
14 a 19 p.m. 2– 3
mujer actividades diarias en su casa.
19 a 20 p.m. Cena
Después de realizar sus actividades diarias en los
Hombre o
20 a 22 p.m. campos de cultivos, en el bosque o en la 1–2
mujer
comunidad.
Informantes expertos
Los informantes expertos se seleccionarán a partir de la información de referencia que
nos aporten los dirigentes, de las reuniones con todos los miembros de la comunidad
para la presentación del proyecto y de nuestras propias conversaciones con la
población. Se seleccionarán un mínimo de dos y un máximo de siete informantes
expertos por cada localidad, y trataremos de motivar la participación de las mujeres.
Para la selección de los informantes expertos se valorará que sean personas mayores a
35 años, porque son las personas potencialmente más experimentadas.
Informantes en general
Para su selección se utilizarán los datos del censo de población que se habrá realizado
en la comunidad antes de comenzar con las entrevistas. Dependiendo del tamaño de la
comunidad, se tratará de seleccionar una persona por cada familia, y se tratará de
entrevistar al menos al 80% de las familias que viven en una comunidad. Se dedicarán
un mínimo de cinco días completos a realizar entrevistas con los informantes
generales y se estima poder realizar un mínimo de seis entrevistas al día en cada
comunidad. Si no se lograra cubrir el número mínimo de entrevistas en una
49
comunidad, se trabajará en otras comunidades próximas hasta cubrir el tamaño
mínimo de muestra de 80 informantes generales por localidad definido en este
protocolo. En este caso, la planificación para el reparto de informantes por género y
edades sería entre todas ellas. Para evaluar las diferencias en el conocimiento sobre el
uso de las palmeras entre sexos, se considerará una proporción aproximada del 50%
de informantes hombres y 50% mujeres en una localidad dada, aunque estos números
pueden cambiar dado que probablemente los informantes clave en su mayoría serán
hombres (Tabla 2.4).
Tabla 2.4: Distribución del número mínimo de informantes entrevistados en una

localidad en relación al género. Estos valores estarán distribuidos entre todas las
comunidades estudiadas para una localidad.
Género del N° informantes N° informantes N° total Porcentaje

informante expertos en general informantes (aproximado)
Hombres 7 40 47 54
Mujeres 0 40 40 46
Total 7 80 87
Con el fin de evaluar la transmisión del conocimiento ecológico tradicional entre

generaciones, se analizará la relación entre la edad de los informantes y el
conocimiento de uso de las palmeras, agrupándolos en cinco rangos de edad (Tabla
2.5). Se tratará que la distribución de los informantes sea equitativa entre los rangos.
Dentro de cada rango se tratará de entrevistar un mínimo de 17 personas en cada
localidad.
Tabla 2.5: Distribución del número mínimo de informantes entrevistados en una

localidad en relación a los rangos de edad establecidos idealmente. Estos valores
estarán distribuidos entre todas las comunidades estudiadas para una localidad.
Rango de edad (años) 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60
Probabilidad de ocurrencia (%) 20 20 20 20 20

N° total informantes 17 17 17 17 17
N° informantes hombres 9 9 9 9 9
N° informantes mujeres 8 8 8 8 8
50
En resumen, en la Tabla 2.6 se muestran el número total de localidades, comunidades
de trabajo, informantes y número de entrevistas que se realizarán por cada país y
ecorregión. Para cumplir este protocolo se estima que el número óptimo de personas
requeridas para realizar el trabajo de campo es de tres participantes investigadores.
Tabla 2.6: Distribución del número total de informantes entrevistados en relación a

las localidades de trabajo, tipo de bosque y país donde se realizará el estudio.
N° regiones Nº N° N° total
Tipo de bosque País
de estudio localidades informantes/localidad informantes
Colombia 2 4 87 348
Bosque amazónico de
tierra firme e Ecuador 2 4 87 348
inundado Perú 3 6 87 522
Bolivia 3 6 87 522
Colombia 1 2 87 174
Bosque húmedo Ecuador 1 2 87 174
montano Perú 1 2 87 174
Bolivia 1 2 87 174
Colombia 1 2 87 174
Bosque del Chocó
Ecuador 1 2 87 174
Total 16 32 2.784
ENTREVISTAS Y TOMA DE DATOS ETNOBOTÁNICOS
Los siguientes aspectos generales se deben tener en cuenta durante la realización de

las entrevistas:
"! Para tener una atmósfera tranquila, las entrevistas se deben realizar con una única
persona cada vez, evitando que existan otras personas alrededor.
"! Las entrevistas se deben realizar en el lugar donde el informante se sienta más
cómodo, frecuentemente será en su propia casa. Dentro de ella se debe buscar un
lugar tranquilo y alejado de las áreas de mayor actividad.
"! El entrevistado debe estar informado de que la entrevista será registrada por
escrito, y que la información que proporcione es privada y para uso científico.
"! Aunque se dispone de un tiempo limitado para realizar las entrevistas, es
importante no presionar al entrevistado y dejar que se tome el tiempo necesario
para responder a las distintas preguntas.
"! Es importante tener sensibilidad y respeto cuando los entrevistados se muestran
tímidos o recelosos con cierto tipo de preguntas.
!
51
"! No dirigir la respuesta en ningún caso, evitar utilizar la información obtenida en
las entrevistas previas para provocar que el entrevistado aporte información.
"! Es importante crear el ambiente para que el entrevistado se sienta cómodo si no
tiene respuestas para todas las preguntas realizadas.
"! En el caso de que las personas no hablen español, se deberá trabajar con
traductores locales que dominen ambas lenguas. El uso del lenguaje nativo es
importante, ya que si el informante no domina el español se pueden perder
conceptos y particularidades de uso de palmeras, que además se pueden
distorsionar fácilmente en una mala traducción.
Los tipos de entrevistas

Para la recogida de la información etnobotánica y las variables socioeconómicas de
los informantes se utilizarán distinto tipo de entrevistas y cuestionarios:
Entrevistas estructuradas
Este tipo de entrevistas se basan en un número fijo de preguntas directas y cerradas
que se plantearán a todos los entrevistados. Esta metodología permite tener mayor
control sobre las respuestas recibidas. Estas entrevistas se aplicarán en los siguientes
casos:
1.! Al dirigente de la comunidad para obtener información socioeconómica e
histórica de la comunidad (Anexo 2.1).
2.! A todos los informantes para obtener información socioeconómica personal y
algunas de conocimiento de uso de las palmeras de cada uno de ellos (Anexo
2.3).
Entrevistas semiestructuradas
Están compuestas por una lista de preguntas abiertas, planteadas en un orden
determinado que permiten una mayor amplitud de respuesta que en el caso anterior.
Estas entrevistas tienen mayor grado de flexibilidad, ya que a partir de determinadas
respuestas pueden surgir nuevas preguntas. Al final de la entrevista se tienen que
cubrir todas las preguntas propuestas. Este tipo de entrevistas se realizarán en los
siguientes casos:
52
A los informantes expertos para obtener información de los usos y productos de todas
las especies de palmeras que existen en sus comunidades (Anexo 2.4). Para este
registro los usos se organizarán en 10 categorías y subcategorías etnobotánicas
(Anexo 2.5). Para cada uso se registrará la parte de la palmera empleada (Anexo 2.6).
Este tipo de entrevista se realizarán en varias etapas:
1. Trabajo en el campo. Con cada uno de los informantes expertos se buscarán
todas las especies de palmeras existentes en los diferentes tipos de vegetación
en los alrededores de cada comunidad. Durante este recorrido colectaremos
muestras botánicas de las especies de las que no existe certeza en la
identificación. Según la diversidad de palmeras en la localidad se empleará
entre medio día o un día completo de trabajo con cada informante experto.
2. Trabajo en las viviendas de los informantes expertos. Se realizará una
segunda entrevista dirigida a preguntar explícitamente sobre la existencia y
posible utilización de 23 especies de palmeras que crecen en común, en los
bosques amazónicos de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia (Anexo 2.7). Esta
lista de especies fue extraida de la revisión bibliográfica de usos de palmeras
elaborado por Macía et al. (datos no publicados). Muchas de estas especies ya
se habrán encontrado durante el trabajo de campo con los informantes expertos
y obviamente solo se preguntará sobre las especies restantes. Se plantean dos
niveles de prioridad para el registro de la información, en función de la
disponibilidad de encontrarlas en el campo: 1) Alta prioridad: 11 especies
abundantes y conspicuas, fáciles de reconocer en el bosque y que tienen un
amplio rango de utilidades o algún tipo de uso destacado; 2) Prioridad media:
12 especies que aunque pueden ser localmente abundantes, son menos
frecuentes en los bosques y tienen un rango de utilidad más reducido
cuantitativamente.
3. Trabajo de revisión final. Una vez concluidas las entrevistas en el campo
con todos los informantes expertos, algunos de ellos podrían ser nuevamente
entrevistados en la comunidad, con el objetivo de obtener información
etnobotánica de las especies de palmeras que no se hubieran encontrado
durante las respectivas salidas de campo con cada uno de ellos. El objetivo
final es que todos los informantes expertos aporten información sobre los usos
53
de todas las especies de palmeras que existen en la región. Para completar este
trabajo se han destinado dos días adicionales al final de las entrevistas.
A los informantes en general, para obtener información de uso de las especies de
palmeras útiles que viven en todos los hábitats próximos a la comunidad (Anexo 2.4).
Esta entrevista se realizará en las viviendas de los informantes y después de haber
finalizado todas las entrevistas a los informantes expertos. Se utilizará como
referencia, la lista de palmas útiles que obtendremos después del trabajo con los
informantes expertos, apoyada por fotografías de las diferentes especies y partes
frescas) plantas, hojas, frutos, semillas) de las plantas (en el caso de contar con ellas)
que enseñamos a los entrevistados. Se preguntará a todos los informantes en general
por todas las especies encontradas en la comunidad, aunque el cuestionario será
simplificado respecto al de los informantes expertos. Si alguno de estos informantes
en general tuviese un profundo conocimiento de palmeras se le podría considerar
como un informante experto y completar el cuestionario más detallado.
Adicionalmente al finalizar la entrevista, se preguntará explícitamente sobre la
existencia y posible utilización de las 23 especies de palmeras que crecen en común,
en los bosques amazónicos de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia (Anexo 2.7),
excepto las que ya hubieran sido mencionadas en la primera parte de la entrevista.
Se ha destinado un día al final del trabajo para la revisión de los posibles errores en
las entrevistas y complementar posibles tareas pendientes por imprevistos. Asimismo
en el caso de considerarse necesario, se utilizará para realizar entrevistas adicionales.
Entrevistas informales
Bajo esta denominación se agrupan todas aquellas conversaciones casuales que se
puedan producir en el ámbito de la investigación en la comunidad en diferentes
momentos (durante la elaboración del censo, en las reuniones comunales), pero fuera
del tiempo de las entrevistas. Estas conversaciones constituyen una fuente de datos
importante porque la gente es más espontánea y no se sienten observadas ni
interrogadas, por lo que se registrará también en los cuadernos de campo anotando el
nombre de la persona que las menciona. Eventualmente a estas personas se les podría
invitar a participar como informantes.
54
Devolución de la información a las comunidades
Una vez finalizado el trabajo en las comunidades se ha acordado que la información
retorne a las mismas de algún modo. La forma de devolución de la información
acordada en la primera reunión, podría tener modificaciones una vez que las personas
hayan obtenido un mejor conocimiento del estudio y se podría definir en una última
reunión comunal.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Agradecemos la colaboración de Pedro Armesilla, Lucía de la Torre y otros miembros

del proyecto PALMS por sus sugerencias para mejorar este manuscrito. Este artículo
se ha desarrollado en el marco del Proyecto Palm harvest impacts in tropical forests
(http://www.fp7-palms.org) financiado por el 7º Programa Marco de la Unión
Europea, proyecto núm. 212631.
REFERENCIAS
Albán J., Millán B. & Kahn F. 2008. Situación actual de la investigación etnobotánica sobre
palmeras de Perú. Revista Peruana de Biología 15 (1): 133- 142.
Alexiades, M.N. 1996. Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research: A field manual. The
New York Botanical Garden, New York. 306 p.
Balick M.J. 1984. Ethnobotany of palms in the Neotropics. Advances in Economic of
Botany 1: 9-23.
Borchsenius F., Borgtoft H. & Balslev H. 1998. Manual to the palms of Ecuador. AUU
Reports 37: 1-217.
Borchsenius F. & Moraes M. 2006. Diversidad y uso de las palmeras andinas (Arecaceae). En
Botánica Económica de los Andes Centrales. M. Moraes R., B. Øllgaard, L.P.
Galeano, G. 1991. Las palmas de la región de Araracuara. Estudios en la Amazonia
Colombiana, Vol. 1. Tropenbos-Colombia, Bogotá. 181 p.
Henderson A., Galeano G. & Bernal R. 1995. Field guide to the palms of the Americas.
Princeton University Press. 352 pp.
Kahn, E. & de Granville J.J. 1992. Palms in forest ecosystems of Amazonia. Springer
Verlag, Berlin. 226 p.
Macía M.J. 2004. Multiplicity in palm uses by the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 144: 149–159.
Martin G. 1995. Ethnobotany: A methods manual. People and plants. Conservation
Manual. WWF, UNESCO. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Darwin Initiative, ISE.
268 p.
Pintaud J., Galeano G., Balslev H., Bernal R., Borchsenius F., Ferreira E., de Granville J.,
Mejía K., Millán B., Moraes M., Noblick L., Stauffer F.W. & Kahn F. 2008. Las
palmeras de América del Sur: diversidad, distribución e historia evolutiva. Revista
Peruana de Biología 15 (1): 7- 29.
Sosnowska, J. & Balslev H. 2009. American palm ethnomedicine: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5:43 (+11 páginas).
!
55
!
ANEXO 2.1: Cuestionario para obtener información socioeconómica e histórica de cada comunidad, que se realizará con
el(los) dirigente(s) local(es).
INFORMACIÓN GENERAL DE LA COMUNIDAD
Fecha: ______/______/ 2010 Comunidad:
Nombre del dirigente Cargo:
TAMAÑO DE LA COMUNIDAD (*) Esta información podría obtenerse en detalle en el caso de que existiera información de un censo comunal
N° familias: N° hombres (*) N° niños (*)

N° habitantes: N° mujeres (*) N° niñas (*)
HISTORIA
Cuál (es) es (son) el (los) lenguaje (s) dominante (s) en la comunidad?
A qué grupo (s) étnico (s) pertenece la comunidad?
Cuando se estableció la comunidad?
Cuál (es) es (son) la (s) principal (es) actividad(es) productiva (s) en la comunidad?
SERVICIOS BÁSICOS
¿Con que niveles de educación cuenta la comunidad?
56
Nivel primario: _______ años N° estudiantes: Nivel secundario: _______ años N° estudiantes:
¿Con que tipo de atención médica cuenta la comunidad?
Posta sanitaria: Hospital: Asistente comunal: Medico tradicional:
Otros:
¿De dónde procede la luz de la comunidad? ¿De dónde obtiene el agua que consume en la comunidad?
Tendido eléctrico Generador común Pileta publica, NO potable Pileta pública, potable
Generador personal Panel solar Pileta casa, NO potable Pileta casa, potable
Mechero/velas Gas Toma de agua Rio/Arroyo

Otros Otros
¿La comunidad cuenta con alcantarillado? ¿Cuenta la comunidad con baños? Letrinas? Pozo ciegos?
Si No Otra Baños Letrinas Pozo ciego Otros
!
!
ANEXO 2.1: continuación

¿Qué tipo de combustible utilizan mayormente para cocinar en la comunidad?
Gas Leña Otros
¿La comunidad tiene una iglesia? ¿Con que medios de comunicación cuenta la comunidad? ¿Cuántos?
Si No Otra Radio Teléfono público Celular TV/Video/DVD Otro
¿Con que tipos de centro de comercio y/o abastecimiento cuenta la comunidad?
Mercados: Permanente Semanal Mensual Tiendas familiares: SI NO Cuantas?
¿Qué tipo de productos venden?:
INDICADORES SOCIOECONÓMICOS
¿Qué tipo de herramientas (y cuantas) se disponen en la comunidad?
Tractor Arado Motosierra
¿Con que tipo de medios de transporte (y cuantos) se disponen en la comunidad?
Camioneta Auto Motocicleta Bicicleta Canoa Peque Motor fuera de borda
¿Con que tipo de animales (y cuantos) se cuentan en la comunidad?
57
Vacas Caballos Mulas Chanchos Gallinas Patos Otros
¿Con que tipo de cultivos o plantaciones se cuentan en la comunidad?
ACCESIBILIDAD
Distancia expresada en Km en el caso de vías terrestres y horas de viaje en bote en caso de vías fluviales
Centro poblado/mercado/ camino: Medio transporte: Distancia:

TIERRA
¿Qué tipo de sistema de tenencia de la tierra tiene la comunidad?

Área comunal (ha) Área centro poblado (ha) Área bosques
¿Qué tipos de bosque se encuentran en el área comunal?
PLANO DE LA COMUNIDAD (con la ubicación de las viviendas)
PLANO DEL ÁREA DE LA COMUNIDAD (diferenciando los tipos de bosque o vegetación)

!
!
!
ANEXO 2.2: Cuestionario para realizar el censo de la población en las comunidades.

Todas las preguntas se rellenarán para cada una de las viviendas visitadas. La
información se registrará en los cuadernos de campo.
CENSO DE LA POBLACIÓN
Información proporcionada por el entrevistado:
"! Número de familias viviendo en cada vivienda. Si vive más de una familia, establecer el
parentesco o relación entre ellas.
"! Número de personas que componen cada familia, género y edad de las personas mayores de
18 años.
Otra información registrada por el investigador:
"! Número de casa/vivienda
"! Materiales empleados en la construcción de las viviendas
"! Solo material local
"! Solo material externo
"! Mezcla material local y externo
"! Dentro el material local, preguntar por las especies de palmeras que son utilizadas para:
"! Techado
"! Paredes
"! Suelos
"! Estado de la vivienda, dentro el siguiente rango
"! Bien conservada
"! Con pequeños defectos
"! Con defectos mayores
"! En mal estado
58
!
ANEXO 2.3: Cuestionario para obtener información socioeconómica de los informantes expertos e
informantes en general. Este cuestionario se rellenará al inicio de las entrevistas.
INFORMACIÓN SOCIOECONÓMICA DEL INFORMANTE
N° informante:
Fecha ______/______/ 2010 Comunidad/N° vivienda
PERFIL PERSONAL
Nombre: Cargo comunal:
Hombre Mujer Edad Casado Soltero Viudo N° hijos ¿Cuántas personas viven en su casa?
¿Donde nació?
¿Hace cuanto tiempo vive en la comunidad y de donde llegó? ¿En cuántas comunidades vivió antes?
¿A qué grupo étnico pertenece? ¿Cuántos años de instrucción escolar ha recibido?
¿Qué idiomas habla (H), lee (L) o escribe (E)? H L E H L E
H L E H L E
59
¿Cuál es su principal ocupación?
¿Cuál es su principal fuente de ingresos?
INDICADORES SOCIOECONÓMICOS
¿De dónde procede la luz de su casa? ¿De dónde obtiene el agua que consume en su casa?
Tendido eléctrico Generador común Pileta publica, NO potable Pileta pública, potable
Generador personal Panel solar Pileta casa, NO potable Pileta casa, potable
Mechero/velas Gas Toma de agua Rio/Arroyo
Otros Otros
¿Qué tipo de combustible utiliza mayormente para cocinar?
Gas Leña Otros
¿Tiene baños? Letrinas? Pozo ciegos?
Baños Letrinas Pozo ciego Otros
¿Tiene animales? Cuantos?
Vacas Caballos Mulas Chanchos Gallinas Patos Otros
!
!

¿Tiene campos de cultivo o plantaciones? Que tamaño tienen?
¿Con que tipo de herramientas (y cuantas) cuenta su familia?
Tractor Arado Pala Picota Machete Punzón Hacha Moto sierra
Escopeta/shalon Rifle Arco/flecha Cerbatana Anzuelos Caña Redes Arpón
¿Con que tipos de medios de transporte (y cuantos) cuenta su familia?

Camioneta Auto Motocicleta Bicicleta Canoa Peque Motor fuera de borda
¿A cuántos y qué tipos de centro de comercio y/o abastecimiento va usted habitualmente?(cuidad, pueblo, otra comunidad)
1. ¿Con que frecuencia?
¿Qué compra?
¿Qué productos vende?
2. ¿Con que frecuencia?
¿Qué compra?
¿Qué productos vende?
60
INFORMACIÓN DE USO
Percepción de calidad del uso para determinadas categorías de uso
Alimento 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Aceites 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Techado 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Paredes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Armazón 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Mercados locales 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Mercados regionales 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
¿Cuál de las especies de palmeras que conoce es la más importante? Porque?
Transmisión del Conocimiento

¿Cree que el conocimiento que se tiene sobre el uso de las plantas está siendo transmitido dentro de la comunidad? Si No ¿Por qué?
!
!
ANEXO 2.4: Cuestionarios para obtener información del uso de las palmeras durante las entrevistas con los informantes expertos e
informantes en general.
!
N° Informante GENERAL: ________________________________
FICHA DE LA ESPECIE: ___________________________________________________
1. ¿Cuál (es) es (son) el (los) nombre(s) común (es) de la especie?
2. ¿A qué lengua corresponde cada denominación? ¿Tiene algún significado este nombre?
3. ¿Existen diferentes tipos (variedades) de esta misma planta? Cuáles? Como los diferencia?
1.! Características de comercialización

Tipo Mercado
¿Cada qué
Producto (L) local; (R) regional; (N) nacional; Cantidad Precio Observaciones
tiempo?
(E) exportación
61
2.! La abundancia de la especie a los largo de los últimos 8-10 años Se mantiene igual Ha incrementado Ha disminuido
¿Por qué?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.! El uso de la especie a los largo de los últimos 8-10 años Se mantiene igual Ha incrementado Ha disminuido
¿Por qué?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. ¿Para que utiliza la especie de palmera que estamos observando? ¿Cuál o cuáles son los productos obtenidos? ¿Qué parte de la palmera es usada en cada caso? Cuál es su denominación local?(si existe).
Se seguirá como referencia las categorías y subcategorías de uso del Anexo 5, y la clasificación de las partes de la planta del Anexo 6
8. Frecuencia de uso
8.1 ¿Es un uso a) actual o b) pasado? Si es uso pasado, ¿Cuándo fue la última vez que lo uso?
9. ¿Cuáles son las características de la recolección y el manejo del recurso?
9.1 ¿Dónde recolecta el recurso? a) en el bosque, b) en los campos de cultivo, c) en algún lugar en particular ¿Existe diferencia en el recurso según el lugar donde lo colecta? a) si, b) no ¿Cuál?
9.2 ¿Bajo qué tipo de sistema es manejado? a) Silvestre (creciendo en bosque primario, secundario) b) Sistemas agrícolas (cultivados, semicultivados, donde?) c) dispersión de semillas por el monte
d) favoreciendo su crecimiento en el monte (cortando las plantas próximas) e) otros (describir)
N° Informante EXPERTO: _________________________

!
!
!

FICHA DE LA ESPECIE: ___________________________________________________
1.! ¿Cuál (es) es (son) el (los) nombre(s) común (es) de la especie?

2.! ¿A qué lengua corresponde cada denominación? ¿Tiene algún significado este nombre?
3.! ¿Existen diferentes tipos (variedades) de esta misma planta? Cuáles? Como los diferencia?
4.! ¿Cómo está distribuida en los alrededores de la comunidad? Abundante Moderada (común) Escasa (rara) Cultivada Otro:______________
5.! Características de comercialización

Tipo Mercado
Producto ¿Cada qué tiempo? Cantidad Precio Observaciones
(L) local; (R) regional; (N) nacional; (E) exportación
6.! La abundancia de la especie a los largo de los últimos 8-10 años Se mantiene igual Ha incrementado Ha disminuido
¿Por qué?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.! El uso de la especie a los largo de los últimos 8-10 años Se mantiene igual Ha incrementado Ha disminuido
¿Por qué?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
62
8. ¿Para que utiliza la especie de palmera que estamos observando? ¿Cuál o cuáles son los productos obtenidos? ¿Qué parte de la palmera es usada en cada caso? Cuál es su denominación local?(si existe)
9. ¿Cuáles son las características del procesamiento del recurso?

9.1 ¿Es de uso a) directo o b) requiere procesamiento? En este último caso, ¿cuáles son los pasos del procesamiento o preparación?
9.2 En el caso de uso medicinal, indicación de la forma de preparación, administración y contraindicaciones, si las hubiera
10. Frecuencia de uso
10.1 ¿Es un uso a) actual o b) pasado? Si es uso pasado, ¿Cuándo fue la última vez que lo uso?
11. ¿Cuáles son las características de la recolección y el manejo del recurso?
11.1 ¿Cuándo recolectan el recurso? En relación al estadio de la planta: a) plántula, b) juvenil, c) sub adulto, d) adulto, e) indistinto.
11.2 ¿Dónde recolecta el recurso? a) en el bosque, b) en los campos de cultivo, c) en algún lugar en particular ¿Existe diferencia en el recurso según el lugar donde lo colecta? a) si, b) no ¿Cuál?
11.3 ¿Cómo recolecta el recurso? ¿Qué técnicas de cosecha utilizan? a) destructivas (corta la planta completa), b) no destructivas (recolecta solo el recurso necesario)
11.4 ¿Almacena el recurso que recolecta? ¿Cuánto tiempo y cómo?
11.5 ¿Bajo qué tipo de sistema es manejado? a) Silvestre (creciendo en bosque primario, secundario) b) Sistemas agrícolas (cultivados, semicultivados, donde?) c) dispersión de semillas por el monte
d) favoreciendo su crecimiento en el monte (cortando las plantas próximas) e) otros (describir)
!
!
ANEXO 2.5: Descripción de las categorías y subcategorías de uso de las palmeras en las que se categorizará toda la información etnobotánica del uso de las
palmeras reportadas por los informantes durante las entrevistas. Las categorías y subcategorías están adaptadas a las regiones tropicales.
Categorías de Uso Subcategoría Descripción
Alimentación Alimento Comestible, generalmente con escasa elaboración

humana
Bebidas Elaboración de bebidas sin fermentar o fermentadas
Aditivos alimenticios Ingredientes usados en la preparación y procesamiento de alimentos
Aceites Grasas comestibles
Alimentación Forraje Alimentación para animales domésticos
animal
Carnada Cebos para pescar
Atrayente para fauna Palmeras que proporcionan alimento a los mamíferos y cuya ubicación constituye áreas
silvestre preferentes de caza
Ambiental Agroforestal Palmeras que forman parte de sistemas agroforestales con distinto grado de manejo
Cercos Delimitación de propiedades, barreras
Mejoramiento de suelos Fertilizantes, protectoras edáficas y contra la erosión del suelo
63
Ornamental Palmeras cultivadas con fines ornamentales
Combustible Leña Leña para hacer fuego
Iniciadores de fuego Iniciadores de combustión
Iluminación Lámparas, antorchas y velas
Otros Usos no clasificables en las subcategorías anteriores, por ejemplo calafateado de embarcaciones
Construcción Casas Viviendas y otras construcciones menores, corrales, campamentos temporales
Techado Techados de casas y otras construcciones
Transporte Canoas, balsas y materiales para su sellado
Puentes Para cruzar cursos de agua
Otros Usos no clasificables en las subcategorías anteriores, por ejemplo tallos utilizados como postes
para líneas telefónicas, canalones para transportar agua
Cultural Ropa Prendas de vestir y accesorios a la vestimenta, como sombreros
Cosmético Productos de belleza, incluyendo elaboración de perfumes, aceites extraídos de frutos o semillas
para el cuidado del cabello y la piel
Tintes Tintóreo de diversos materiales (vegetales) y como pintura corporal
Adorno personal Collares, pulseras, pendientes, brazaletes, pectorales, tobilleras
Recreacional Instrumentos musicales, juguetes, cenizas como aditivo al consumo de hojas de coca
Ritual Usos relacionados con aspectos mítico-religiosos o supersticiones, incluyendo fiestas,
construcción de ataúdes, ahuyentar animales temidos, brujería
Otros Usos no clasificables en las subcategorías anteriores
!
!
!

Medicinal y Aparato reproductor y salud Menstruación, fertilidad, enfermedades venéreas, próstata, impotencia, menopausia,
veterinario sexual afrodisíacos, contraceptivos
Embarazo, parto y puerperio Gestación, hemorragias, parto, posparto, lactancia, abortivo
Enfermedades culturales Dolencias o trastornos de origen mágico-religioso que se reconocen en una determinada cultura,
como aire, arrebato, espanto, maldición, susto, huraña
Contravenenos Mordeduras de serpientes, picaduras de escorpiones, rayas, arañas, insectos
Infecciones e infestaciones Malaria, leishmaniasis, sarampión, antihelmíntico, piojos, pulgas, niguas, sarna
Metabolismo y nutrición Obesidad, pérdidas de peso
Piel y tejido subcutáneo Acné, forúnculos, eczemas, quemaduras, extracción de espinas clavadas en la piel
Salud dental Caries, dolor de muelas, empastes o tapaduras, higiene bucal, dentición
Sangre y sistema circulatorio Anemia, problemas y dolencias cardiovasculares, gangrena, enfermedades cardíacas, varices,
hipertensión, hipotensión, hemorroides
Síntomas sin especificar y Dolencias generales, como dolor de cuerpo, malestar general, debilidad, dolor de cabeza, fiebre.
enfermedades generales
Sistema digestivo Carminativo, cólicos, flatulencia, emético, indigestión, purgante, úlceras gástricas o intestinales,
diarrea, laxante, desórdenes del hígado y la vesícula, hepatitis
Sistema endocrino Diabetes
Sistema músculo-esquelético Reumatismo, torceduras, fracturas, ciática, lumbalgia, hernias
Sistema nervioso y salud Migrañas, desordenes mentales, epilepsia, parálisis, trastornos nerviosos
mental
64
Sistema respiratorio Gripe, resfriado, afonía, bronquitis, pulmonía, expectorante, tos
Sistema sensorial Infecciones de los ojos, cataratas, perdidas de visión u olfato, sordera, otitis
Sistema urinario Diurético, cálculos renales, incontinencia urinaria, infecciones urinarias, cistitis
Veterinario Tratamiento de enfermedades y dolencias de animales domésticos
Sin especificación alguna Uso medicinal o con propiedades farmacológicas, pero con información insuficiente para
asignar a alguna de las subcategorías descritas
Otros Usos no clasificables en las subcategorías anteriores, por ejemplo tumores, cáncer, anestésico
Tóxico Caza Veneno para cacería (curare)
Pesca Barbasco
Utensilios y Utensilios domésticos Cestas, canastos, abanicos, hamacas, bolsas, mobiliario doméstico, ambientadores
herramientas Herramientas de caza y Arco, flecha, cerbatana, carcaj, arpón, redes para pesca, trampas para caza
pesca
Herramientas de trabajo Agrícolas o domésticas tales como hiladoras, machetes y lubricante de las mismas
Cordelería Elaboración de cuerdas y amarres
Envoltorios Envolturas para materiales y alimentos.
Otros Usos no clasificables en las subcategorías anteriores, por ejemplo repelentes de insectos
Otros usos Usos no clasificables en las categorías anteriores. Uso indirecto de las palmeras: larvas
! comestibles o de uso medicinal que crecen los troncos en descomposición
!
!
!
ANEXO 2.6: Partes de las palmeras utilizadas en la descripción de los usos

reportados por los informantes durante las entrevistas
"! Planta completa
"! Raíz: fúlcreas, adventicias, subterráneas
"! Tronco (estípite)
"! Espinas (del tronco)
"! Hoja completa
"! Vaina foliar
"! Peciolo
"! Lámina foliar
"! Raquis foliar
"! Hoja nueva (no extendida aun)
"! Palmito
"! Inflorescencias
"! Flores
"! Infrutescencia
"! Frutos: exo, meso, endocarpio
"! Semillas
65
!
ANEXO 2.7: Lista de especies de palmeras útiles comunes de los bosques

amazónicos de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia (basado en Macía et al., datos no
publicados) y de las que se va a registrar información etnobotánica de todos los
informantes en los lugares en los que existan las especies.
!
Prioridad para registrar

Especie Descripción
la información de uso
Astrocaryum sect. huicungo.
Astrocaryum chambira Burret
Attalea butyracea (Mutis ex L.f)
Wess. Boer
Astrocaryum standleyanum L.H.
Bailey
Bactris gasipaes Kunth Se preguntará por estas
Ceroxylon spp. especies, a todos los
Euterpe precatoria Mart. Alta informantes (expertos y en
general) y en todos los sitios de
Geonoma deversa (Poit.) Kunth
estudio.
Geonoma macrostachys Mart.
Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz & Pav.
Mauritia flexuosa L.f.
Oenocarpus bataua Mart.
Phytelephas macrocarpa Ruiz & Pav.
Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Wendl.
Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart.
Bactris acanthocarpa Mart.
Bactris concinna Mart.
Bactris maraja Mart.
Chamaedorea pinnatifrons (Jacq.) Se preguntará por estas
Oerst. especies a todos los
Cocos nucifera L. Media informantes solo si se las
Desmoncus mitis Mart. encuentra en el bosque o en la
Desmoncus polyacanthos Mart. comunidad.
Geonoma máxima (Poit.) Kunth
Geonoma stricta (Poit.) Kunth
Mauritiella armata (Mart.) Burret
Oenocarpus mapora H. Karst.
66
!
67
!
68
CAPÍTULO 3
Patterns of medicinal use of palms across northwestern

South America
Este capítulo va a ser publicado como:

Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y., Cámara-Leret, R., Macía, M.J. (en prensa). Patterns of
medicinal use of palms across northwestern South America. Botanical Review 81(2).
DOI 10.1007/s12229-015-9155-5.
69
ABSTRACT
We carried out a comprehensive literature review of the medicinal use of palms in

northwestern South America and complemented it with a large number of field
interviews. We investigated patterns of medicinal use across three ecoregions
(Amazon, Andes, Chocó), four countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia), and
three human groups (indigenous, mestizos, and Afro-Americans). Overall, we
reviewed 129 references with medicinal palm data and conducted 1956 field
interviews, which yielded 93 medicinal palm species, 924 uses for the treatment of
157 diseases and ailments, and 1553 use-reports. The Amazon ecoregion showed the
highest incidence of medicinal use, but overall use patterns were similar to those in
the Andes and the Chocó. Ecuador was the most intensively studied country, whereas
our fieldwork demonstrated that the Andes of all countries, and the Chocó of
Colombia could still yield more information. The most common medicinal uses were
associated to Digestive system, Skin and subcutaneous tissue, Infections and
infestations, and Respiratory system. The medicinal use of palms was clearly more
prominent among the indigenous than amongst mestizos and Afro-Americans.
Medicinal palm use was not random, but rather showed similar patterns across
ecoregions and countries, covering the livelihoods and needs of primary health care,
often unmet by Western health systems.
KEYWORDS: Arecaceae, Folk medicine, Indigenous people, Traditional medicine,

Medical ethnobotany, Traditional knowledge
! !
70
INTRODUCTION
The use of medicinal plants is one of the most widely known ecosystem services from
the field of ethnobotany, as it provides primary health care, contributes to local
livelihoods, and has prominent potential value as a source of new pharmaceuticals
(Macía et al., 2005; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Bussmann & Sharon,
2007; Bussmann & Glenn, 2011). Traditional medicine is a set of empirical practices
embedded in the knowledge of a social group and it is often transmitted orally from
generation to generation with the intent to solve health problems (Vandebroek et al.,
2004; Mathez-Stiefel & Vandebroek, 2012). More than 80% of the developing world
continues to rely on traditional medicines for primary health care. Most traditional
medicines are from plants, which are often the only available and affordable treatment
for rural and indigenous populations (Farnsworth & Soejarto, 1991; World Health
Organization, 1990; 2002).
During the 1970's the World Health Organization (WHO) called for the integration of
traditional medicine into public health programs in Third World Countries, with the
argument that the dependence of local populations on natural resources for health care
could no longer be ignored (World Health Organization, 1978). Since then, it has
been recognized that the traditional use of medicinal plants is not limited to
indigenous communities but is practiced by a large segment of society (Moerman et
al., 1990; Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Mathez-Stiefel & Vandebroek, 2012). In
Latin American countries, herbal medicine is deeply rooted, practiced extensively by
indigenous groups, and frequently used by a broad cross-section of the larger society
(Macía et al., 2005; Bussmann et al., 2007; De la Torre et al., 2008a; Molares &
Ladio, 2009; Medeiros et al., 2013; Cámara-Leret et al., 2014a).
Many ethnobotanical studies have documented the use of medicinal plants for
different communities but just a few works have compared that medicinal uses and
species can be similar between different cultures and regions (Moerman et al., 1990;
Ghimere et al., 2004; Albuquerque et al., 2007; Molares & Ladio, 2009). However,
the lack of large-scale comparisons in medicinal plant ethnobotany has limited the
possibility of recognizing these patterns across different scales. The analysis of the
published information complemented with fieldwork is a promising approach for
assessing use patterns (Macía et al., 2011; Albuquerque & Medeiros, 2012; Medeiros
et al., 2013).
Palms (Arecaceae) are one of the most important families in the Neotropics, both in
71
terms of abundance and diversity of use (Prance et al., 1987; Pinedo-Vasquez et al.,
1990; Phillips & Gentry, 1993; Galeano, 2000; Macía et al., 2001; Lawrence et al.,
2005). Their wide range of uses has been documented in several publications at the
national level (e.g., Balslev & Barfod, 1987; Bernal, 1992; Borchsenius et al., 1998)
and in numerous ethnobotanical studies with indigenous groups (e.g., Boom, 1986;
Kronik, 2001; Macía, 2004), mestizos (e.g., Mejía, 1988a; Stagegaard et al., 2002;
Balslev et al., 2008), and Afro-Americans (e.g., Duke, 1970; Galeano, 1995; 2000). In
addition, palms taxonomy, diversity, and distribution are well known (Henderson et
al., 1995; Borchsenius et al., 1998; Moraes, 2004; Pintaud et al., 2008; Galeano and
Bernal, 2010; Balslev et al., 2011).
Since Plotkin & Balick (1984) highlighted the importance of palm species as a source
of active compounds, interest in palm properties has been growing, and numerous
pharmacological studies have bridged the gap between ethnobotanical data and
clinical trials, often confirming the beneficial effects on human health of palms
(Esquenazi et al., 2002; Marinho et al., 2003; Mendonca-Filho et al., 2004). In a
recent review, Sosnowska & Balslev (2009) found that 106 palm species, out of a
total of 730 species growing in the Americas were used as medicines. Digestive
system disorders, pain ailments and skin tissue disorders were found to be the most
frequent diseases treated with palms. This revision showed that the number of
American palm species with known uses had increased from 48 to 106 over the
quarter century following the initial work of Plotkin & Balick (1984). The efficacy of
many of the species was confirmed in ethnopharmacological studies, while some uses
appear not to have a strong physiological basis, and others simply have not been
investigated yet (Sosnowska & Balslev, 2009).
Despite the large number of pharmacological studies about palms, to our knowledge
this is the first work that assesses how traditional knowledge varies within and among
ecoregions, countries, and the human groups in tropical South America. Contrasting
these patterns at different scales, it could permit a much broader application of
pharmacologically proven medicinal palm uses and improve the therapeutic use of
traditional medicine, which could allow the development and application of less
expensive treatments in many areas with limited resources, especially with respect to
diseases outlined in the Millennium Development Goals (Holveck et al., 2007).
In this paper, we present a comprehensive review of the medicinal use of palms in
northwestern South America. We surveyed the relevant literature published over the
72
last 60 years and made an effort to collect existing local references of limited
distribution. We then supplemented these data with selective fieldwork in areas where
little information about palm use was available. The specific objectives of this study
were to compare palm medicinal uses across: A) ecoregions (Amazon, Andes, and the
Chocó) and countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia); B) medicinal
subcategories and types of diseases; C) human groups (indigenous, mestizos, and
Afro-Americans) D) indigenous groups (n=55); and E) to identify the most important
medicinal palm species for local people living in the tropical forests of the study
region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study region
We compiled ethnobotanical information on medicinal uses of palms from the
bibliography (see below) and later carried out complementary fieldwork in 24
localities and 59 communities inhabited by indigenous, Afro-American, and mestizo
groups throughout the Amazon and Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia,
and the Chocó ecoregion of Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 3.1). The Amazon ecoregion
was defined as the lowlands to the east of the Andes below 1000 m elevation (e.g.,
Renner et al., 1990; Jørgensen & León-Yánez, 1999). The Andes ecoregion was
defined as the humid montane forests on both slopes of the Andes above 1000 m,
including the forests of the inter-Andean valleys of Bolivia that receive less
precipitation (Beck et al., 1993). The Chocó ecoregion was defined as the humid
forests along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador below 1000 m
elevation.
Bibliographical search
A thorough bibliographic revision was performed to search international and national
publications for each of the four countries, including ethnographical references with
data on the medicinal uses of palms, when species identification was clear. Three
categories of publications were selected. The first included references based on
original data gathered from fieldwork, including scientific papers, books,
monographs, book chapters, and graduate, master and doctoral theses. The second
category included review publications for which we checked that the data had not
73
been previously published, in order to avoid duplication of information. The third
type included publications based on herbarium material, which included
ethnobotanical information that was not included in any other publications
(Borchsenius et al., 1998; Moraes, 2004; Moreno Suárez & Moreno Suárez, 2006).
Data collection during fieldwork

Between March 2010 and December 2011, we conducted 1956 structured and semi-
structured interviews in 59 communities (Appendix 3.1) following a standardized
protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2010; Cámara-Leret et al., 2012). The first step in
each community was to obtain the necessary permits and establish prior informed
consent with the communities and informants. The interview work only started after
all permits were obtained. We interviewed 5–7 expert informants within each
community (n=171). A “walks in the woods” approach was used to search for palm
species growing near the communities, and to record their local names, which were
later used in the community interviews. Then, we conducted semi-structured
interviews with the general informants (n=1785), visiting them in their homes.
Interviews were conducted in Spanish and in cases where an informant did not speak
Spanish, with the help of local interpreters. All informants were at least 18 years old.
We stratified informants into five age classes (18–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51–60, and > 60
years) to approximate an equal representation of all ages. Within each age class
approximately 50% of the interviewees were women and 50% were men. The
interviews were designed to obtain information about all palm uses, including
medicinal ones.
Data organization
For each publication, the following information was included (when available):
scientific name of the species as it was published, country, ecoregion, human group,
assignation to subcategories of use, description of use, and plant part used. We
followed the World Checklist of Palms to unify nomenclature (Govaerts &
Dransfield, 2005; Govaerts et al., 2013), and lumped the three broad habitat types of
the Amazon ecoregion (terra-firme, floodplain, and swamp) because most
bibliographical references did not specify any of them.
Three human groups were recognized: A) Indigenous, the original population of a
particular geographic region; B) Mestizo, the population of mixed origin, born from a
74
father and mother of different race, generally white-indigenous; and C) Afro-
Americans, the population of black race descendant of African slaves brought to
America and which is the dominant population in the Chocó of Colombia and
Ecuador. Those use-reports where no indication of human group was mentioned were
classified as “Not identified.” We included human “mixed group” membership as a
distinct ethnic group when this was mentioned in the reference (Fig. 3.1).
Fig. 3.1: Map of the study area in northwestern South America showing ecoregions
(Amazon, Andes, Chocó), countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia) and human
groups (indigenous, Afro-Americans, and mestizos) where medicinal palm
ethnobotanical data were recorded.
75
To systematize the medicinal use information obtained during the interviews in the
field, all communities were grouped into 24 localities (Appendix 3.1), according to
their ethnic background, and each of these locations was used as a unit of information.
For each locality, the following information about medicinal use was included:
scientific name of the species, country, ecoregion, human group, assignation to
medicinal subcategories of use, description of medicinal use, processing,
administration, and palm part used.
Data analysis
All medicinal uses recorded from the literature and from the interviews were
classified in 20 medicinal subcategories following the Economic Botany Data
Collection Standard (Cook, 1995) with some modifications proposed by Macía et al.
(2011). When a medicinal use description contained insufficient information to assign
the use to one of the described subcategories, it was assigned to the subcategory “Not
specified.”
All data analyses were performed at the species level and thus the ethnobotanical
information obtained for infraspecific taxa (i.e., subspecies or varieties) were lumped
with the corresponding species. To analyze the medicinal uses of palms in different
ecoregions, countries and human groups, we defined a “medicinal palm use” as the
use of a palm part from a given species that is associated with a medicinal
subcategory and a specific ailment/disease. To analyze the abundance of medicinal
palm uses, the term “medicinal use-report” was defined as the medicinal palm use
described previously in one bibliographical reference or reported in one of our 24
localities. To quantify the importance of the different medicinal subcategories, the
number of useful species, ailments and diseases treated, and the numbers of use-
reports for each subcategory per ecoregion or country were used.
In order to estimate the ethnobotanical knowledge that exists in both different
countries and ecoregions with respect to the total number of palm species, we
calculated the percentage of useful species following Pintaud et al. (2008). To have an
estimation of the number of indigenous groups with ethnobotanical information with
respect to the existing total number of indigenous groups in the study area, the
percentage of indigenous groups was calculated following Lewis (2009). In these
76
latter calculations, the linguistic variants for the denomination of the same indigenous
group were not considered.
To identify the most important useful species in each ecoregion, the Relative
Importance (RI) index was calculated: RI = NMUS + NT, where NMUS = number of
medicinal use subcategories in which a given species is used, divided by the total
number of medicinal use subcategories of the most versatile species; NT = number of
total diseases and ailments in which the cited species is found, divided by the total
number of diseases and ailments that the most versatile species obtained (Bennett &
Prance, 2000; Albuquerque et al., 2006; Macía et al., 2011). The maximum RI value
that a species could obtain was 2. This index indicates the importance of the different
species as a function of their versatility, without considering data relative to the
number of bibliographic citations or reports from different localities (Cartaxo et al.,
2010).
RESULTS
Medicinal palm uses by ecoregion and country

A total of 1553 use-reports represented 924 medicinal palm uses from 93 palm
species for the treatment of 157 different ailments and diseases (Table 3.1, Appendix
3.2). These species represented 30% of the species potentially existing in
northwestern South America. The average number (± SD) of medicinal uses per palm
species was 9.9 (± 17.8). Information on the medicinal use of palms was recorded for
55 indigenous groups, which represent 50% of the total number of indigenous groups
in the study area. Our fieldwork filled important gaps, since 22% of the medicinal
palm species, 34% of medicinal uses and 14% of the ailments and diseases reported in
the interviews were new records. The Chocó was the ecoregion where fieldwork
documented the highest number of new records, in relation to the number of useful
species (28%), medicinal uses (53%) and ailments and diseases (12% new records). In
Colombia and Peru, fieldwork also yielded much novel information on medicinal
species (20% and 15% new records, respectively) and on ailments and diseases (15%
and 7%, respectively). Colombia was the country with more new records (40%),
followed by Bolivia (31%).
The Amazon had the highest values in all analyzed variables, with 74 species (50% of
species potentially present), and an average (± SD) of 8.2 (± 15.8) uses per species
77
(Table 3.1). The Amazon had 89% of all the reported uses, 89% of ailments and
diseases, and 84% of use-reports and the largest proportion of the data (83% of the
references and 57% of the interviews). Medicinal use information was found for 48%
of the indigenous groups living in the area. In the Colombian Amazon we found the
highest number of medicinal species of palms, the highest percentage of useful
species in relation to the potential species available, the highest number of indigenous
groups with information, and the largest number of references. In the Peruvian
Amazon, we found the highest number of different medicinal uses and ailments and
diseases, the highest number of use-reports, the highest number of medicinal uses per
species and the largest number of interviews. In the Bolivian Amazon we found the
second highest number of medicinal uses, ailments and diseases and medicinal uses
per species, but the lowest number of useful species. The Ecuadorian Amazon had the
lowest number of medicinal uses per species, and the lowest values of medicinal uses
and ailments and diseases treated, use-reports and interviews, although this country
had the highest percentage of studied indigenous groups in the ecoregion.
The Andes and Chocó showed a more uniform pattern across all four countries (Table
3.1). In the Andes, Bolivia had the highest values in most of the variables analyzed,
except for the number of bibliographical references and the number of indigenous
groups studied which peaked in Ecuador, where information in turn mostly came from
references. The Colombian Andes showed the lowest values for all variables since no
bibliographic references about medicinal use were available for this ecoregion, and
interviews were conducted in only two communities. Similar to Bolivia, Peru had the
highest number of useful species, but the lowest percentage of useful species in
relation to the overall species number. Within the Chocó, Colombia had the highest
values in most of the variables analyzed, except for the number of indigenous groups
studied, which peaked in Ecuador, where information in turn mostly came from
references. In general terms, the Chocó was more important than the Andes in
Colombia and Ecuador.
Colombia was the country with the largest number of palms species used (56),
different ailments and diseases treated (94), indigenous groups studied (26), number
of references available (40), and second in the number of interviews conducted (466)
(Table 3.1). Ecuador had the highest proportion of indigenous groups studied with
respect to the total number of indigenous groups in the country (83%) but had the
lowest values for most variables. Peru presented the highest proportions of useful
78
species in relation to the total number of species for the country (32%, although it had
not the highest palm diversity), number of use-reports (472), and the largest number
of interviews (592), but had the least number of references available (32). Bolivia
showed the highest value in the number of different medicinal uses (307), average
number of uses per species (3.3 ± 9.9), but had the lowest number of useful species
(27) and references (26).
Palms in medicinal use subcategories and different medicinal uses

We found medicinal uses for palms in all the 20 medicinal subcategories (Table 3.2).
The five most important subcategories with the greatest number of palm species were:
Digestive system (49% of medicinal species), Skin and subcutaneous tissue (46%),
Infections and infestations (40%), Respiratory system (39%), and General ailments
with unspecific symptoms (29%). In the case of the use-reports, the order is different
however, and the subcategory Digestive system holds the first place with 19% of total
use-reports. The subcategory “Not specified at all” was also among the highest values
reported for useful species (37%), and use-reports (8%).
At the ecoregion level, the proportion of palms used for medicinal purposes was
higher in the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó) than in the Andes for most medicinal
subcategories (Table 3.2). In the Amazon, the relative importance of each subcategory
was similar to the pattern previously described, except for the category General
ailments, which was replaced by Not specified at all. The Chocó had a different usage
pattern than the Amazon. Only two of the major subcategories in the Amazon were of
importance in the Chocó: Skin and subcutaneous tissue (36% of medicinal species),
and Digestive system (32%). Cultural diseases and disorders (32%), Urinary system
(32%), and Reproductive system and sexual health (32%) rounded out the list of the
top five most important categories. Digestive system only appeared among the
important subcategories when considering the percentage of use-reports (17%).
In the Andes, we also found a different pattern. In five of the 20 subcategories of
medicinal use of palms, no uses were reported (Table 3.2). Only two of the major
subcategories identified in the general pattern were also important in the Andes:
Digestive system (59% of medicinal species) and Infections and infestations (46%).
In contrast, Cultural diseases and disorders (36%), General ailments with unspecific
symptoms (27%), and Urinary System (32%) ranked among the five most important
subcategories. Interestingly, in the Andes the subcategory Not specified at all
79
occupied the third place of importance (36%). Respiratory systems only appeared
among the important subcategories considering the percentage of use-reports (9%).
At the country level, the proportion of use of palms for medicinal purposes was higher
in Bolivia and Peru than in Ecuador and Colombia (Table 3.2). However, in all
countries there was a correspondence between the number of useful species and use-
reports. At least four of the five subcategories with greater relative importance in the
overall pattern appear as the most important in all four countries, although one cannot
differentiate a general pattern. The subcategory Digestive system ranked most
important in three countries, Peru (61% of medicinal species), Bolivia (52%), and
Ecuador (44%), but occupied second place in Colombia (37%). Skin and
subcutaneous tissue was the most important subcategory in Colombia (48%), with
lower importance in other countries (5th in Ecuador and Bolivia, 7th in Peru). General
ailments with unspecific symptoms was among the top two in Bolivia (52%) and Peru
(34%), but not among the five most important in Colombia (11th) and Ecuador (8th),
although in the latter case they appeared important considering the number of use-
reports (7%). Respiratory system was more important in Ecuador (36%, 3rd) and
Bolivia (48%, 3rd), than in Colombia (29%, 4th) and Peru (32%, 5th). Colombia was
the only country that reported the use of palms in all subcategories evaluated.
Both in general, and in terms of ecoregion and country, there was a clear
correspondence between the number of species reported as useful and use-reports for
the 157 reported medicinal conditions in the 20 medicinal subcategories described
below (Table 3.3). Most reported ailments and diseases were reported both in the
literature and current fieldwork, and 22 (14% of total) were only found in recent
fieldwork.
Medicinal uses were reported for all palm parts. The root was the most frequently
used part, with records in all 20 subcategories, and 38% of the use-reports (Table 3.4).
The fruits and seeds were also important, and were used to treat ailments and diseases
in 18 and 19 subcategories, and 19% and 17% of the use-reports, respectively. About
5% of the use-reports found in literature did not specify the palm part.
80
!
Table 3.1: Medicinal palm uses documented in the Amazon and Andes ecoregions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and in the Chocó
ecoregion of Colombia and Ecuador.
TOTAL BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES RECENT FIELDWORK
Country /
Ecoregion
specie
fieldwork)
information
monographs)
communities)
Useful species
Medicinal uses
indigenous groups)
species/ Total species)

Medicinal use-reports
81
species register by fieldwork)
information (Percentage of new
Bibliographical references (Palm
Indigenous groups with medicinal

Number of interviews (Number of
Medicinal uses (Percentage of new
Average ± SD of medicinal uses per
Useful species (Percentage of useful

medicinal uses register by fieldwork)
Ailments and diseases (Percentage of
new ailments and diseases register by
use information register by fieldwork)
information (Percentage of indigenous

groups with medicinal palm uses/Total
Medicinal uses (Ailments and diseases)

indigenous groups with medicinal palm
Useful species (Percentage of new useful
All countries 93 (30.3) 924 (157) 1553 9.9±17.8 55 (49.6) 73 135 620 (135) 950 42 129 (45) 64 (21.5) 387 (32.9) 85 (14.0) 603 27 (22.4) 1956 (59)
Amazon 74 (49.7) 766 (140) 1308 8.2±15.8 48 (48.0) 64 123 554 (123) 870 36 107 (36) 46 (12.2) 271 (27.0) 77 (11.4) 438 22 (25.0) 1114 (40)
Andes 22 (17.1) 114 (53) 125 1.2±3.5 5 (55.6) 11 26 38 (26) 38 4 12 (6) 17 (22.7) 80 (45.6) 38 (7.5) 87 3 (20.0) 528 (12)
Chocó 25 (23.6) 106 (56) 120 9.9±17.9 5 (83.3) 16 30 41 (30) 42 5 14 (6) 22 (28.0) 66 (52.8) 40 (12.5) 78 2 (0) 314 (7)
Colombia 56 (25.3) 278 (94) 407 3.0±5.9 26 (60.0) 40 61 144 (61) 179 16 39 (11) 40 (19.6) 151 (40.6) 59 (14.9) 228 16 (34.8) 466 (12)
Amazon 46 (44.2) 218 (75) 325 2.3±5.2 23 (59.0) 35 48 120 (48) 151 14 31 (8) 29 (8.7) 112 (36.2) 49 (13.3) 174 14 (39.1) 205 (9)
Andes 4 (4.4) 7 (5) 7 0.1±0.4 1 (25.0) - - - - - - 4 (25.0) 7 (28.6) 5 (0) 7 1 (100.0) 87 (2)
Chocó 20 (22.7) 66 (41) 75 0.7±2.2 2 (75.0) 13 21 27 (21) 28 2 10 (4) 17 (30.0) 40 (53.0) 25 (9.8) 47 2 (0) 174 (3)
Ecuador 36 (27.7) 187 (66) 223 2.0±5.1 10 (83.3) 31 53 143 (53) 167 9 34 (13) 17 (5.6) 46 (19.8) 30 (6.1) 56 3 (0) 460 (12)
Andes 9 (14.3) 24 (16) 26 0.3±0.9 2 (100.0) 9 12 19 (12) 19 2 6 (4) 2 (0) 7 (12.5) 6 (6.3) 7 - 173 (2)
Chocó 10 (14.9) 43 (30) 45 0.5±1.9 3 (75.0) 4 12 14 (12) 14 3 4 (2) 9 (10.0) 29 (51.2) 23 (10.0) 31 1 (0) 140 (4)
!
82
!
!
Peru
Andes
Andes
Bolivia
Amazon
Amazon
Country /
Ecoregion
Useful species (Percentage of useful

species/ Total species)
12 (40)
24 (38.1)
27 (32.1)
12 (27.3)
38 (35.8)
41 (32.3)
Table 3.1: continued

63 (36)
26 (17)
260 (74)
307 (85)
273 (82)
288 (84)
66
26
385
451
446
472
TOTAL
Average ± SD of medicinal uses per

specie
0.7±2.4
2.8±8.5
3.3±9.9
0.3±1.0
2.9±6.8
3.1±6.9

information (Percentage of indigenous
1 (33.3)
1 (50.0)
groups with medicinal palm uses/Total

10 (62.5)
11 (61.1)
12 (25.5)
13 (27.7)
indigenous groups)
4
3
19
19
33
34
Useful species
6
12
68
72
68
69
Medicinal uses
6 (6)
13 (12)
194 (68)
205 (72)
194 (68)
200 (69)
13
277
290
308
314
1
9
9
1
11
12

information
Bibliographical references (Palm
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
3 (2)
3 (0)
monographs)
29 (8)
32 (8)
23 (11)
26 (13)
Useful species (Percentage of new useful
species register by fieldwork)
20 (4.2)
11 (16.7)
23 (11.1)
10 (25.0)
20 (10.5)
22 (14.6)
Medicinal uses (Percentage of new
medicinal uses register by fieldwork)
50 (58.7)
83 (23.8)
20 (42.3)
98 (23.5)
126 (31.6)
111 (25.3)
Ailments and diseases (Percentage of
new ailments and diseases register by
27 (5.6)
28 (2.7)
40 (4.7)
12 (5.9)
43 (6.1)
46 (7.1)
fieldwork)
53
20
108
161
138
158
RECENT FIELDWORK
1 (0)
1 (0)
information (Percentage of new
3 (8.3)
4 (7.7)
3 (20.0)
4 (18.2)
indigenous groups with medicinal palm
use information register by fieldwork)
Number of interviews (Number of
communities)
90 (2)
178 (6)
260 (13)
438 (19)
502 (12)
592 (14)
!
Table 3.2: Medicinal palm species and use-reports in 20 medicinal subcategories in northwestern South America, broken down by ecoregions
and countries. Data came from two sources: bibliography and fieldwork.
TOTAL ECOREGIONS COUNTRIES
Amazon Andes Chocó Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia
MEDICINAL SUBCATEGORIES
species
species
species
species
species
species
species
species
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Digestive system 46 295 39 250 13 24 8 21 21 64 16 40 25 129 14 62

Skin and subcutaneous tissue 43 126 37 107 5 7 9 12 27 42 9 12 11 13 12 59
Infections and infestations 37 175 32 157 10 13 3 5 19 46 9 17 18 70 13 42
Respiratory system 36 201 31 181 6 11 7 9 16 65 13 42 13 27 13 67
General ailments with unspecific symptoms 27 119 26 107 6 9 2 3 7 14 5 16 14 32 14 57
83
Cultural diseases and disorders 24 46 16 27 8 10 8 9 8 11 4 6 5 8 12 21
Poisonings 22 71 22 70 1 1 - - 16 34 3 3 7 10 6 24
Muscular-skeletal system 21 70 19 60 4 6 3 4 8 10 6 9 6 25 8 26
Blood and cardiovascular system 21 56 17 48 2 2 5 6 6 9 4 4 9 22 8 21
Urinary system 20 72 13 44 7 12 8 16 10 18 4 14 8 27 5 13
Reproductive system and sexual health 19 56 13 40 4 7 8 9 10 16 4 4 8 22 6 14
Pregnancy, birth and puerperium 16 52 15 41 4 8 2 3 6 11 3 4 11 29 5 8
Dental health 12 24 10 20 1 1 2 3 5 11 6 10 - - 3 3
Sensory system 8 16 7 11 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 6 4 6 1 1
Metabolic system and nutrition 6 12 3 8 - - 3 4 1 1 3 4 0 - 2 7
Endocrine system 6 14 6 14 - - - 1 1 - - 6 11 2 2
Nervous system and mental health 4 6 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 - -
Veterinary 3 8 2 7 - - 1 1 2 4 - - 1 1 1 3
Other medicinal uses 8 13 6 11 - - 2 2 4 4 1 1 4 5 1 3
Not specified at all 34 121 30 101 8 11 5 9 13 42 15 30 15 31 8 18
!
!
Table 3.3. Medicinal palm species and use-reports in 20 medicinal subcategories and for different ailments and diseases in northwestern South
America, broken down by ecoregions and countries, combining data from bibliography and fieldwork.
ECOREGIONS COUNTRIES
TOTAL Amazon Andes Chocó Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia
Subcategories/
Ailments and diseases
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Blood and cardiovascular system 21 56 17 48 2 2 5 6 6 9 4 4 9 22 8 21
Anemia 14 39 10 34 2 2 3 3 4 6 1 1 6 13 7 19
Blood purification 6 7 5 6 - - 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 3 - -
Circulatory problems 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 1 1 2 2
Blood pressure 2 2 1 1 - - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 - -
Hemorrhoids 1 4 1 4 - - - - - - - - 1 4 - -
Goiter 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Cultural diseases and disorders 24 46 16 27 8 10 8 9 8 11 4 6 5 8 12 21
Freight 12 21 7 12 7 9 - - - - - - 4 4 10 17
84
Psychosomatic 5 5 1 1 - - 4 4 3 3 2 2 - - - -
Witchcraft 4 4 2 2 - - 2 2 1 1 1 1 - - 2 2
Bad air 3 4 3 3 1 1 - - - - 2 3 1 1 - -
Evil eye 3 4 1 1 - - 2 3 2 3 - - - - 1 1
Angry women 1 3 1 3 - - - - 1 3 - - - - - -
Strengthen health 1 2 1 2 - - - - - - - - 1 2 - -
Freight in children 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Insanity 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Physically strengthen 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Dental health 12 24 10 20 1 1 2 3 5 11 6 10 - - 3 3
Toothache 6 7 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 - - 2 2
Unspecified 4 9 3 8 - - 1 1 2 5 2 3 - - 1 1
Caries 3 4 3 4 - - - - 2 2 2 2 - - - -
Tooth care 1 2 1 2 - - - - - - 1 2 - - - -
Dental floss 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Gum health 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
!
!
Table 3.3. continued

Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Digestive system 46 295 39 250 13 24 8 21 21 64 16 40 25 129 14 62

Hepatitis 22 92 21 87 4 5 - - 6 16 2 2 18 73 1 1
Diarrhea 17 65 15 55 4 5 1 5 8 20 5 13 7 12 6 20
Purgative 17 31 12 21 3 3 4 7 11 17 6 6 4 7 1 1
Intestinal pain 12 22 11 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 6 5 5 5 10
Stomach pain 11 21 9 14 5 5 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 7 6 7
Liver pain 8 19 7 16 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 5 10 3 5
85
Vomiting 8 10 8 10 - - - - 3 3 - - 3 4 2 3
Gallbladder 6 8 6 8 - - - - - - - - 2 2 4 6
Unspecified 4 4 3 3 - - 1 1 - - 1 1 1 1 2 2
Gastritis 3 4 1 2 - - 2 2 2 2 2 2 - - - -
Inguinal hernia 3 4 2 2 2 2 - - - - - - 2 2 2 2
Abdominal pain 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 1 1 2 2
Colic 3 3 2 2 1 1 - - - - 2 2 - - 1 1
Nausea 2 3 2 3 - - - - - - - - 2 3 - -
Colic in babies 2 2 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 1 1
Appendicitis 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Astringent 1 1 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - -
Digestion (children) 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Jaundice 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Endocrine system 6 14 6 14 - - - - 1 1 - - 6 11 2 2
Diabetes 6 14 6 14 - - - - 1 1 - - 6 11 2 2
General ailments with unspecific
27 119 26 107 6 9 2 3 7 14 5 16 14 32 14 57
symptoms
Fever 22 61 20 55 4 4 2 2 5 9 1 1 9 18 13 33
Headache 12 19 11 18 1 1 - - - - 2 5 3 3 8 11
Body pain 9 17 8 14 3 3 - - - - 4 6 2 2 5 9
Body weakness 2 5 2 5 - - - - - - - - 2 4 1 1
Unspecified 2 4 2 4 - - - - - - - - 2 4 - -
Indisposition 2 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - - 2 2
!
!
Table 3.3. continued
Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Rehydration 1 6 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 - -
Lack of appetite 1 3 1 3 - - - - 1 3 - - - - - -
Shivers 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - -
Tiredness 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Infections and infestations 37 175 32 157 10 13 3 5 19 46 9 17 18 70 13 42
Malaria 19 62 17 58 3 4 - - 9 16 2 2 14 44 - -
Anthelmintic 12 31 10 24 5 5 2 2 4 8 4 9 2 2 4 12
Amoebas 10 22 10 22 - - - - 2 4 - - - - 9 18
Yellow Fever 6 17 6 16 1 1 - - 3 3 - - 4 14 - -
Unspecified 6 8 5 7 1 1 - - 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 2
Lice 6 6 6 6 - - - - 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Tuberculosis 4 11 3 10 1 1 - - 1 5 1 2 2 3 1 1
86
Leishmaniasis 2 6 2 5 1 1 - - 1 2 - - 1 1 1 3
Smallpox 2 3 2 3 - - - - - - - - - - 2 3
Itch 2 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - - 2 2
Aids 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Chickenpox 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Cholera 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Dengue 1 1 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - -
Measles 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - -
Tonsillitis 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Warts 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Metabolic system and nutrition 6 12 3 8 - - 3 4 1 1 3 4 - - 2 7
Vitamin 5 11 3 8 - - 2 3 1 1 2 3 - - 2 7
Cholesterol 1 1 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - -
Muscular-skeletal system 21 70 19 60 4 6 3 4 8 10 6 9 6 25 8 26
Rheumatism and arthritis 9 20 8 19 1 1 - - 4 4 1 3 4 6 5 7
Muscular pain 7 9 6 7 - - 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 3 3
Back pain 5 20 5 19 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 3 9 3 10
!
!

Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Hematoma 4 4 3 3 - - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 2 2
Fractures 3 5 2 4 1 1 - - - - - - 2 4 1 1
Bone pain 3 4 1 2 2 2 - - - - - - 2 3 1 1
Hernia 3 3 2 2 1 1 - - - - 2 2 - - 1 1
Hip pain 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Inflammations 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
87
Knee pain 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - -
Edema 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Sprains 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Nervous system and mental health 4 6 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 - -
Epilepsy 1 3 1 3 - - - - - - 1 1 1 2 - -
Psychosomatic 1 1 - - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Seizures 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Soporific 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Poisonings 22 71 22 70 1 1 - - 16 34 3 3 7 10 6 24
Snake bit antidote 13 32 13 31 1 1 - - 8 15 2 2 6 7 4 8
Insect bit 9 23 9 23 - - - - 4 8 1 1 2 2 4 12
Scorpion stings 4 6 4 6 - - - - 4 5 - - 1 1 - -
Antidote 4 4 4 4 - - - - 4 4 - - - - - -
Worms poisonous bites 2 4 2 4 - - - - - - - - - - 2 4
Antidote for poisonous plants 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Ray stings 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Pregnancy, birth and puerperium 16 52 15 41 4 8 2 3 6 11 3 4 11 29 5 8
Galactogogue 9 15 9 13 1 2 - - 1 1 3 4 7 9 1 1
Childbirth problems 8 14 8 12 2 2 - - 2 3 - - 5 7 3 4
Postpartum 5 5 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 3 3
Antiabortive 4 10 4 9 - - 1 1 2 3 - - 4 7 - -
Abortive 4 6 4 5 - - 1 1 2 2 - - 3 4 - -
Mastitis 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - -
!
!
Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Pregnancy vomiting 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Reproductive system and sexual
19 56 13 40 4 7 8 9 10 16 4 4 8 22 6 14
health
Fertility 12 19 7 10 1 1 7 8 8 10 1 1 4 8 - -
Menstrual problems 7 11 7 10 1 1 - - 2 4 1 1 2 2 3 4
Contraceptive 4 7 4 5 1 2 - - - - 1 1 2 2 2 4
Uterus infections 3 13 2 10 2 3 - - - - - - 2 7 3 6
Gonorrhea 3 3 3 3 - - - - 1 1 - - 2 2 - -
Emmenagogue 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Inflammation of ovaries 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - -
Venereal diseases 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Respiratory system 36 201 31 181 6 11 7 9 16 65 13 42 13 27 13 67
88
Cough 21 47 18 42 3 3 1 2 8 21 8 11 2 4 8 11
Cold 18 51 18 46 3 5 - - 2 2 8 13 5 6 10 30
Pneumonia 12 32 12 30 1 1 1 1 5 9 1 1 7 10 5 12
Flu 10 29 10 29 - - - - 6 19 3 6 1 1 3 3
Respiratory infections 6 13 6 12 1 1 - - 3 4 1 2 1 1 4 6
Throat ache 6 7 5 6 - - 1 1 2 3 3 3 1 1 - -
Bronchitis 4 10 4 9 - - 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 4 2 2
Asthma 3 5 1 3 - - 2 2 1 1 3 4 - - - -
Asphyxia 2 2 - - - - 2 2 2 2 - - - - - -
Pertussis 2 2 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - - - - - -
Chest pain 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Sudorific 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1
Unspecified 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Sensory system 8 16 7 11 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 6 4 6 1 1
Earache 4 10 4 7 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 4 3 4 - -
Eye inflammation 3 4 2 3 - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 - -
Cataracts 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
!
!

Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
To clear the vision 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - -

Skin and subcutaneous tissue 43 126 37 107 5 7 9 12 27 42 9 12 11 13 12 59
Extraction of spines 19 37 17 32 1 1 4 4 15 27 4 4 - - 4 6
Wounds 12 18 9 14 1 1 3 3 4 4 2 2 1 1 5 11
Skin infections 8 14 7 13 - - 1 1 2 2 1 2 4 6 2 4
Abscesses 7 14 7 12 2 2 - - - - 1 1 1 1 5 12
89
Burns 6 10 5 8 2 2 - - - - 2 3 3 3 3 4
Psoriasis 4 9 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - 3 8
Swellings 4 6 4 6 - - - - - - - - - - 4 6
Hemorrhage 3 5 2 3 - - 1 2 3 4 - - - - 1 1
Skin spots 3 4 3 4 - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 2 2
Dandruff 1 2 1 2 - - - - - - - - - - 1 2
Empeine 1 2 1 2 - - - - - - - - - - 1 2
Botfly infection 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Callus 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Cicatrizing 1 1 - - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Dry skin 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 - -
Rash 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Urinary system 20 72 13 44 7 12 8 16 10 18 4 14 8 27 5 13
Inflammation of kidneys 15 47 8 28 7 10 6 9 5 9 3 8 7 21 3 9
Urinary problems 7 10 6 7 1 1 2 2 4 5 2 3 - - 2 2
Prostate 5 8 4 6 1 1 1 1 2 3 - - 2 4 1 1
Diuretic 3 4 - - - - 3 4 1 1 2 3 - - - -
Urinary infections 2 3 2 3 - - - - - - - - 2 2 1 1
Veterinary 3 8 2 7 - - 1 1 2 4 - - 1 1 1 3
Scabies 1 3 1 3 - - - - - - - - - - 1 3
Botfly infection 1 2 1 2 - - - - 1 2 - - - - - -
Anthelmintic 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Purgative 1 1 - - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
!
!
Subcategories/
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Medicinal species
Unspecified 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 Medicinal species
- -
Other medicinal uses 8 13 6 11 - - 2 2 4 4 1 1 4 5 1 3
Cancer 6 8 4 6 - - 2 2 3 3 - - 4 5 - -
Hair loss 2 3 2 3 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 1 2
Alcoholism 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Unspecified 1 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
Not specified at all 34 121 30 101 8 11 5 9 13 42 15 30 15 31 8 18
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!
Table 3.4: Use-reports for the different palm parts used in each medicinal subcategory, combining data from bibliography and fieldwork.
Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Palm

Subcategories Bract Flower Fruit Root Seed Spine Stem Unspecified
entire petiole rachis sheath spear heart
Blood and cardiovascular system - - 16 - - - - - 9 29 2 - - -
Cultural diseases and disorders 2 1 2 6 1 - - 3 2 6 10 9 3 1
Dental health - 1 3 - - - - 1 9 7 1 1 - 1
Digestive system - 12 30 2 1 - - 2 10 48 29 - 3 1
Endocrine system - - 4 - - - - - - 8 2 - - -
- 5 39 1 - - - - 7 25 36 - 5 1
symptoms
Infections and infestations - 8 40 5 2 - 1 - 46 182 42 - 2 4
Metabolic System and nutrition - - 4 - - - - - - 7 - - 1 -
91
Muscular-skeletal system - - 16 2 - - 1 - 6 35 9 - - 1
Nervous system and mental health - - - 2 - - - - - 1 - 1 1 1

Poisonings - 4 1 3 1 - - - 26 27 4 - 4 1
Pregnancy, birth and puerperium - 2 10 1 1 - - - 4 25 8 - - 1
- 2 13 - 1 - - - 2 31 3 - 1 3
health
Respiratory system - 7 65 9 1 - - - 13 59 44 - 3 -
Sensory system - - 4 1 - - - 2 2 3 4 - - -
Skin and subcutaneous tissue 2 - 24 5 - 1 - - 1 17 29 38 5 4
Urinary system - - 4 - - - - 1 - 42 23 - 1 1
Veterinary - - - - - - - - - 6 1 - 1 -
Other medicinal uses - 1 3 - 1 - - - - 6 2 - - -
Not specified at all - 1 18 8 - - - 1 6 31 9 - 5 42
Total 4 44 256 45 9 1 2 10 143 595 248 49 35 62
!
!
Blood and cardio-vascular system

In this subcategory, there were five reported ailments and illnesses (4% of total), all
gathered only from the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó) (Table 3.3). Anemia was
the most important condition, with the largest percentage of useful species and use-
reports. This was especially important in the Amazon and at the country level in
Bolivia. Blood purification was the second most important use, reported in the
Amazon and Chocó, and in all countries except Bolivia. The fruits and roots were the
palm parts mostly used (Table 3.4). Euterpe precatoria was the most important
species in this subcategory, particularly in the Amazon, and in Peru, where it was
used to treat three different ailments (Appendix 3.2).
Cultural diseases and disorders

Ten ailments and different disorders (6.7% of total) were reported for this subcategory
(Table 3.3). These were mainly distributed in the Amazon of the four countries. Using
palms to treat Fright was the most important use, although this was reported only in
the Amazon and the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. Warding off evil spirits,
Strengthening the spirit, or Calling good spirits were also important, especially in the
Colombian Chocó. Using palms to cure Witchcrafts, Bad air, and Evil eye, had a
greater importance in Amazonia and the Chocó, although the importance differed
between countries. Seeds, spines, leaves and roots were the most often used palm
parts (Table 3.4). Bactris gasipaes and Iriartea deltoidea (with three conditions each)
were the most important species in this subcategory. While the first species was more
important in the Andes and the Chocó, the second was more important in the
Amazon, mostly of Ecuador and Peru (Appendix 3.2).
Dental health
Five different conditions (3% of the total) were reported for this subcategory, with
38% of the use-reports unspecified (Table 3.3). The Amazon at the ecoregional, and
Colombia at the country level had the greatest number of reported ailments. Peru had
no reports in this subcategory. Toothache treatment was the most important use in all
three ecoregions, but with greater importance in the Amazon, and in Ecuador at
country level. Second in importance was the use of palms for the prevention/treatment
of Cavities, with reports only in the Amazon of Colombia and Ecuador. The palm
heart and roots were the most cited palm parts (Table 3.4). The most important
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species related to dental health were Euterpe precatoria (three ailments), Hyospathe
elegans and Cocos nucifera (two ailments each); the first two species were more
important in the Amazon and in Ecuador, and C. nucifera in the Colombian Chocó
(Appendix 3.2).
Digestive system
This subcategory included the highest number of complaints and/or diseases, with 18
different ailments (12% of total) (Table 3.3). The largest number of complaints was
found in the Amazon, and in Peru and Bolivia. In all ecoregions and countries, most
species were used to treat Hepatitis, and this use was more important in the Amazon
and Peru. Diarrhea, Purgative, Intestinal disorders (only reported in field work),
Digestive problems, and Stomach pain were the next five major ailments for which
palms were used. All of these ailments had high importance in the Amazon: the first
two in Colombia, and the second two in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. The roots, fruits,
and seeds were the palm parts mostly used (Table 3.4). The most important species to
treat ailments related to the digestive system were Euterpe precatoria (11 ailments),
Cocos nucifera and Oenocarpus bataua (nine ailments each); the same three species
were more important in the Amazon. E. precatoria was more important in Colombia
and Peru, C. nucifera in Colombia and Ecuador, and O. bataua in Peru and Bolivia
(Appendix 3.2).
Endocrine system
The only disease found for this subcategory was Diabetes, which was reported in the
Amazon of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, being Peru the country with the highest
number of species used for this purpose (Table 3.3). The roots of the palms were the
most used palm parts (Table 3.4). Six species were reported to treat this ailment:
Euterpe precatoria, E. oleracea, Oenocarpus bataua, O. mapora, Phytelephas
macrocarpa and Socratea exhorriza, all were reported in the Amazon of Peru
(Appendix 3.2).
General ailments with unspecific symptoms

For this subcategory, nine different diseases were found (6% of total) (Table 3.3). All
ailments were reported in the Amazon, and Peru and Bolivia had the highest number
of use-reports. The most important uses of palms were to treat Fever, which was
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reported in all ecoregions and countries. However, the importance was higher in the
Amazon, and in Peru and Bolivia. Headache and Body pain were the next most
important ailments and both were reported in the Amazon and the Andes of all
countries, except Colombia. The eight remaining conditions had minor importance
and were reported mainly in the Amazon of Peru and Bolivia. The seeds and roots
were the palm parts mostly used (Table 3.4). Oenocarpus bataua was the most
important species, particularly in the Amazon, and in Bolivia, where it was used to
treat five different ailments (Appendix 3.2).
Infections and infestations

For this subcategory, 16 different ailments were reported (11% of total), making it the
sub-category with the third largest number of diseases and illnesses reported (Table
3.3). Most afflictions were reported in the Amazon and in Colombia. Treatment of
Malaria, was the most important use, and was most important in Amazonia, Peru and
Colombia. Using palms as Anthelmintic and to treat infections caused by Amoebas
was important in the Amazon. Anthelmintic use was less important in Peru and
Amoebas was much more important in Bolivia. The remaining 13 illnesses and other
diseases were less important, although they had higher importance values in the
Amazon and in Colombia. The seeds and roots were the palm parts most used (Table
3.4). The most important species to treat ailments related to infections and infestations
were Oenocarpus bataua (eight aliments), Euterpe precatoria (seven ailments),
Bactris gasipaes and Attalea phalerata (six ailments each); all four species were more
important in the Amazon, while at the country level O. bataua was so in Ecuador,
Peru and Bolivia, E. precatoria and B. gasipaes in Peru and Colombia, and A.
phalerata in Bolivia (Appendix 3.2).
Metabolic system and nutrition

Two complaints (1% of the total) were reported in this subcategory, both only from
the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó), and were absent in Peru (Table 3.3). The use
of palms as a source of Vitamins or vitamin supplement was the most important use,
particularly in the Amazon, and in Ecuador and Bolivia. Cholesterol-lowering
treatments were reported only from the Ecuadorian Chocó. The roots were the palm
parts most used (Table 3.4). Six species fall in this subcategory: Attalea phalerata,
Oenocarpus bataua, Euterpe precatoria in the Amazon, and Bactris gasipaes,
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Euterpe oleracea, and Wettinia aequalis in the Chocó (Appendix 3.2).
Muscular-skeletal system
Twelve illnesses and diseases were reported in this subcategory (8% of total), most in
the Amazon, and at the country level in Ecuador in Bolivia (Table 3.3). The use of
palms in the treatment of Rheumatism and arthritis, to relieve Muscle aches (only
reported in fieldwork), and to treat Back pain, were the three most important uses in
this subcategory. In all three cases their importance was greater in Amazonia, and at
the country level in Ecuador and Bolivia. The nine remaining ailments were of minor
importance and were in all cases more important in the Amazon. Only the treatment
of Bone pain was more important in the Andes, while Inflammations was so in the
Chocó. No clear pattern was observed among the four countries. The roots were the
palm part most used (Table 3.4). The most important species for treating the
Muscular-skeletal system were Attalea phalerata and Euterpe precatoria, with seven
ailments each (Appendix 3.2). Both species were more important in the Amazon, with
A. phalerata most important in Bolivia and E. precatoria in Peru.
Nervous system and mental health

In this subcategory we found four conditions (3% of total), each requiring a different
species for treatment, and only six use-reports (Table 3.3), which were only reported
in fieldwork. This subcategory had among the lowest number of medicinal species
and use-reports. In Amazonia, two ailments were reported, the treatment of Epilepsy
and the use for Soporific purposes. The first use was reported in Ecuador and Peru,
and the second only in Peru. In the Peruvian Andes, palms were used to treat Seizures
and in the Colombian Chocó to treat Psychosomatic conditions and ailments related to
the nervous system (e.g., stuttering). The entire leaves were the palm part most used
for treating these conditions (Table 3.4). Four species fall in this subcategory: Bactris
gasipaes, B. simplicifrons, Desmoncus cirrhiferus, and Roystonea regia (Appendix
3.2). The first two were reported for the Amazon and the rest for the Chocó and
Andes, respectively.
Poisoning
Seven different ailments fell into poison and related illnesses (5% of total) (Table
3.3). Most complaints were reported in the Amazon, and only one in the Andes. There
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were no reported uses for the Chocó. Among the countries, Colombia had the highest
number of applications. The use of palms as Snake bite antidote, and to treat Insect
bites were the most important uses, mainly in the Amazon, and at the country level in
Ecuador and Colombia, respectively. The five remaining conditions were much less
important, and were reported almost entirely from the Colombian Amazon. The only
exception was the treatment of Poisonous bites reported only in Bolivia. The roots
and palm hearts were the palm parts used for treatment (Table 3.4). The most
important species to treat ailments related to poisoning were Socratea exhorriza (four
aliments), Attalea maripa and Chamaedorea angustisecta (three ailments each); all
species were more important in the Amazon, and in Colombia and Bolivia (Appendix
3.2).
Pregnancy, birth, and puerperium

Seven ailments fell in this subcategory (5% of total), most of them reported in the
Amazon, and at the country level in Colombia and Peru (Table 3.3). The use of palms
as Galactogogue and in the treatment of Childbirth problems was the most important
use, with greater importance in the Amazon, and in Peru. The use of palms in Post-
partum treatments was the third most important use, and was the only important one
in the Andes and Bolivia. The use of palms as an Abortificant was mentioned only in
the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó) and in Colombia and Peru. In Peru, this was
the most important use. Mastitis and vomiting caused by pregnancy were less
important conditions. The roots were the most commonly palm part used (Table 3.4).
The most important species reported were Bactris gasipaes and Cocos nucifera (with
six ailments each), both important in the Amazon, and at country level in Ecuador,
Colombia and Peru (Appendix 3.2).
Reproductive system and reproductive health

Eight illnesses and diseases (5% of total) fell in this subcategory most of them were
reported for the Amazon, Ecuador and Peru (Table 3.3). Using palms for Fertility
treatments was the most important use, mainly in the lowlands and in Colombia. The
use in the treatment of Menstrual problems and as Contraceptives was also important,
especially in the lowlands of Bolivia and Peru. The five remaining conditions were
less important, with greater importance in the Amazon, except Inflammation of the
ovaries, which was reported only in the Ecuadorian Chocó. The roots were the most
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widely used palm part (Table 3.4). Bactris gasipaes and Euterpe precatoria were the
most important species, which were used to treat five and four different ailments
respectively, mainly in the Amazon in Colombia and Peru (Appendix 3.2).
Respiratory system
For this subcategory, 12 complaints were reported (8% of total), most of them from
the Amazon and Colombia (Table 3.3). The use of palms in the treatment of Cough
and Cold were the two most important uses. In both cases, their importance was
greater in the Amazon. At the country level, Cough treatment was equally important
in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, but Cold treatment was more important in
Bolivia. The use of palms in the treatment of Pneumonia and Flu was next in
importance, mainly in the Amazon, and at the country level in Peru and Colombia.
The eight remaining conditions were less important with a general importance greater
in the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó), but with no identifiable pattern at the
country level. The fruits and roots were the most used palm parts (Table 3.4). The
most important species were Euterpe precatoria and Oenocarpus bataua (with nine
ailments each), both more important in the Amazon, while across countries E.
precatoria was more important in Bolivia and O. bataua in Colombia (Appendix 3.2).
Sensory system
Four conditions are included in this subcategory (3% of total), most reported in the
lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó) and at the country level in Ecuador (Table 3.3).
Using palms to treat Earache was the most important use, with greater importance in
the Amazon and Peru. Treatment of Eye inflammation was the second most important
use in the lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Palms were also used to treat
Cataracts and Clear the vision, although the prevalence of this use was not very high.
The fruits and seeds were the palm parts most used (Table 3.4). Bactris gasipaes was
the most important species, used to treat two different diseases, and was more
important in Chocó and in Ecuador (Appendix 3.2).
Skin and subcutaneous tissue

A total of 16 different ailments were reported for this subcategory (11% of total),
making it the second most important with the highest number of complaints reported
(Table 3.3). Most illnesses were reported from the Amazon, and Bolivia reported the
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highest usage levels at the country level. Using palms spines for the Extraction of
thorns was the most important use, mainly in the Amazon, and Colombia. The
treatment of Wounds in general (e.g., immediate cleaning, general damages, minor
infections) was the second most important use, especially in the Amazon and Bolivia.
The treatment of Skin infections (e.g., fungi, rashes, allergies, dermatosis), Abscesses
and Burns were also important, especially in the Amazon and in Bolivia and Peru.
The 12 remaining ailments were less important and most were reported only from the
Amazon and from all countries except Ecuador. The spines of the stem and leaves
(mainly from the petioles), and fruits were the palm parts most used (Table 3.4).
Attalea phalerata and Oenocarpus bataua were the most important species in the
Amazon, and at country level in Bolivia and Peru, which were used to treat eight and
six different ailments respectively (Appendix 3.2).
Urinary system
In this subcategory, five different ailments were reported (3% of total), mainly in
Amazonia and the Chocó, and at the country level in Colombia and Bolivia (Table
3.3). The treatment for Inflammation of kidneys was the most important use, and
mainly in Peru. Palms were also used to treat Urinary problems in general (e.g.,
Bladder pain and Urinary tract problems), Prostate problems, as a Diuretic, and to
treat Urinary infections. In all cases these uses were more important in the Amazon
and in Colombia, except Diuretic, which was only reported in the Chocó. The roots
and seeds were the palm parts most often used for treating these conditions (Table
3.4). Euterpe precatoria and Cocos nucifera (with four ailments each) were the most
important species, the first one more important in the Chocó and in Ecuador, and the
second one in the Amazon and in the Peru (Appendix 3.2).
Veterinary
For this subcategory, four different conditions were reported (3% of total), all in the
lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó), and each reporting one useful species (three
species in total), with only eight use-reports (Table 3.3). Three complaints were
reported from the Amazon. The treatment of Scabies in animals had the highest
importance, and was only reported from Bolivia in fieldwork. Palms for the treatment
of Botfly infection and as an Anthelmintic were reported only from Colombia
whereas as Purgatives were only reported from the Colombian Chocó. The roots were
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the most widely used palm part (Table 3.4). The most important species was Socratea
exhorriza, used to treat three different ailments in the Amazon and in Colombia
(Appendix 3.2).
Other medicinal uses

Three complaints and diseases (2% of total) could not be assigned to any of the
subcategories listed above (Table 3.3). The use of palms in the treatment of Cancer
was the most important use, mainly in the Amazon and Peru. The treatment to Prevent
hair loss was reported in the Amazon of Bolivia and Ecuador, and as remedy for
Alcoholism only in the Bolivian Amazon. The roots were the most widely used palm
part for treating these conditions (Table 3.4). The most important species were Attalea
phalerata and Euterpe precatoria (two ailments each), both more important in the
Amazon and at the country level in Ecuador, with A. phalerata more important in
Bolivia and E. precatoria in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (Appendix 3.2).
Not specified medicinal uses

We found 34 medicinal palms species (37% of all species reported) and 121 use-
reports (8% of all use-reports) in this subcategory (Table 3.3). The Amazon contained
the highest number of species, and among countries Ecuador and Peru. Thirty-four
percent of the use-reports did not specify the plant part used, and most referred to the
roots as the part used (Table 3.4).
Medicinal palm uses in different human groups

Indigenous people clearly used medicinal palms more prominently than non-
indigenous groups (Table 3.5). They had the highest medicinal use values in the
number of useful species (82), different ailments and diseases treated (123), use-
reports (1060), and average number of uses per species (12.8 ± 31.2). Indigenous
populations were also the best-studied human group. The Amazon was the ecoregion
with the highest values in all countries and for all groups except for the mestizos in
Ecuador. In the Chocó, indigenous groups accounted for the highest values in the
number of medicinal palm species and in the average number of uses per species, but
the number of different ailments and diseases treated, and use-reports were higher
among Afro-Americans. In the Andes, indigenous people had the highest values for
all variables, although lower when compared to the Chocó of Colombia and Ecuador.
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Overall, mestizos were the second group in terms of different ailments and diseases
treated.
Peru was the country with the greatest number of references and interviews. No use-
reports were registered for mestizos in the Chocó and the Andes in Colombia, or in
Amazonian Ecuador. Afro-Americans reported only uses in the Colombian Chocó (no
fieldwork carried out in Ecuador), and had the lowest values of all groups in all
countries. However, it is important to note that all ecoregions in all countries had high
values for unidentified human groups, because the bibliographical information was
not accurate. Thus, the unidentified group ranked second in all variables, except in the
average number of uses per species. All human groups showed different patterns in
the distribution of knowledge for the medicinal subcategories (Table 3.6). Among the
indigenous populations, the main subcategories corresponded closely to the ones that
were also important in the general regional pattern described above: Digestive system,
Skin and subcutaneous tissue, Respiratory system, Infections and infestations, and
Cultural diseases and disorders. This sequence also corresponds to the categories that
showed the highest values in the number of reported ailments and use-reports.
Mestizos had a different medicinal use pattern than indigenous people (Table 3.6).
Although the major subcategories were the same, the order of importance was
strikingly different, and mestizos did not report three medicinal subcategories
(Metabolic system and nutrition, Nervous system and mental health, and Veterinary).
Digestive system (70% of total species) was the most important subcategory,
followed by General ailments with unspecific symptoms (44%), Infections and
infestations (37%), Respiratory system (33%) and Urinary system (30%). Skin and
subcutaneous tissue, which was very important to indigenous people, was replaced by
the use to treat ailments related to Urinary system. Cultural uses, which ranked 5th in
importance among indigenous groups, ranked 12th among the mestizos.
Afro-Americans had no use-reports for five of the 20 subcategories (Table 3.6).
Overall, only two of the most important subcategories were important for the Afro-
Americans: Respiratory system (25% of total species), and Digestive system (17%).
These were, however, not the most important subcategories for this group, since
Urinary system (33%) and Reproductive system and sexual health (33%) topped the
list.
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Table 3.5: Medicinal uses of palms broken down by different human groups, countries and ecoregions in northwestern South America,
combining data from bibliography and fieldwork.
Ailments Medicinal Average + SD of
Human groups Useful Bibliographical
Ecoregions and use- medicinal uses Interviews
Countries species references
diseases reports per species
Indigenous Total 82 123 1060 12.8±31.2 87 1264
Colombia All ecoregions 49 74 322 6.4±12.4 27 380
Amazon 41 66 289 6.9±12.7 25 205
Andes 4 5 7 1.8±0.8 0 87
Chocó 14 19 26 1.9±1.6 3 88
Ecuador All ecoregions 33 61 194 5.9±9.5 31 199
Amazon 27 49 151 5.6±9.5 26 147
Andes 7 6 10 1.4±0.7 3 -
Chocó 9 23 33 3.7±1.8 3 52
Peru All ecoregions 29 56 218 7.5±12.1 15 335
Amazon 27 55 197 7.3±11.3 14 245
101
Andes 11 13 21 1.9±1.7 1 90
Bolivia All ecoregions 23 73 326 14.2±21.2 16 350
Amazon 20 63 266 13.3±18.6 15 172
Andes 11 32 60 5.5±5.0 1 178
Mestizo Total 27 53 208 8.0±10.9 17 606
Colombia All ecoregions 5 2 7 1.4±0.5 6 -
Amazon 5 2 7 1.4±0.5 6 -
Andes - - - - - -
Chocó - - - - - -
Ecuador All ecoregions 3 8 13 4.3±2.9 1 261
Amazon - - - - - -
Andes 2 6 8 4.0±0.0 1 173
Chocó 2 5 5 2.5±1.5 0 88
Peru All ecoregions 21 44 132 6.6±10.1 8 257
Amazon 21 43 130 6.5±10.0 7 257
Andes 1 2 2 2.0±0.0 1 -
Bolivia All ecoregions 16 27 56 3.5±2.4 2 88
Amazon 15 23 51 3.4±2.4 1 88
Andes 2 5 5 2.5±1.5 1 -
!
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Ailments Medicinal Average + SD of
Human groups Useful Bibliographical
Ecoregions and use- medicinal uses Interviews
Countries species references
diseases reports per species
Afro-American Total 12 27 41 3.4±4.0 4 86
Colombia All ecoregions 12 27 41 3.4±4.0 4 86
Amazon - - - - - -
Andes - - - - - -
Chocó 12 27 41 3.4±4.0 4 86
Ecuador All ecoregions - - - - - -
Amazon - - - - - -
Andes - - - - - -
Chocó - - - - - -
Not identified Total 40 67 244 6.1±8.4 34 -
Colombia All ecoregions 10 24 37 3.7±4.1 10 -
Amazon 8 18 29 3.6±3.9 5 -
Andes - - - - - -
Chocó 5 7 8 1.6±0.8 6 -
Ecuador All ecoregions 7 14 16 2.3±2.1 3 -
102
Amazon 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
Andes 5 7 8 1.6±0.8 2 -
Chocó 1 6 7 7.0±0.0 1 -
Peru All ecoregions 29 40 122 4.2±4.1 12 -
Amazon 28 38 119 4.3±4.1 11 -
Andes 1 3 3 3.0±0.0 1 -
Bolivia All ecoregions 13 28 69 5.3±6.0 9 -
Amazon 13 28 68 5.2±5.9 8 -
Andes 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
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!
The human groups classified as “unidentified” showed a similar pattern as the

indigenous groups (Table 3.6). The first five most important subcategories were
identical, except uses related to Skin and subcutaneous tissue, which was replaced by
treatments for Muscular-skeletal system and Reproductive system and sexual health.
In contrast to all other groups, no Cultural uses were reported for the “unidentified”
groups.
Table 3.6: Medicinal palm species, different medicinal uses and use-reports in 20
medicinal subcategories for different human groups in northwestern South America,
combining data from bibliography and fieldwork.
Afro-
Indigenous Mestizo Not identified
American
Useful species
Useful species
Useful species
Useful species
Ailments and
Ailments and
Ailments and
Ailments and
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
Use-reports
diseases
diseases
diseases
diseases
Subcategories
Digestive system 39 13 181 19 10 48 2 3 6 25 14 60

Skin and subcutaneous tissue 34 14 109 6 3 7 2 2 2 7 5 8
Infections and infestations 28 13 110 10 7 19 2 2 2 19 7 44
Respiratory system 32 11 147 9 5 16 3 3 3 14 8 35
17 10 67 12 6 29 1 1 1 12 2 22
symptoms
Cultural diseases and disorders 22 10 41 4 1 4 1 1 1 - - -
Poisonings 20 7 62 2 2 3 - - - 6 3 6
Muscular-skeletal system 15 11 55 5 2 5 1 2 2 8 4 8
Blood and cardiovascular system 17 3 34 5 4 11 2 3 3 5 4 8
Urinary system 15 5 44 8 3 18 4 3 6 2 2 4
13 7 36 3 3 4 4 1 5 8 6 11
health
Pregnancy, birth and puerperium 14 6 28 5 5 15 2 2 2 3 4 7
Dental health 11 5 21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sensory system 7 3 12 1 1 1 - - - 2 2 3
Other medicinal uses 4 4 5 3 1 4 2 1 2 1 1 2
Metabolic system and nutrition 5 2 6 - - - 1 1 1 2 1 5
Endocrine system 2 1 5 5 1 7 - - - 2 1 2
Nervous system and mental health 2 2 4 - - - - - - 2 2 2
Veterinary 2 4 7 - - - - - - 1 1 1
Not specified at all 28 1 86 10 1 16 3 1 4 9 1 15
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Medicinal palm uses by indigenous groups

Medicinal uses of palms were reported for 55 indigenous groups: 48 in the Amazon,
five in the Andes, and five in the Chocó (Table 3.1), some of them in more than one
country and in more than one ecoregion. There was a large variation in the traditional
knowledge of the medicinal palms among different indigenous groups in the three
studied ecoregions, but most of them came from the Amazon (Table 3.7). The Tikuna
and Miraña in Colombia, the Huaorani in Ecuador, and the Quichua and Urarina in
Peru reported the highest number of medicinal palm species and among the highest
number of use-reports. The Tacana in Bolivia reported the highest number of different
ailments and diseases treated, with the second highest number of medicinal uses (after
the Tikuna in Colombia) and average number of uses per species (6.6 ± 6.7). The
Yaneshas in Peru had the highest average number of uses per species (7.5 ± 5.5)
among all groups, but reported only two useful species. The Quichua in Ecuador had
the largest number of bibliographical references (more than 50% of all groups), but
their knowledge was not the highest.
In the Andes the Leco in Bolivia and the Chanka in Peru, reported the highest number
of medicinal species, although the number of different ailments and diseases treated,
medicinal uses, use-reports, average number of uses per species was higher for the in
Bolivian group. The Quichua in Ecuador had the highest number of references, but
their overall knowledge was the lowest amongst all groups. In the Chocó, the Emberá
in Colombia and the Tsa’chila in Ecuador reported the highest medicinal knowledge.
In contrast to the Amazon, we found in the Andes and Chocó that the knowledge of
medicinal palm use corresponded clearly with the groups that had been best studied,
in particular in our fieldwork.
Outstanding medicinal palm species by ecoregions and countries

In general, and both at the ecoregion and country level, the species with the highest
relative importance value (RI) were also those that had a high number of use-reports,
literature references, and most recent fieldwork (Table 3.8).
Of all ecoregions, the Amazon had the highest number of the most versatile species
(RI> 1) (Table 3.8). Euterpe precatoria was the most important species (RI = 2),
followed by Oenocarpus bataua, Attalea phalerata, Bactris gasipaes, Cocos nucifera,
and Socratea exhorriza. In the Andes, we found that four of the five species with the
highest value of relative importance were the same species found in the Amazon: B.
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gasipaes was the most important species (RI = 2), followed by A. phalerata,
Chamaedorea angustisecta, C. nucifera and S. exhorriza. Oenocarpus bataua and E.
precatoria, both important in the Amazon were also important in the Andes and
ranked 5th and 6th. Only two of the most important species in the other ecoregions
were also important in the Chocó: C. nucifera was the most important species,
followed by Manicaria saccifera and B. gasipaes.
In Amazonia and the Chocó, the most versatile species were used in all countries,
while in the Andes the most important species did not have a wide geographic range,
and only one species, S. exhorriza, was recorded in all four countries. Two species
showed a greater diversification of medicinal uses in all ecoregions: B. gasipaes and
C. nucifera (Table 3.8, Appendix 3.2). The most important use subcategories, which
were similar in the Amazon and the Andes, were related to the Digestive system,
which remains the most important use, followed in different order by Infections and
infestations, Pregnancy, birth and puerperium, Reproductive system and General
ailments with unspecific symptoms, depending on the species and ecoregion. In the
Chocó both species were used for different species purposes. The most important use
of B. gasipaes was to treat ailments related to Pregnancy, birth and puerperium, as
well as Sensory system, while C. nucifera was used for conditions of the Digestive
system.
At the country level, Peru and Bolivia presented the highest number of the most
versatile species (RI>1) (Table 3.8). Euterpe precatoria was the most useful species
in Colombia (RI=2) and Peru (RI=2), while O. bataua was the most important species
in Ecuador (RI=2) and A. phalerata in Bolivia (RI=2). In Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru,
the most versatile species were used in all ecoregions (Appendix 3.2). In contrast, in
Colombia the most useful species did not have such wide geographic amplitude and
only O. bataua was found in all ecoregions. We did not find any important useful
species with RI>1 common in all countries (Table 3.8). Cocos nucifera however was
common in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and B. gasipaes and O. bataua were
common in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. In all these countries the most important use
of these palms was to treat Digestive disorders (Appendix 3.2). Some species were
only important in one country, e.g. M. saccifera in Colombia and Aiphanes ulei in
Ecuador (Table 3.8, Appendix 3.2).
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Table 3.7: Medicinal use palms by the different indigenous groups in northwestern South America
Average +
SD of
Useful Ailments Medicinal Medicinal Bibliographical
Indigenous groups Countries medicinal Interviews
species and diseases uses use-reports references
uses per
species
Amazon 67 122 566 903 6.1±12.7 78 765

Tikuna Colombia 21 31 84 97 4.1±4.0 5 88
Huaorani Ecuador 17 17 57 62 3.4±3.9 7 -
Miraña Colombia 16 19 30 33 1.9±2.0 5 22
Quichua (also in
Peru 15 10 32 32 1.6±1.6 1 -
Ecuador)
Urarina Peru 15 10 32 32 2.1±1.5 1 -
Aguaruna Peru 14 8 22 22 1.6±0.8 - 69
106
Makuna Colombia 13 17 23 23 1.8±2.4 - 37
Chacobo Bolivia 12 15 37 37 3.1±1.8 2 88
Muinane Colombia 12 10 21 21 1.5±1.7 5 -
Carijona Colombia 12 7 16 16 1.2±0.8 - 5
Tacana Bolivia 11 40 73 95 6.6±6.7 3 -
Asháninka Peru 11 22 30 30 2.7±1.7 2 -
Quichua (also in
Ecuador 9 21 28 33 1.5±2.9 10 -
Andes)
Yucuna Colombia 9 14 26 26 2.6±2.5 2 22
Tsimane’/Mosetene Bolivia 8 23 34 39 4.3±3.4 3 -
Ese Eja (also in
Peru 8 18 26 31 3.3±3.3 2 89
Bolivia)
Secoya Ecuador 7 8 14 15 1.7±0.5 4 -
Matapí Colombia 7 7 10 10 1.4±0.7 - 5
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Average +
SD of
uses per
species
Yuracaré Bolivia 6 12 23 23 3.8±2.4 - 66

Cocama Peru 6 12 17 17 2.8±2.4 1 87
Cofán Ecuador 6 8 8 10 1.3±0.5 1 82
Achuar (also in Peru) Ecuador 6 5 9 9 1.3±0.9 - 65
Shuar (also in Andes) Ecuador 6 1 7 7 0.7±0.5 2 -
Quechua/Tacana Bolivia 5 9 12 13 2.4±1.5 1 -
Yuracaré/Trinitario Bolivia 5 8 13 15 2.6±1.4 1 -
107
Huitoto Colombia 5 8 10 10 1.7±0.7 5 3
Siona (also in
Ecuador 5 5 5 5 0.8±0.4 3 -
Colombia)
Tsimane’ Bolivia 4 13 18 18 4.5±3.5 1 -
Mosetene Bolivia 4 9 14 15 3.5±2.1 3 -
Cubeo Colombia 4 8 8 8 2.0±1.2 2 3
Tanimuca Colombia 4 4 5 5 1.0±0.0 - 4
Ese Eja Bolivia 4 4 4 4 0.5±0.5 1 -
Piapoco Colombia 4 2 4 4 1.0±0.0 2 -
Yaminahua Bolivia 3 6 7 7 2.3±1.2 - 18
Yagua Peru 3 4 4 4 1.3±0.5 1 -
Bora Peru 3 3 3 3 1.0±0.0 2 -
Yanesha Peru 2 14 15 22 7.5±5.5 2 -
Siona Colombia 2 6 6 6 0.7±1.1 2 -
Geral Colombia 2 3 3 3 1.5±0.5 - 3
Awá Colombia 2 2 3 3 1.0±0.8 2 -
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Average +
SD of
uses per
species
Barasana Colombia 2 2 2 2 1.0±0.0 - 2

Puinave Colombia 2 2 2 2 1.0±0.0 2 -
Yahuna Colombia 2 2 2 2 1.0±0.0 - 3
Bora/Okaina/Huitoto Peru 2 1 2 2 1.0±0.0 1 -
Baré Colombia 1 2 3 3 3.0±0.0 - 2
Koreguaje Colombia 1 2 2 2 2.0±0.0 1 -
Guayabero Colombia 1 1 2 2 1.0±0.0 2 -
Achuar Peru 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
Andoque Colombia 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
Chawi Peru 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
108
Itana Colombia 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 - 2
Siona-Secoya Colombia 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
Andes 19 45 91 98 1.0±3.0 5 355
Leco Bolivia 11 32 57 60 5.2±4.6 1 178
Chanka Peru 11 13 21 21 1.9±1.7 1 90
Inga Colombia 4 5 7 7 1.8±0.8 - 87
Shuar Ecuador 4 1 5 5 0.4±0.5 1 -
Quichua Ecuador 3 5 5 5 0.3±0.7 2 -
Chocó 19 35 56 59 0.6±1.7 5 140
Emberá Colombia 13 18 24 24 1.8±1.6 1 88
Tsa’chila Ecuador 8 22 29 30 3.6±1.7 1 52
Awá Ecuador 1 1 2 2 0.7±0.9 1 -
Cayapa Ecuador 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
Waunana Colombia 1 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 -
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Table 3.8: Medicinal palms with the highest relative importance value index in different ecoregions / countries of northwestern South America.
Relative importance by ecoregions Relative importance by countries
Relative Medicinal Ailments Medicinal Bibliographical Use-reports
importance uses and diseases use-reports references from fieldwork
SPECIES Amazon Andes Chocó Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia
Euterpe precatoria 2.0 87 66 288 2.0 0.8 - 2.0 0.9 2.0 1.4 48 150
Oenocarpus bataua 1.5 95 53 209 1.6 1.0 0.5 0.9 2.0 1.5 1.4 52 42
Attalea phalerata 1.2 75 51 131 1.5 1.8 - - - 0.8 2.0 21 33
Bactris gasipaes 1.1 69 48 110 1.4 2.0 1.5 0.8 1.6 1.5 1.1 30 59
Cocos nucifera 1.0 57 44 105 1.2 1.2 1.8 1.6 1.2 1.1 0.7 20 50
Socratea exorrhiza 0.7 44 29 82 1.1 1.1 - 0.8 0.5 1.1 0.9 24 33
Chamaedorea angustisecta 0.6 36 26 47 0.9 1.2 - - - 0.3 1.2 14 13
Euterpe oleracea 0.4 23 22 27 0.8 - 0.7 0.9 - 1.0 0.1 2 19
Oenocarpus mapora 0.4 23 20 31 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.6 - 0.9 0.4 10 7
109
Iriartea deltoidea 0.4 22 19 30 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.1 11 12
Attalea butyracea 0.4 18 17 28 0.7 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.4 0.6 8 15
Attalea maripa 0.3 21 17 25 0.8 - - 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.2 7 8
Mauritia flexuosa 0.3 20 17 22 0.8 - - 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.3 10 6
Astrocaryum murumuru 0.3 19 14 34 0.6 0.6 - - - 0.6 0.7 7 7
Astrocaryum chambira 0.3 16 14 32 0.7 - - 0.6 0.2 0.7 - 10 11
Manicaria saccifera 0.3 16 16 22 0.1 - 1.9 1.3 - - - 3 16
Phytelephas macrocarpa 0.3 17 16 19 0.8 - 0.4 0.4 - 1.0 0.1 7 6
Lepidocaryum tenue 0.2 12 11 17 0.6 - - 0.6 - 0.4 - 4 9
Aiphanes ulei 0.2 16 11 16 0.6 - - - 1.0 - - 5 3
Astrocaryum aculeatum 0.2 13 9 16 0.4 - - 0.4 - - 0.4 3 12
Hyospathe elegans 0.2 10 9 15 0.4 - - 0.3 0.3 0.3 - 5 5
Attalea speciosa 0.2 9 8 11 0.5 - - - - - 0.6 5 5
Phytelephas tenuicaulis 0.2 7 7 14 0.5 - - - 0.2 0.4 - 5 -
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DISCUSSION
Use patterns in relation to ecoregions and countries

Our comparative ethnobotanical study at a regional geographic scale draws attention
to the many medicinal uses that different species consistently share across countries
and human groups throughout western Amazonia, the Andes, and the Chocó. The
great importance of palms in the traditional medicine of the Amazon can be explained
by factors that act in a complementary manner. On the one hand, the high species
diversity enables access to a wide range of potential resources (Begossi, 1996; De la
Torre et al., 2009; Brokamp et al., 2011). On the other hand, the diversity of
indigenous groups favors a highly distinctive ethnobotanical knowledge (Campos &
Ehringhaus, 2003; Macía 2004; Cámara-Leret et al. 2014c). External factors, such as
geographic isolation, lack of communication, and limited access to markets (Byg et
al., 2007; Godoy et al., 2009), as well as services (e.g., health centers) (Benz et al.,
2000), foster an increased dependence on, and increased use of local resources for
subsistence. These factors are more pronounced in the Colombian Amazon, where
indigenous communities are more isolated and maintain their traditional way of life.
In the Chocó, one of the most diverse ecoregions in South America (Bjorholm et al.,
2005), the diversity of species of palms could be a factor in determining the levels of
knowledge found. Furthermore, the presence of indigenous groups with large
traditional knowledge, together with the long history of contact between Amerindians
and Afro-Americans, has favored the exchange of knowledge (Caballero, 1995). The
lesser degree of knowledge found in the Andes is likely related to the decrease in the
number of palm species with increasing elevation, but also to the rapid disappearance
of forest cover, with remaining palm communities restricted to remote areas (De la
Torre et al., 2012). Most importantly, however, we suspect that the changes generated
in the Andean communities as a result of forests destruction, growing populations,
and increased access to trade and service centers, lead to the use of alternative
resources like western medicine, instead of the ones used traditionally (Ladio &
Lozada, 2001; Macía et al., 2005; Byg et al., 2007; De la Torre et al., 2009). This is
most evident in the Ecuadorian Andes, where communities are more densely
populated, with widespread development of infrastructure, and easier access to
markets and services like hospitals. Although the Amazon is clearly the best studied
ecoregion, and could potentially yield additional information (Cámara-Leret et al.,
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2014a), our fieldwork demonstrated the high potential of new information held in the
Andes, where ethnobotanical studies on palms have been much more piecemeal
(Macía et al., 2011).
We found that Ecuador was the best-studied country and most of the records obtained
during the fieldwork were already reported in the literature (De la Torre et al., 2008b;
Macía et al., 2011). When compared to the other countries, the medicinal use of palms
is clearly bettered documented there. This might be due to the small geographical size
of the country, and the associated better development of road infrastructure, which
could have facilitated botanical expeditions (Jørgensen & León-Yánez, 1999;
Jørgensen et al., 2006). In addition, ethnobotanical studies have a long tradition in
Ecuador (De la Torre & Macía, 2008), dating back to the 18th century (Velasco,
1978; Estrella, 1991). Based on current fieldwork and literature review, Colombia and
Peru are the countries where much additional information can potentially be found. A
small fraction of palm useful species was found in Colombia, despite the fact that this
country has the greatest palm species richness (Galeano & Bernal, 2010). This could
be related to the fact that many areas with multiethnic indigenous communities are
virtually inaccessible due to problems of political isolation and guerilla activity,
which has likely limited the development of research, including ethnobotanical
studies (Sánchez Cuervo & Aide, 2013). In addition, few studies have been conducted
with Afro-Americans, and the information we report comes from a small number of
available references and mostly from recent fieldwork (Ledezma, 2011). In Peru, the
large contribution of our fieldwork to the overall information, coupled with the low
percentage of indigenous groups with associated studies (Macía et al., 2011), indicate
that the ethnobotanical study of new indigenous groups will yield much new
information (Albán et al., 2008). Bolivia was the country with the highest number of
palms used for medicinal purposes, and with the highest number of uses per species.
While this may be influenced by the high number of monographs of palms available
for this country, it could also be due to the lower diversity of palms, forcing people to
use their resources more intensively. Anycase, there is a clear necessity for further
studies to complement palm ethnobotanical knowledge in all three ecoregions
(Cámara-Leret et al., 2014a). This is particularly true for the Chocó, which has
reported a wealth of potentially useful species (Galeano & Bernal, 2010), but also for
the Andes, which, having the lowest palm diversity, had the lowest percentage of
useful species reported. Additionally, still no information is available for c. 50% of
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the indigenous groups that are found in the region, and many of the existing studies
were conducted in very few communities, and with few informants, which limits the
amount of available information.
Subcategories of health disorders treated with palms

Our results confirm that the medicinal use of palms is clearly not random, because
their most important uses are the same in different ecoregions and countries. Palms
were primarily used to treat primary health problems such as Diarrhea (Digestive
system), Fever (General ailments with unspecific symptoms), Cough and Cold
(Respiratory system), Anemia (Blood and cardiovascular system), and as
Anthelmintic (Infections and infestations), which were the most important conditions
reported in our review, mainly from the Amazon. But palms are also used to treat
illnesses, ailments, and diseases in all the proposed subcategories (Cook, 1995; Macía
et al., 2011, Gruca et al. 2014), and such use has been supported and supplemented by
our fieldwork. The frequent treatment of ailments related to Skin and subcutaneous
tissue, like Wounds, Skin infections and Abscesses, as well as the other most
important illnesses like a Headache and Body pain (General ailments with unspecific
symptoms), Rheumatism and arthritis, Muscular pain and Back pain (Muscular-
skeletal system) and as Snake bite antidote and Insect bite (Poisonings), show their
importance in response to immediate health needs associated with common human
activities, while working in the fields, hunting and fishing, and gathering resources.
Such uses could be related to the fact that palms are common resources around
communities, easily accessible (Stepp & Moerman, 2001; Albuquerque & Lucena,
2005; Medeiros et al., 2013), and often managed in different ways (Bernal et al.,
2011). This shows the importance of a traditional knowledge that has been developed
and maintained in response to the needs of local communities (Heinrich, 2000).
Palms are often used to treat diseases considered most prevalent in the region, and
therefore receiving greater attention from public health systems (Holveck et al., 2007;
Organización Panamericana de la Salud, 2012). Most use-reports of palms for the
treatment of Hepatitis (Digestive systems), and Malaria (Infections and infestations)
come from recent publications (Forero, 2005; Balslev et al., 2008; Prado, 2008;
Sosnowska et al., 2010; Cerón et al., 2011), and our own fieldwork (Appendix 2).
This might explain the use of palms like Euterpe precatoria, whose anti-inflammatory
(Deharo et al., 2004) and antiplasmodial activity (Jensen et al., 2002; Kvist et al.,
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2006) has only recently been reported, and which has only recently been planted more
widely in the region in order to market its fruits and palm-hearts (Bussmann &
Paniagua Zambrana, 2012).
Palms were also used to treat popular and cultural ailments such as Freight (Susto),
Witchcraft (Hechicería), Bad air (Mal aire), and Evil eye (Mal de ojo), although these
are not diseases sensu-stricto under western medicinal nomenclature (Gruca et al.,
2014). However, these conditions are considered diseases within the local
classification of diseases and form part of the local cosmovision. In the case of Peru
and Bolivia, they are clearly based on Spanish influence (Bussmann & Sharon, 2009),
which extends both to the Amazon and the Andes in Colombia and Ecuador, where it
is influenced by African beliefs (Voeks, 2009).
Medicinal palms uses by different human groups

Previous studies have suggested that indigenous people of northwestern South
America possess more knowledge about the uses of palms than mestizos (Campos &
Ehringhaus, 2003; Byg & Balslev, 2004; Byg et al., 2007; Macía et al., 2011, Cámara-
Leret et al., 2014b) and our results reinforce this conclusion. This situation is the
result of a complex series of interactions of several factors, including a) history, since
a long period of occupation of an area facilitates the development of an extensive
knowledge and practical use of plants (Caballero, 1995; Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003;
Paniagua Zambrana et al., 2007); b) culture, based on hundreds of years of traditional
knowledge transmitted orally (Balée, 1988; Zarger & Stepp, 2004; Eyssartier et al.,
2008); c) economy, in particular the limited degree of market access, which means
limited access to alternative resources and services such as those offered at health
centers, and therefore greater reliance on traditional medicine (Byg & Balslev, 2004;
Byg et al., 2007; Perry & Gesler, 2002).
The traditional knowledge of the mestizo population should not be underestimated,
because it is as diverse as the knowledge of the indigenous groups. Mestizos often
have a long history that has enabled them to develop a deep understanding of their
ecological environment, which may in some cases be similar or complementary to
indigenous groups (Paniagua Zambrana et al., 2007; De la Torre et al., 2008b). Our
study probably underestimates the number of palms used by mestizos, because many
publications (e.g. Acosta-Solís, 1971; García Barriga, 1974; Proctor et al., 1992;
Gutiérrez-Vásquez & Peralta, 2001; Byg & Balslev, 2004; Moraes, 2004; Balslev et
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al., 2008), do not explicitly mention the human group studied and it is likely that
many of these use-reports also concern mestizos. If this is the case, the knowledge of
both human groups would probably be much more similar. Afro-Colombians, who
have been better studied than Afro-Ecuadorians, had a similar level of knowledge of
medicinal palms as indigenous groups in the Chocó. This can be explained by the
long history of residence of these groups and prolonged contact with the indigenous
people of this region (Mendoza et al., 1995).
Medicinal palm uses by indigenous groups

We found that indigenous knowledge in folk medicine is highly differentiated, even
between ethnic groups that occupy neighboring regions, and share similar resources
(Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Shepard, 2004; Collins et al., 2006; Paniagua et al.,
2014). This might be explained by the different cultural traditions, customs and
practices, mode of subsistence, provenance, and history of contact with western
society (Thomas, 2012). This underscores the need for more focused ethnobotanical
studies of more indigenous groups, since information for more than 50% of
indigenous groups in northwestern South America is still nonexistent (Macía et al.,
2011; Cámara-Leret et al., 2014a), or limited due to the scarcity of monographic
works documenting the plant use of indigenous groups in detail. In addition, many
studies focus only on few species (e.g. economically important ones) or record only
very generalized or little structured information.
Outstanding medicinal palm species

Only a small number of palms are of great importance regionally, due to their high
number of different medicinal uses across countries and ecoregions. This is a clear
expression of their local importance, strongly influenced by ecosystem (Medeiros et
al., 2013) and indicates a large convergence of the use of these species (Moerman et
al., 1999, Cámara-Leret et al. 2014c). However, hardly any studies exist that would
support their pharmacological efficacy.
These species are often trees that are relatively abundant in the different habitats due
to their ecological amplitude (Macía & Svenning, 2005; Pitman et al., 2013, Cámara-
Leret et al. 2014b) and plant parts such as fruits, seeds and roots that are easily
collected (Medeiros et al., 2013). Additionally, in some cases the preference for these
species may also be linked to their proven efficacy, e.g. in case of the roots of Euterpe
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precatoria, which are used to treat different types of diseases, which could be linked
to the species’ pharmacological properties (Jensen et al., 2002; Deharo et al., 2004).
The widespread and extensive use of Bactris gasipaes in 18 of the 20 subcategories
analyzed, both in all ecoregions and countries, could be due to the fact that this
species is one of the most widespread domesticated Neotropical palms (Clement,
1998). Initially selected for its wood, especially for making tools, it was later
preferred for its fruits due to high oil content and starch suitable for fermentation,
which more recently has gained it for commercial importance as a source of palm
hearts (Clement et al., 2009; 2010).
The occurrence of exotic species, as important resources in local medical systems has
already been mentioned elsewhere (Albuquerque, 2006; Eyssartier et al., 2008). The
common frequent medicinal use of Cocos nucifera in different ecoregions and
countries might be a result of its wide versatility and easy to be cultivated (Macía et
al., 2011), which, coupled with its proven antimicrobial effect against multiresistant
bacteria (Alanís et al., 2005; Calzada et al., 2007; Koschek et al., 2007) would have
enhanced its inclusion in the local pharmacopoeia (Bennett & Prance, 2000).
Finally, some studies have suggested that people tend to prefer (but not exclusively)
plants that grow, either spontaneous or cultivated, close to their settlements, and that
more common species are more likely to be used (Johns et al., 1990; Parada et al.,
2009). This may be the main driver of the widespread use of these species in all
ecoregions and countries.
CONCLUSIONS
Our results highlight the role of palms in meeting basic subsistence needs of rural
indigenous and peasant populations in northwestern South America, such as primary
health care, and indicate that the differences in the cultural, ecological, and
socioeconomic context have a considerable influence on the selection of medicinal
plants. The large numbers of references and field interviews, linking the different
variables analyzed (ecoregions, countries, human and indigenous groups) with palm
use, support this conclusion. We provide information that, in cooperation with
ethnopharmacological research, could improve the therapeutic use of traditional
medicine. This could potentially help to inform communities where the same species
grow, but where medicinal potential is so far unknown. Additionally, it could allow
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the development and application of less expensive treatments in many areas with
limited resources and limited access to allopathic medicine. A multidisciplinary
scientific validation of traditional medicine is relevant for modern societies, and can
help to maintain local healthcare practices, especially with respect to diseases and
conditions whose prevention, control and elimination are outlined in the Millennium
Development Goals (Holveck et al., 2007). These diseases are regarded as sustainable
development issues due to the high cost of long-term treatment, productivity loss, and
the large social costs associated with these conditions, which go beyond the simple
analysis of economic health.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We kindly thank Joaquina Albán, Pedro Armesilla, Rodrigo Bernal, Roxanna

Castañeda, Lucía de la Torre, Gloria Galeano, Carolina Isaza, Eva Ledezma, Laura
Mesa and Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana for their help in searching the bibliographical
references and to all the people who agreed to share their time and palm knowledge
with us. The collaboration of regional and local organizations of the 59 communities
visited was essential to obtain work permits. Special thanks to Erika Blacutt, Carolina
Tellez, Carlos Vega, Juan Carlos Copete, Marybel Soto, Lina Camelo, and Mateo
Jaimes for their invaluable assistance in data collection in the field, and special thanks
to Dr. Rainer Bussmann for their helpful comments and suggestions throughout the
development of the manuscript. This study was funded by European Union 7th
Framework Programme (contract 212631), the Russell E. Train Education for Nature
Program of the WWF, the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden,
and the Anne S. Chatham Fellowship of the Garden Clubs of America, for which we
are grateful.
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Appendix 3.1: Characteristic of the 59 communities and 24 localities where 1956 people were interviewed about their medicinal knowledge of
palm use in northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia).
Elevation Number of
Locality Nº Community Ecoregion Country Geographic coordinates Ethnic group
(m) informants
Multiethnic
1 1 Angostura Amazon Colombia 1°17'42.12"S, 69°38'10.38"W 66 16
indigenous
Multiethnic
1 2 Camaritagua Amazon Colombia 1°20'20.99"S, 69°35'3.76"W 81 10
indigenous
1 3 Centro Providencia Amazon Colombia 1°3'39.72"S, 70°14'24.15"W 105 Makuna 33
Multiethnic
1 4 Curare Amazon Colombia 1°18'38.51"S, 69°43'18.83"W 86 19
indigenous
Multiethnic
1 5 Loma Linda Amazon Colombia 1°13'45.63"S, 69°46'37.47"W 69 8
indigenous
129
Multiethnic
1 6 Los Ingleses Amazon Colombia 1°22'32.89"S, 69°57'47.77"W 110 5
indigenous
1 7 San Francisco Amazon Colombia 1°6'35.38"S, 71°6'19.22"W 143 Miraña 7
Multiethnic
1 8 Yucuna Amazon Colombia 1°18'11.42"S, 69°34'47.25"W 89 19
indigenous
2 9 San Martín de Amacayacu Amazon Colombia 3°46'29.85"S, 70°18'10.39"W 101 Tikuna 88
3 10 Dureno Amazon Ecuador 0°2'31.92"N, 76°41'42.54"W 241 Cofan 55
3 11 Pacuya Amazon Ecuador 0°19'21.09"S, 75°45'28.49"W 215 Cofan 13
3 12 Zábalo Amazon Ecuador 0°21'22.53"S, 75°40'46.31"W 210 Cofan 14
4 13 Kapawi Amazon Ecuador 2°32'24.17"S, 76°50'19.37"W 257 Achuar 34
4 14 Kusutkau Amazon Ecuador 2°30'47.03"S, 76°53'49.29"W 250 Achuar 10
4 15 Wayusentsa Amazon Ecuador 2°26'29.87"S, 76°55'7.16"W 260 Achuar 21
5 16 San Martín Amazon Peru 4°41'27.00"S, 74°24'4.00"W 116 Cocama 87
6 17 El Chino Amazon Peru 4°18'14.80"S, 73°13'6.00"W 94 Mestizo 79
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Appendix 3.1: continued

Elevation Number of
(m) informants
7 18 Santa Ana Amazon Peru 4°3'25.57"S, 73°8'5.60"W 98 Mestizo 89
8 19 Cusu Chico Amazon Peru 5°4'33.40"S, 78°18'3.00"W 295 Aguaruna 13
8 20 Nueva Samaria Amazon Peru 4°57'43.40"S, 78°19'43.60"W 370 Aguaruna 20
8 21 Yamayakat Amazon Peru 5°3'19.90"S, 78°20'16.50"W 338 Aguaruna 36
9 22 San Juan Amazon Peru 12°44'11.44"S, 69°31'42.22"W 254 Mestizo 4
9 23 Santa Rosa Amazon Peru 12°54'15.75"S, 70°6'26.58"W 356 Mestizo 24
9 24 Santo Domingo Amazon Peru 12°42'14.94"S, 69°27'7.05"W 229 Mestizo 7
9 25 Unión Progreso Amazon Peru 12°46'50.73"S, 69°35'53.54"W 232 Mestizo 14
9 26 Villa Santiago Amazon Peru 13°0'57.40"S, 70°20'56.50"W 331 Mestizo-Amakaeri 40
10 27 Palma Real Amazon Peru 12°30'39.79"S, 68°46'35.16"W 208 Ese Eja 89
11 28 Puerto Yaminahua Amazon Bolivia 10°56'27.40"S, 69°25'39.80"W 289 Yaminahua 18
130
12 29 26 de Octubre Amazon Bolivia 11°08'55.04"S, 60°01'02.44"W 156 Mestizo 38
12 30 El Hondo Amazon Bolivia 11°02'9.60"S, 65°46'37.40"W 179 Mestizo 9
12 31 Santa María Amazon Bolivia 11°07'9.90"S, 65°56'19.04"W 176 Mestizo 41
13 32 Alto Ivón Amazon Bolivia 11°52'24.90"S, 66°2'10.60"W 148 Chácobo 56
13 33 Motacuzal Amazon Bolivia 11°51'42.29"S, 66°4'44.25"W 151 Chácobo 24
13 34 Puerto Tujure Amazon Bolivia 11°50'21.44"S, 66°2'20.31"W 156 Chácobo 1
13 35 Tokyo Amazon Bolivia 11°48'7.67"S, 66°0'24.92"W 173 Chácobo 7
14 36 Nuevo San Juan del Isiboro Amazon Bolivia 16°34'5.78"S, 65°32'14.99"W 224 Yuracaré 6
14 37 San Antonio Amazon Bolivia 16°23'55.66"S, 65°54'44.45"W 296 Yuracaré 14
14 38 San Benito Amazon Bolivia 16°32'32.81"S, 65°30'22.22"W 216 Yuracaré 17
14 39 Sanandita Amazon Bolivia 16°31'43.8'S, 65°28'35.3'W 207 Yuracaré 13
!
!

Elevation Number of
(m) informants
14 40 Secejsama Amazon Bolivia 16°32'36.4'S, 65°30'58.9'W 217 Yuracaré 16
15 41 Juisanoy Andes Colombia 1°8'45.10"N, 77°0'14.82"W 2200 Camsá-Inga 11
15 42 Santiago Andes Colombia 1°8'45.10"N, 77°0'14.82"W 2100 Inga 76
16 43 Nanegalito Andes Ecuador 0°3'43.83"N, 78°40'30.81"W 1600 Mestizo 86
17 44 Mindo Andes Ecuador 0°2'45.33"S, 78°45'51.42"W 1280 Mestizo 87
18 45 Aviación Andes Peru 6°21'50.80"S, 76°29'12.60"W 1041 Chanka 22
18 46 Lamas Wayku Andes Peru 6°25'26.86"S, 76°31'21.30"W 782 Chanka 68
19 47 Irimo Andes Bolivia 15°5'59.02"S, 68°14'6.20"W 1010 Leco 50
19 48 Munaypata Andes Bolivia 15°1'5.10"S, 68°14'6.20"W 1157 Leco 18
131
19 49 Pucasucho Andes Bolivia 14°47'56.60"S, 68°14'2.00"W 1553 Leco 21
20 50 Correo Andes Bolivia 14°53'17.82"S, 68°29'0.85"W 1275 Leco-Mestizo 32
20 51 Illipanayuyo Andes Bolivia 14°57'10.11"S, 68°30'50.96"W 1053 Leco 24
20 52 Santo Domingo Andes Bolivia 14°46'50.60"S, 68°35'55.95"W 1420 Leco 33
21 53 Puerto Pervel Chocó Colombia 5°23'44.29"N, 76°42'58.22"W 63 Afro-American 86
22 54 Aguacate Chocó Colombia 5°12'2.51"N, 77°10'17.19"W 109 Emberá 44
22 55 Villanueva Chocó Colombia 5°6'15.23"N, 77°11'46.13"W 49 Emberá 44
23 56 Puerto Quito Chocó Ecuador 0°7'21.00"N, 79°15'55.02"W 145 Mestizo 88
24 57 Chigüilpe Chocó Ecuador 0°15'41.70"S, 79°6'14.17"W 437 Tsa'chila 33
24 58 El Poste Chocó Ecuador 0°15'35.64"S, 79°12'21.57"W 450 Tsa'chila 2
24 59 Peripa Chocó Ecuador 0°15'35.64"S, 79°12'21.57"W 450 Tsa'chila 17
!
! !
!
!
Appendix 3.2: Medicinal palm uses documented in the bibliography and fieldwork in the tropical rainforests of northwestern South America,
broken down by ecoregion, country, and human groups.
Fieldwork
Ailments and Palm Human References
Scientific name Use subcategories Countries Ecoregions Localities
diseases parts groups (*)
(**)
Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.)
Digestive system Gallbladder Fr B Am M 12
Lodd. ex Mart.
Hepatitis Rt B Am Ni 89
General ailments with
Fever Fr B Am M 12
unspecific symptoms
Respiratory system Cold Rt B Am I 101
Cough Fr B Am Ni 60
Sensory system Cataracts Fr B Am Ni 60
Aiphanes horrida (Jacq.) Cultural diseases and
Freight Sp B An I 19
Burret disorders
132
Inflammation
Urinary system Rt P An I 18
of kidneys
Aiphanes ulei (Dammer) Blood and Blood
Ph E Am I 4
Burret cardiovascular system purification
Dental health Toothache Ph E Am I 4
Digestive system Colic Rt E Am I 34
Body pain Ph E Am I 18, 77
unspecific symptoms
Headache Rt E Am I 77
Shivers Rt E Am I 77
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt E Am I 33
Respiratory system Cold Ph, Rt E Am I 77
Cough Ph, Rt, Sd E Am I 77, 88
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Flu Rt, Sd E Am I 88
Skin and subcutaneous Extraction of
Sp E Am I 4
tissue spines
Ammandra decasperma O.F.
Digestive system Diarrhea Sd E Am I 77
Cook
Intestinal pain Sd E Am I 77
Asterogyne martiana (H.
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr C Ch A 21
Wendl.) H. Wendl. ex Drude
Astrocaryum aculeatum G. General ailments with
Fever Fr B Am I, M 12, 13
Mey. unspecific symptoms
Infections and
Amoebas Ph, Rt, Sd B, C Am I 68 1, 13
infestations
133
Unspecified Ph C Am I 68
Respiratory system Cold Fr B Am I, M 12, 13
Cough Lf C Am I 1
Pneumonia Fr, Sd B, C Am I, Ni 107, 117
Eye
Sensory system Sd C Am I 2
inflammation
Skin and subcutaneous
Abscesses Fr, Sp B Am I, M 12, 13
tissue
Extraction of
Sp B Am I 13
spines
Astrocaryum chambira Burret Dental health Dental floss Sl C Am I 1
Digestive system Diarrhea Sd C Am I 1, 2
Hepatitis Fr, Ph P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Fever Ph C Am I 2
unspecific symptoms
Infections and
Malaria Fr P Am Ni 14
infestations
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Measles Sd E Am I 26
Unspecified Rt P Am Ni 14
Yellow Fever Rt P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Muscular-skeletal Rheumatism
Lf P Am Ni 83
system and Arthritis
Not specified at all Unspecified Ns C Am I, M 24, 25, 55
Snake bit
Poisonings Ph, Sd C, P Am I 106 8
antidote
Pregnancy, birth and
Galactogogue Sd P Am I 8
puerperal
Respiratory system Flu Ph P Am I 38
Sp C, E Am I 77 1
tissue spines
Astrocaryum ciliatum F.Kahn
134
Digestive system Purgative Pt C Am I 1
& B.Millán
Snake bit
Poisonings Ph C Am I 72, 106 1
antidote
Respiratory system Flu Pt C Am I 1
Sp C Am I 1
tissue spines
Astrocaryum ferrugineum Infections and
Amoebas Pt C Am I 49, 106
F.Kahn & B.Millán infestations
Astrocaryum gratum F. Kahn Cultural diseases and
Witchcraft Sp B Am I 19
& B. Millán disorders
Muscular-skeletal
Back pain Rt B Am I 19
system
Sp B Am I 19
tissue spines
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Astrocaryum gynacanthum
Respiratory system Cold Lf C Am I 117
Mart.
Pneumonia Sd C Am I 1
Sp C Am I 1
tissue spines
Astrocaryum huaimi Mart. Abscesses Sp P Am M 5
tissue
Urinary system Prostate Sl P Am M 6
Astrocaryum huicungo
Digestive system Hepatitis Rt P An I 18
Dammer ex Burret
puerperal
135
Astrocaryum jauari Mart. Digestive system Hepatitis Ph P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Sp C, E Am I 1, 4
tissue spines
Blood and
Astrocaryum murumuru Mart. Anemia Fr B An I 19
cardiovascular system
Cultural diseases and
Freight Sp B An I 19
disorders
Witchcraft Sp B Am I 78
Dental health Toothache Sp B Am I 78
14, 100,
Digestive system Hepatitis Ph, Rt P Am I, M, Ni
120
Stomach pain Sd B An I 19
Fever Fr, Rt, St B, P Am M, Ni 14 12
unspecific symptoms
Infections and
Amoebas Rt B Am I 13
infestations
Malaria Ph, Rt, St P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Muscular-skeletal
Back pain Ph P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
system
Not specified at all Unspecified Ns P Am M 96
Reproductive system
Fertility Ns P Am Ni 118
and sexual health
Callus Fr B Am I 3
tissue
Extraction of
Sp B Am, An I 78 13, 19
spines
Astrocaryum sciophilum
Dental health Purgative Lf C Am I 68
(Miq.) Pulle
Snake bit
Poisonings Lf C Am I 71
antidote
Astrocaryum standleyanum Cultural diseases and
136
Psychosomatic Sp C Ch I 49
L.H. Bailey disorders
Respiratory system Asthma Sp E Ch I 24
Fr C Ch I 22
tissue spines
Astrocaryum urostachys Cultural diseases and
Bad Air Sp E Am, An I 9, 13
Burret disorders
Respiratory system Cold Lf, St E Am I 77
Attalea allenii H.E. Moore Evil eye Sd C Ch I 22
disorders
Inflammation
Urinary system Lf, Sl C Ch A 21
of kidneys
Attalea bassleriana (Burret)
Poisonings Antidote Sd C Am I 68
Zona
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Attalea butyracea (Mutis ex L. Blood and
Goiter Ns C Ch Ni 39
f.) Wess. Boer cardiovascular system
Freight Sd B Am I, M 12, 13, 14
disorders
Digestive system Diarrhea Br, Sd B, P Am I 5
Hepatitis Rt P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Unspecified Rt P Am M 96
Body pain Rt B Am M 12
unspecific symptoms
Fever Sd B Am M 12
Headache Sd B Am I 13
137
Infections and
Amoebas Sd B Am I 11, 13, 14
infestations
Itch Rt B Am I 14
Sd B Am M 12
Not specified at all Unspecified Sd C Am Ni 102
Reproductive system
Fertility St C Ch Ni 16
and sexual health
Respiratory system Bronchitis Sd B, C Am, Ch Ni 16, 60
Cold Sd B, P Am I 10, 14
Cough Sd B Am Ni 60
Burns Sd P Am I 10
tissue
Attalea colenda (O.F. Cook)
Digestive system Purgative Sd E Ch I 32
Balslev & A.J. Hend.
Respiratory system Asthma Fr E Ch I 24
Attalea insignis (Mart.) Drude Not specified at all Unspecified Fr P Am Ni 14
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Blood and
Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. Anemia Rt B Am I 13
Angry women Rt C Am I 68
disorders
Digestive system Diarrhea Fr, Ph, St P Am Ni 14
Hepatitis Fr P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Purgative Ph C Am I 1
General ailments with Lack of

Fr C Am I 68
unspecific symptoms appetite
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr, Ph, St P Am Ni 14
Poisonings Antidote Rt C Am I 68
Antidote for
poisonous Ph C Am I 116
138
plants
Snake bit
Lf C Am I 1
antidote
Galactogogue St C Am I 1
puerperal
Reproductive system
Fertility Fr C Am I 2
and sexual health
Respiratory system Cold Fr E Am I 18
Cough Fr B Am M 12
Pneumonia Fr C Am I 1
Respiratory
Fr C Am I 49
infections
Rash Sd C Am I 84
tissue
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Attalea phalerata Mart. ex Blood and 3, 19, 122,
Anemia Lf B Am I
Spreng. cardiovascular system 123
Evil eye Rt B Am I 3
disorders
Freight Sd B Am I, M 12, 14
Digestive system Diarrhea Br, Sd B Am I 3, 19, 123
Gallbladder Rt, Sd B Am M, Ni 97 12
Hepatitis Rt, Sd, St P Am I 120
Inguinal
Rt B An I 19
Hernia
Intestinal pain Rt B Am I 19
139
Purgative Rt, Sd P An I 18
Unspecified Sd B Am I 17
General ailments with 19, 91, 97,
Fever Lf B Am I, M, Ni 12, 14
unspecific symptoms 122
Headache Fr, Rt, Sd B Am I 19
Unspecified Sd P Am I, M 100
Infections and
Amoebas Sd B Am I, M, Ni 97, 122 12, 13, 14
infestations
Anthelmintic Rt, St B Am, An I, Ni 3, 7, 78, 90 19
Itch Rt B Am I 14
Lice Sd P Am I 10
Smallpox Sd B Am I 123
Unspecified Sd B Am I 123
Metabolic System and
Vitamin Sd B Am I, Ni 19, 97
nutrition
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Muscular-skeletal
Back pain Rt, St B Am I 19, 78, 123
system
Bone pain Rt, Sd B An I 19
Fractures Rt B An I 20
Hematoma Rt B Am I 78
Hernia Sd B An I 87
Hip pain Rt B Am I 123
Muscular pain Sd B Am Ni 90
14, 60, 61,
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr B, P Am, An I, M, Ni 18
89
Fr, Lf, Rt,
Other Alcoholism B Am I 78
Sd, Ns
Hair loss Fl B Am Ni 89, 91
140
Snake bit
Poisonings Fr B, P Am I, M 8, 12
antidote
Pregnancy, birth and Childbirth
Pt, Ph B Am, An I 87, 122
puerperal problems
Postpartum Fr, Rt B An I 19
Reproductive system
Contraceptive Rt B Am I 123
and sexual health
Uterus
Ns B Am, An I, Ni 97, 98 19
infections
Respiratory system Bronchitis Rt, St B Am I 19
10, 12, 13, 14
Cold Sd B, P Am, An I, M 98, 101
19
Cough Rt, Sd B Am, An I 19, 87, 123
Flu Sd B Am I 123
Pneumonia Sd B Am, An I, Ni 19, 87, 90
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory
Fr, Sd B Am Ni 99
infections
Skin and subcutaneous 3, 19, 62,
Abscesses Fr, Sd B Am, An I
tissue 78, 87
Burns Rt, Sd B Am, An I 19 19
Dandruff Sd B Am Ni 89, 91
3, 19, 62,
Psoriasis Fr B Am I, M 12, 14
101
Skin
Sd B Am I 19
infections
Skin spots Sd B, P Am I 120, 122
141
Swellings Fr, Sd B Am I 19, 78
Wounds Sd B Am, An I 19, 87
Inflammation
Urinary system Fr, Sd B Am, An I, M 12, 14, 19
of kidneys
Prostate Rt, Sd B An I 87
Attalea plowmanii (Glassman) Pregnancy, birth and Childbirth
Rt C Am I 106
Zona puerperal problems
Attalea speciosa Mart. Freight Fr B Am M 12
disorders
Body pain Sd B Am M 12
unspecific symptoms
Fever Sd B Am M, Ni 99 12
Infections and
Amoebas Sd B Am I 13
infestations
Rt B Am M 12
Not specified at all Unspecified Sd B Am I, Ni 89, 92, 98
Respiratory system Pneumonia Fr, Sd B Am Ni 107
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory
Sd B Am Ni 99
infections
Bactris acanthocarpa Mart. Digestive system Unspecified Sd B Am I 17
Infections and
Malaria Fr P Am Ni 14
infestations
Rt B Am I 1, 13
tissue spines
Bactris barronis L.H. Bailey Sp C Ch I 22
tissue spines
Bactris bidentula Spruce Sp C Am I 1
tissue spines
Blood and
Bactris brongniartii Mart. Anemia Sp P Am I 8
Sensory system Earache Ph C, P Am I 84 8
Bactris coloradonis L.H. Reproductive system
142
Fertility Sl, Ph C Ch I 22
Bailey and sexual health
Bactris concinna Mart. Digestive system Purgative Fr C Am I 46
Infections and
Malaria Rt C Am I 46
infestations
Respiratory system Cold Rt E Am I 77
Cough Rt E Am I 77
Rt C Am I 1
tissue spines
Urinary
Urinary system Sp C Am I 46
problems
Blood and Blood
Bactris corossilla H. Karst. Rt E Am I 4
cardiovascular system purification
Digestive system Diarrhea Ph E Am I 28
Intestinal pain Ph E Am I 28
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Infections and
Anthelmintic Ph E Am I 28
infestations
Not specified at all Unspecified Ph E Am I 10
Ns C Am I 1
tissue spines
Blood and
Bactris gasipaes Kunth Anemia Sp B An I 19
Freight Ph B, P An I, M 36 20
disorders
Psychosomatic Sp E Am I 65
Witchcraft Ph E Ch I 24
143
Digestive system Diarrhea Sp E Am I 65, 79
Gallbladder Rt, Ns B Am M 12
Hepatitis Fr C, P Am, An I, M, Ni 14, 100 2, 18
Inguinal
Rt B, P Am, An I, M 19
Hernia
Intestinal pain Rt P Am Ni 14
Am, An,
Stomach pain Rt B, C, E I 2, 20, 24
Ch
Body pain Ph, Rt, Sd B, E Am, An I, M 64 12, 14, 19
unspecific symptoms
Fever Fr, Rt, Ns B Am I, M 78 12
Headache Fr B Am M 12
Infections and
Anthelmintic Fr P Am I 76
infestations
Chickenpox Ns C Am I 1
Malaria Ph C, P Am I, M, Ni 14 2, 7, 10
Tuberculosis Rt B Am I 20
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Unspecified Fr E Am Ni 21
Yellow Fever Ph C Am I 2
Vitamin Rt E Ch I 24
nutrition
Muscular-skeletal
Muscular pain Rt E Am, Ch I 4, 24
system
Nervous system and
Epilepsy Fr, Rt E, P Am I 111, 124
mental health
10, 30, 62,
Not specified at all Unspecified Lf, Rt, Sp B, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni 96, 99, 113, 8
126
Fr, Lf, Sl,
Other Cancer C Ch A 21
Ph, Ns
Snakebite
Poisonings Sd P Am I 8
antidote
144
Abortive Ph C, P Am, Ch I, Ni 14 22
puerperium
Antiabortive Rt C, P Am, Ch A, M 69, 74 6
Childbirth
Rt C, P Am I, M 56 2, 5, 7
problems
Galactogogue Rt B, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni 14, 57, 65 8, 18
Fr, Ph,
Mastitis P Am I 18
Rt, Ns
Postpartum Rt B An I 19
Reproductive system
Contraceptive Rt E, P Am I 4, 65
and sexual health
Am, An, A, I, M, 14, 100,
Fertility Rt C, P 18, 21
Ch Ni 104
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Gonorrhea Fr, Rt, Ns P An I 10
Menstrual
Rt C An I 56, 84, 121
problems
Uterus
Rt B, P Ch I 18, 19
infections
Respiratory system Cold Rt B, P Am, An I, M 6, 20
Cough Fr, Rt B Am I 123
Pneumonia Fr P Am M 7
Am, An,
Sensory system Earache Rt E I, Ni 21 4, 24
Ch
Eye Fr, Lf,
E Ch I 24
145
inflammation Ph, Rt
Fr C, E Am, Ch I 77 1, 22
tissue spines
Psoriasis Sp B An I 19
Swellings Fr B Am I 78
Inflammation
Urinary system Fr P Am, An I, M 36 5
of kidneys
Urinary
Rt P Am I 120
infections
Urinary
Rt B Am I 109
problems
Veterinary Unspecified Rt P Am Ni 14
Bactris hirta Mart. Sensory system Earache Rt P Am I 8
Bactris macroacantha Mart. Sl C Am I 1
tissue spines
Bactris major Jacq. Freight Sp B An I 19
disorders
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Digestive system Diarrhea Sp B An I 19
Purgative Sd C Am Ni 50
Infections and
Anthelmintic Fr C Am Ni 50
infestations
Poisonings Antidote Fr C Am Ni 50
Blood and Blood
Bactris maraja Mart. Fr E Am I 4
cardiovascular system purification
Digestive system Purgative Ph C Am I 46
Infections and
infestations
Respiratory system Cough Rt E Am I 77
Throat ache Rt E Am I 77
Rt C Am, Ch I 1, 22
tissue spines
146
Urinary
Urinary system Sp C Am I 46
problems
Reproductive system Menstrual
Bactris riparia Mart. Rt P Am Ni 14
and sexual health problems
Rt C Am I 1
tissue spines
Bactris setulosa H. Karst. Not specified at all Unspecified Sp E Am I 30
Bactris simplicifrons Mart. Fever Fr P Am Ni 14
unspecific symptoms
Nervous system and
Soporific Fr P Am I 52
mental health
Not specified at all Unspecified Ns E Am I 10
Ceroxylon parvum Galeano Freight Ns B An I 20
disorders
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Ceroxylon quindiuense (H. Infections and
Malaria Sl P An I 18
Karst.) H. Wendl. infestations
Chamaedorea angustisecta
Dental health Toothache Rt B An I 19
Burret
Abdominal
Digestive system Fl B Am I 19
pain
Appendicitis Fl B Am Ni 107
Colic in babies Fl B An I 19
19, 78, 89,
Diarrhea Fl B Am, An I, Ni 19
90
Intestinal pain Fl B Am I 19, 78
147
Stomach pain Fl B Am, An I, M 12, 19
Vomiting Fl B Am I 19, 78
Body pain Fl P Am I 10
unspecific symptoms
Fever Fl B An I 20
Headache Fl B An I 19
Indisposition Fr B Am I 7
Infections and
Anthelmintic Fl B An I 19
infestations
Muscular-skeletal
Hematoma Fl B Am I 123
system
Not specified at all Unspecified Ph B, P Am, An I 119 18
Poisonings Insect bit Fl, Ns B Am I 3, 7, 109
Snakebite Fl, Ph, Rt,
B Am I, Ni 19, 99
antidote St
!
!
Appendix 3.2: continue

Fieldwork
(**)
Worms
poisonous Fl, Lf B Am I 3, 109
bites
Fl, Ph, St B Am I 19
puerperium problems
Reproductive system
Contraceptive Fl B Am, An I 123 19
and sexual health
Menstrual
Fr, Ph B Am I 7, 19
problems
Respiratory system Cold Fl, Ph B Am I, Ni 98, 99, 101
Cough Fl B An I 19
Flu Fl B Am I 7
Skin and subcutaneous Skin
Fl P Am I 120
tissue infections
148
Wounds Fr B Am I 109
Chamaedorea pauciflora Infections and
Lice Lf, St E Am I 77
Mart. infestations
Chamaedorea pinnatifrons
Digestive system Stomach pain Fl B An I 20
(Jacq.) Oerst.
Vomiting Sd B Am I 14
Poisonings Insect bit Sl B Am I 7
Respiratory system Cold Ph, Rt B Am I 101
Cough Fl B Am I 14
Blood and
Cocos nucifera L. Anemia Fl C Ch Ni 102
Hemorrhoids Fr P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Dental health Gum health Fr C Am Ni 50
Toothache Rt C Ch A, I 21, 22
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Abdominal
Digestive system Fr B Am Ni 60
pain
Astringent Fr E Ch Ni 1
Am, An, A, I, M, 2, 7,11,17, 21,
Diarrhea Fl B, C, E, P 50, 57
Ch Ni 22, 23
Intestinal pain Fr, Rt, Sd B, C Am, An I, M, Ni 7, 50, 47
Jaundice Fr, Sd C Am Ni 50
Liver pain Sd E An, Ch I, Ni 1, 67
Purgative Sd C, E Am, Ch A, I, Ni 50, 129 21, 22, 24
Stomach pain Fr, Sd E, P Am, Ch M, Ni 1 6
149
Vomiting Sd C Am I 2
General ailments with Am, An,
Fever Sd B, E, P I, M, Ni 1, 7, 14 5, 6, 11, 18
unspecific symptoms Ch
Headache Rt, Sd B Am I 3, 7
Am, An,
Rehydration Fr, Sd C, E, P I, M 1, 3, 6, 17, 23
Ch
Infections and Am, An,
Anthelmintic Sd B, C, E I, M, Ni 50, 60 16, 24
infestations Ch
Cholera Fr, Sd C Ch Ni 22
Dengue Sd E Ch M 23
Malaria Sd P Am Ni 14
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr, Sd C, E Am, Ch A, I 104 1, 21, 24
Poisonings Antidote Fr, Sd C Am Ni 50
Abortive Rt P Am M 119 5
puerperium
Antiabortive Fr C, P Am I 58, 84 5
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Childbirth
Fr, Lf, Pt B, P Am, An M, Ni 14, 57
problems
Galactogogue Fr, Sd P Am Ni 83
Postpartum Sd P Am M 6
Vomiting Sd C Am Ni 50
Reproductive system
Contraceptive Sd P Am Ni 118
and sexual health
Gonorrhea Fr C Am Ni 50
Menstrual
Rt B, E Am, An I, Ni 60, 67
problems
Respiratory system Pneumonia Fr P Am Ni 14
Sudorific Fr B An M 57
Throat ache Fr C Ch A 74
150
Burns Lf P Am I 38
tissue
Hemorrhage Sd C Am I 1
Psoriasis Fr C Ch I 22
Skin
Sd C Ch I 22
infections
Wounds Sd E Ch Ni 1
Urinary system Diuretic Fr E Ch Ni 1
Inflammation Am, An, 5, 7, 16, 23,
Fr, Sd E, P I, M 67
of kidneys Ch 24
Prostate Sd C Am I 2
Urinary
Fr B, E Am, Ch I 7 24
problems
Veterinary Purgative Sd C Ch I 22
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Blood and Circulatory
Copernicia alba Morong Sd B Am Ni 89
cardiovascular system problems
Rt B Am Ni 89
Desmoncus cirrhiferus A.H. Infections and
Tonsillitis Rt C Ch A 21
Gentry & Zardini infestations
Nervous system and
Psychosomatic Ph C Ch Ni 74
mental health
Wounds St C Ch A 21
tissue
Desmoncus giganteus A.J. Blood and Circulatory
Ph P Am Ni 14
151
Hend. cardiovascular system problems
Digestive system Liver pain Fr P Am M 6
Muscular-skeletal
Hernia St E Am Ni 18
system
Not specified at all Unspecified Ph P Am Ni 14
Inflammation
Urinary system St P Am M 6
of kidneys
Desmoncus mitis Mart. Bad Air St E Am I 12
disorders
Body pain Rt E Am I 77
unspecific symptoms
Muscular-skeletal
Hernia Lf, St E Am I 79
system
Respiratory system Cold Ns E Am I 77
Abscesses Lf, St E Am I 79
tissue
Extraction of
Ns C Am I 1
spines
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Desmoncus orthacanthos
Digestive system Colic St E Am I 34
Mart.
Hepatitis Ph P Am Ni 14
Intestinal pain Fr E Am I 12
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Digestive system Unspecified Rt E Ch M 23
Infections and
Anthelmintic Fr C Am Ni 50
infestations
Fr C Am Ni 50
tissue infections
Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés Fever Ns C Ch A 21
unspecific symptoms
Infections and
Anthelmintic Fr C Am, Ch A, Ni 49, 74
infestations
Not specified at all Unspecified Sd P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
152
Respiratory system Asphyxia Lf C Ch Ni 51
Wounds Sd C Am M 45
tissue
Blood and
Euterpe catinga Wallace Anemia Ns C Am I 2
Digestive system Diarrhea Rt C Am I 2
Hepatitis Rt P Am Ni 14
Infections and
Malaria Rt C, P Am I, Ni 14, 106 2
infestations
Yellow Fever Fr, Rt P Am Ni 14
Respiratory system Cough Rt C Am I 106
Pneumonia Rt P Am Ni 14
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Blood and
Euterpe oleracea Mart. Anemia Rt B, C Am, Ch A, I, M 2, 12, 21
Blood
Fr, Rt C Ch A 110
purification
Digestive system Diarrhea Fr C Am I 2
Gallbladder Rt P Am M 6
Hepatitis Rt C Am I 1, 2
Liver pain Rt P Am M 119
Stomach pain Rt C Am I 2
Endocrine system Diabetes Rt P Am M 119
General ailments with Body
153
Rt P Am M 6
unspecific symptoms weakness
Unspecified Fr P Am M 6
Infections and
Aids Rt P Am M 119
infestations
Malaria Rt C Am I 2
Yellow Fever Rt C Am I 2
Vitamin Rt C Ch A 110
nutrition
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr C, P Am I, M 1, 6
Other Cancer Rt P Am M 119
Galactogogue Rt P Am I 8
puerperium
Reproductive system
Fertility Rt C Ch A 110
and sexual health
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory system Cough Fr C Am I 2
Flu Rt C Am I 1
Pneumonia Rt P Am M 7
Inflammation
Urinary system Rt P Am M 6
of kidneys
3, 19, 43,
Blood and 1, 2, 5, 6, 9,
Euterpe precatoria Mart. Anemia Rt B, C, P Am I, M, Ni 92, 107,
cardiovascular system 10, 11, 12, 13
109
Blood
Fr, Rt P Am M 5
pressure
Blood
Rt P Am I 20, 124
purification
Circulatory
154
Rt B Am Ni 60
problems
Dental health Tooth care Rt E Am I 3
Toothache Rt E Am I 3
Unspecified Rt C Am I 106 1
Digestive system Colic in babies Rt P Am M 6
7, 71, 78, 1, 2, 6, 10, 11,
Diarrhea Rt B, C, P Am I, M
98, 106 12
Gallbladder Fr, Rt P Am M 6
Gastritis Rt C, E Am I 111 1
14, 34, 68, 1, 2, 6, 8, 10,
Hepatitis Ph, Rt C, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni
100, 127 15, 18
Inguinal
Rt, Ns P Am M 7
Hernia
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Intestinal pain Rt B, P Am I, Ni 3, 7, 14, 78
3, 19, 82,
Liver pain Rt B, P Am I, M, Ni 98, 124, 5, 6, 9
127
Purgative Rt C Am I 46
Stomach pain Rt C, P Am I, M 100 2, 7
Vomiting Rt C Am I 2
Endocrine system Diabetes Rt B, C, P Am I, M 19 2, 5, 6
Body pain Fr, Rt P Am M 6
unspecific symptoms
Body
155
Rt B, P Am I, M 6, 9, 10, 13
weakness
Fever Fr, Rt C, P Am, An I, M 1, 5, 18
Infections and
Amoebas Ph, Rt B Am I, M 12, 13
infestations
Anthelmintic Rt B Am I 3, 7, 73, 98 14
Leishmania Rt C Am I 1
14, 34, 46,
1, 2, 5, 6, 10,
Malaria Rt C, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni 58, 70, 100,
15, 18
106
Tuberculosis Fr, Rt P Am I 20, 124
Unspecified Rt P Am I, Ni 103 10
Yellow Fever Rt C, P Am, An I, M, Ni 14, 100 2, 18
Metabolic System and 19, 60, 99,
Vitamin Rt B Am I, Ni
nutrition 107
5, 19, 20,
Muscular-skeletal
Back pain Fr, Rt B, C, P Am, An I 98, 120, 2, 20
system
122, 124
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Bone pain Fr, Rt P Am I 120 6
Fractures Rt P Am I 20, 124
Hematoma Rt P Am I 20
Muscular pain Rt B Am Ni 92
Edema Rt P Am I 20
Rheumatism
Rt B, C, P Am I, M 78, 122 1, 5, 6, 10
and Arthritis
4, 33, 24,
25, 61,63,
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr, Rt B, C, E, P Am, An I, M 84, 95, 100, 1, 2, 6, 18
108, 112,
126
Fr, Rt, St,
Other Cancer C, P Am I, M 1, 6
Ns
156
Hair loss Rt E Am I 105
Poisonings Insect bit Rt C Am I 1
Snakebite
Rt B, C Am I, Ni 92 1, 11, 13
antidote
Abortive Rt, St C Am I 2
puerperium
Antiabortive Rt P Am M 5, 6
Childbirth
Rt P Am I, M 20 1
problems
Reproductive system
Gonorrhea Rt P Am I 6
and sexual health
Menstrual
Rt C Am I 1
problems
Uterus 98, 120,
Rt B, P Am I, M 6, 9, 10
infections 124
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Venereal
Rt C Am I 2
diseases
Respiratory system Bronchitis Rt P Am M 6
Chest pain Rt B Am I 92
Cold Lf B, E Am I, Ni 3, 77, 99
Cough Rt C, E Am I 77, 106 1, 2
Flu Ph, Rt C, E Am I 28, 84, 88 1, 2
Pneumonia Lf, Rt B, C, P Am I, M 3, 109, 124 1, 6, 13
Respiratory
Rt, St B Am Ni 89, 90
infections
157
Throat ache Lf E Am I 77
Unspecified Rt B Am I 17
Sensory system Earache Lf C, P Am I, M 1, 5
Empeine Fr, Rt B Am I 101
tissue
Hemorrhage Fr B, C Am I 3 1
Swellings Fr, Rt B Am I 3
7, 20, 78,
Inflammation 82, 101, 1, 2, 5, 6, 9,
Urinary system Rt B, C, P Am, An I, M, Ni
of kidneys 120, 124, 10, 11, 15, 18
127
Prostate Rt, Ns P Am I, M 20 6, 9
Urinary
Rt B, P Am I 5, 20
infections
Urinary
Rt C Am I 46 1
problems
Geonoma cuneata H. Wendl.
Digestive system Intestinal pain Rt E Ch I 18
ex Spruce
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Not specified at all Unspecified Ns E Ch I 29
Geonoma deversa (Poit.) Cultural diseases and Freight in
Lf, St B Am I 3
Kunth disorders children
Other Unspecified Lf C Am I 84
Respiratory system Cough Pt E Am I 77
Geonoma divisa H.E.Moore Psychosomatic Fr C Ch I 49
disorders
Geonoma interrupta (Ruiz & Cultural diseases and Strengthen
Pt P Am I 120
Pav.) Mart. disorders health
Geonoma macrostachys Mart. Digestive system Vomiting Lf, Rt P Am Ni 14

Fever Fl P Am Ni 14
unspecific symptoms
Reproductive system Menstrual
Fl P Am Ni 14
158
and sexual health problems
Geonoma poeppigiana Mart. Not specified at all Unspecified Pt C Am I 68
Geonoma stricta (Poit.) Kunth Dental health Caries Ns E Am I 18
Geonoma triandra (Burret) Muscular-skeletal
Muscular pain Ph C Ch I 22
Wess.Boer system
Hyospathe elegans Mart. Dental health Caries Lf C, E Am I 12, 48
Unspecified Ph C, E Am I 106, 117 2, 3
Digestive system Intestinal pain Ph, Ns P Am Ni 14
Nausea Fl P Am Ni 14
Stomach pain Rt E Am I 3
Vomiting Rt P Am Ni 14
Headache Rt P Am Ni 14
unspecific symptoms
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory system Flu Rt C Am I 48, 106
Wounds Ph C Am I 2
tissue
Blood and
Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz & Pav. Anemia Lf P Am I 8
Bad Air Ph P Am I 76
disorders
Freight Ns P Am I 120
Psychosomatic Fl E Ch I 24
Digestive system Hepatitis St P Am Ni 14
Liver pain Rt P Am I 120
159
Purgative Ph E Am Ni 21
Infections and
Malaria Ph E An Ni 21
infestations
Muscular-skeletal
Fractures Ph P Am I 120
system
Rheumatism
Rt P An I 114
and Arthritis
Am, An, 100, 112,
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt E, P I, M 24
Ch 113
Ph, Rt,
Poisonings Insect bit B Am I 122
Ns
Snakebite
Ph, Rt C Am I 1
antidote
Rt P Am M 6
puerperium problems
Reproductive system
Fertility Rt C Am, Ch A, I 74, 106
and sexual health
Respiratory system Cold Rt P Am I 10
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Cicatrizing Rt C Ch I 22
tissue
Skin
St P Am I 10
infections
Urinary system Diuretic Rt E Ch I 24
Iriartella setigera (Mart.) H. Infections and
Lice Rt C Am I 48
Wendl. infestations
Warts Lf C Am I 2
Poisonings Insect bit Ls C Am I, Ni 84 1
Skin spots Ph C Am I 49
tissue
Iriartella stenocarpa Burret Digestive system Hepatitis Lf P Am Ni 14
Infections and
Lice Rt C Am I 49
infestations
160
Malaria Lf P Am Ni 14
Tuberculosis Rt P Am Ni 14
Lepidocaryum tenue Mart. Digestive system Hepatitis Rt C Am I 1
Liver pain Ph C Am Ni 84
Fever Fr C, P Am I, Ni 14 1
unspecific symptoms
Headache Fr, Ph P Am Ni 14
Infections and
Malaria Rt P Am Ni 14
infestations
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt C Am I 95
Poisonings Insect bit Ns C Am I 68
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory system Cough Ph C Am I 1
Flu Ph C Am I 1
Throat ache Ph P Am Ni 14
Dry skin Rt P Am Ni 14
tissue
Manicaria martiana Burret Fr C Am I 1
Blood and Blood
Manicaria saccifera Gaertn. Sd C Ch A 21
cardiovascular system pressure
Evil eye Sd C Ch A 21
disorders
161
Dental health Caries Lf C Am I 1
Digestive system Gastritis Ph C Ch A 21
Purgative Sd C Ch A 21
Muscular-skeletal
Hematoma Sd C Ch A 129
system
Inflammations Fr C Ch A 129
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr C Ch A, I 22, 22
Other Cancer Sd C Ch A 21
Postpartum Sd C Ch A 74
puerperium
Reproductive system
Fertility Fl C Ch A 21
and sexual health
Respiratory system Asphyxia Sd C Ch Ni 51
Cough Fr C Ch A, I 22, 22
Hemorrhage Sd C Ch A, I 2
tissue
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Inflammation
Urinary system Br C Ch A, I 74 21, 22
of kidneys
Prostate Sd C Am, Ch A, I 1, 21
Mauritia flexuosa L. f. Digestive system Hepatitis Sd C, P Am I, Ni 14, 68
Liver pain Rt, Ns B Am M 12
Fever Fr C Am I 54
unspecific symptoms
Headache St P Am Ni 14
Infections and
Malaria Fl P Am Ni 14
infestations
Muscular-skeletal
Muscular pain Fr E Am I 4
system
Rheumatism
Fr C Am I 54
and Arthritis
162
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt C, E Am I 25, 59, 112
Other Cancer Fr, Ns P Am M 119
Snake bit
Poisonings Rt P Am I 8
antidote
Abortive Ph P Am Ni 118
puerperal
Galactogogue Sd E, P Am I, Ni 14, 93
Reproductive system
Emmenagogue Ph, Rt P Am Ni 118
and sexual health
Fertility Sd P Am I 120
Menstrual
Fr B Am M 12
problems
Abscesses Fr B Am M 12
tissue
Wounds Fr B Am I, M 12
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Mauritiella aculeata (Kunth) Muscular-skeletal
Sprains Fr C Am I 117
Burret system
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr P Am I 4
Mauritiella armata (Mart.) Cultural diseases and
Insanity Ns C Am I 1
Burret disorders
Digestive system Diarrhea Rt C Am I 1
Wounds Fr E Am I 3
tissue
Oenocarpus bacaba Mart. Digestive system Purgative St C Am I 46
Infections and
infestations
163
Poisonings Insect bit Rt P Am I 38
Scorpion
Ph C, P Am I 38, 46
stings
Respiratory
Respiratory system Ph C Am I 84
infections
Urinary
Urinary system Fr C Am I 46
problems

Oenocarpus balickii F. Kahn Fever Rt B Am I 13
unspecific symptoms
Headache Fr B Am I 13
Infections and
Amoebas Fr B Am I 13
infestations
Respiratory system Cold Rt B Am I 13
Blood and
Oenocarpus bataua Mart. Anemia Fr E Ch I 24
Blood
Fr P Am M 11
purification
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Freight Fr B Am, An I 14, 20
disorders
Digestive system Colic Fr, Sd B An I 19
2, 14, 18,
Diarrhea Fr C, E, P Am I, M, Ni 40, 59, 65, 2, 9
100, 106
Digestion Fl, Fr, Rt,
P Am Ni 11
(children) Sd
Gallbladder Fr B Am M 12
Hepatitis Fr P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Intestinal pain Ph, Rt B, E, P Am I, Ni 2, 14, 78
Liver pain Fr, St B, E, P Am, Ch I 19, 120 24
6, 11, 15,
Purgative Fr, Ph, Sd B, C, E, P Am I, M, Ni 6, 12
66, 84, 128
164
Stomach pain Fr, Sd B, E Am I, Ni 40, 107
Endocrine system Diabetes Fr, Rt B, P Am I, Ni 60, 120
Body pain Fr, Rt B, E Am, An I, M 66 12, 14, 19
unspecific symptoms
14, 19, 99, 9, 12, 13, 14,
Fever Fr, Rt B, P Am, An I, M, Ni
107, 122 19
Fr, Ph, 18, 19, 40,
Headache B, E Am I 13
Rt, Sd 59, 77
Indisposition Fr, Rt, Sd B Am I 19
Tiredness Sd B Am I 19
Infections and
Amoebas Sd B Am I, Ni 60 13
infestations
18, 40, 59,
Anthelmintic Fr, Rt E Am I
88
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Lice Fr, Rt B Am I 123
14, 100,
Malaria Sd C, P Am I, M, Ni
106, 120
Fr, Ph,
Smallpox B Am I 19
Rt, Sd
Tuberculosis Sd C, E Am I, Ni 53, 66, 84, 102, 105, 115
Unspecified Fr, Sd B, P Am I, Ni 98, 103
Yellow Fever Sd P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Vitamin Rt E Am I 2
nutrition
Muscular-skeletal
Muscular pain Fr B, P Am I, Ni 37, 78
165
system
Rheumatism 11, 59, 66,
Fr B, C, E, P Am I, M 1, 14
and Arthritis 123
21, 24, 25,
27, 31, 33,
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr, Sd B, C, E Am, An I, M, Ni 2
47, 55, 61,
86, 94, 113
Fr, Lf, Rt,
Other Cancer P Am I 120
Sd, Ns
Scorpion
Poisonings Fr C Am I 2
stings
Snakebite
Ph, Sd E, P Am I 11, 34
antidote
Rt, Sd P Am M 11
puerperium problems
Galactogogue Fr E Am I 66
Postpartum Ph B An I 20
Reproductive system
Fertility Rt E Ch I 24
and sexual health
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Respiratory system Asthma Fr C, E Am I 56, 59, 66
11, 15, 50,
Bronchitis Fr, Sd C, E, P Am I, M, Ni
59, 66
19, 50, 59,
Cold Fr B, C, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni 66, 77, 101, 10, 12, 19
107
2, 7, 11, 15,
Cough Fr, Rt B, C, E, P Am I, M, Ni 2
75, 98, 106
Flu Fr, Rt, Sd B, C, E Am I, Ni 2, 50, 123 2
Pertussis Fr, Sd C Am I 106
14, 15, 19,
A, I, M, 44, 50, 74,
Pneumonia Sd B, C, E, P Am, Ch 9
Ni 84, 85, 107,
123
166
Respiratory 2, 14, 84,
Fr, Rt, Sd B, C, E, P Am, An I, Ni 15
infections 59, 99
Throat ache Fr, St C Am I 6, 84
Abscesses Fr, Sd B Am I 19
tissue
Burns Sd B, E, P Am I 19, 111 3, 10
Skin
Fr, Sd, Ns E Am I 66
infections
Skin spots Fr B Am I 122
Swellings Fr B Am I 19
Wounds Sd B Am I, M 19 12
Inflammation
Urinary system Fr, Sd B Am I 14
of kidneys
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Blood and
Oenocarpus mapora H. Karst. Anemia Rt P Am I 8
Psychosomatic Ph C Ch I 22
disorders
Digestive system Diarrhea Lf C, P Am I, Ni 14, 106
Hepatitis Rt P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Intestinal pain Rt P Am Ni 14
Purgative Fr P Am I 11
Endocrine system Diabetes Fr P Am M 119
Fever Rt B Am I 78
unspecific symptoms
167
Headache Fr B Am I 13
Infections and
Amoebas Fr B Am I 13
infestations
Malaria Rt C, P Am I, Ni 14, 84
Muscular-skeletal
Back pain Fr, Rt P Am Ni 14
system
Bone pain Ls P An I 18
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt B, P Am I 17 8
Scorpion
Poisonings Ph, Ns C Am I 106
stings
Antiabortive Ph P Am I 8
puerperal
Respiratory system Cough Fr C, P Am I, Ni 14, 84, 106
Pertussis Fr, Rt C Am I 106
Burns Sd B Am Ni 107
tissue
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Inflammation
Urinary system Fr C Ch A 21
of kidneys
Pholidostachys dactyloides Skin and subcutaneous
Wounds Fr C Ch I 22
H.E. Moore tissue
Pholidostachys synanthera Skin and subcutaneous
Burns Lf E An Ni 18
(Mart.) H.E. Moore tissue
Phytelephas aequatorialis
Digestive system Gastritis Lr E Ch I 32
Spruce
Purgative Sd E Ch I 24
Reproductive system Inflammation
Sd E Ch I 32
and sexual health of ovaries
Respiratory system Cough Fr E An M 17
168
To clear the
Sensory system Sd E Ch I 32
vision
Inflammation
Urinary system Sd E An, Ch I, M 125 17, 24
of kidneys
Urinary
Sd E An, Ch I, M 17, 24
problems
Phytelephas macrocarpa Ruiz Cultural diseases and
Freight Sd P Am I 120
& Pav. disorders
Witchcraft Sd C Ch I 22
Dental health Unspecified Sd B Am M 12
Digestive system Stomach pain Sd P Am I 120
Vomiting Sd C Am I 2
Endocrine system Diabetes Sd P Am M, Ni 80, 81, 119
Fever Fr, Sd P Am M 7
unspecific symptoms
Not specified at all Unspecified Sd P Am I 4
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Scorpion
Poisonings Ns C Am I 106
stings
Snake bit
Ph C Am I 106
antidote
puerperal
Reproductive system
Fertility Sd P Am I 120
and sexual health
Eye
Sensory system Fl P Am I 120 5
inflammation
Wounds Sd P Am I 120
tissue
169
Urinary system Diuretic Rt C Ch A 74
Inflammation
Rt P Am I 120
of kidneys
Phytelephas tenuicaulis Abdominal
Digestive system Sd P Am Ni 14
(Barfod) A.J. Hend. pain
Hepatitis Sd P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
Fever Ph P Am Ni 14
unspecific symptoms
Infections and
Malaria Sd P Am I, M, Ni 14, 100
infestations
Not specified at all Unspecified Ph E Am I 27, 33
Poisonings Insect bit Rt E Am I 34
Rt P Am Ni 14
tissue infections
Prestoea acuminata (Willd.)
Not specified at all Unspecified Sd C An I 15
H.E. Moore
Inflammation
Urinary system Rt C An I 15
of kidneys
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Prestoea schultzeana (Burret)
Dental health Toothache Rt E Am I 34
H.E. Moore
Digestive system Hepatitis Rt E Am I 34
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt E Am I 30, 33
Respiratory system Cold Ph, Rt E Am I 77
Cough Rt E Am I 77
Throat ache Rt E Am I 77
Roystonea regia (Kunth) O.F.
Digestive system Diarrhea Rt P An Ni 41
Cook
Infections and
Anthelmintic Lf P An Ni 41
infestations
Nervous system and
Seizures Lf P An Ni 41
mental health
Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Blood and
Anemia Lf B, P Am I, M 8, 12
170
Wendl. cardiovascular system
Freight Ph, Rt B, P Am, An I 120 19
disorders
Physically
Sl, Rt P Am I 120
strengthen
Digestive system Hepatitis Rt C, P Am, An I, M, Ni 8, 14, 100 15
Nausea Ph, Rt P Am Ni 14
Purgative Ph, Rt E, P Am, An I 35 18
Stomach pain Ph, Rt B, P Am, An I 8, 20
Vomiting Sl, Rt P Am Ni 14
Endocrine system Diabetes Ph, Rt P Am M 6
Body pain Rt B An I 19
unspecific symptoms
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Fever Rt B Am Ni 89
Infections and
Leishmania Fr, St B, P Am, An I, M 19 5, 12, 19
infestations
Muscular-skeletal
Knee pain Rt E Am I 77
system
Muscular pain Rt C Am I 1
17, 23, 52, 55, 75, 109, 112,
Not specified at all Unspecified Rt B, C, E, P Am, An I, M
113
Fr, Ph,
Poisonings Insect bit B, C, P Am I, M 122 1, 5
Rt, St, Ns
171
Ray stings Ph, Rt C Am I 1
Snake bit
Rt B, C, E, P Am, An I, M, Ni 19, 21, 70 1, 8
antidote
Worms
poisonous Ph, Rt B Am I 73
bites
Reproductive system
Fertility Rt C Am I 106
and sexual health
Respiratory system Pneumonia Rt P Am I 10
Abscesses Rt B Am, An I 19, 78 8, 12
tissue
Botfly
Rt C Am I 1
infection
Psoriasis Rt B Am I 19
Skin
Rt B, P Am I 5 10
infections
Wounds Rt, St B Am I 19, 101
!
!

Fieldwork
(**)
Veterinary Anthelmintic Rt C Am I 1
Botfly
St C Am I 1
infection
Scabies Rt B Am I 19, 78
Syagrus sancona (Kunth) H. Blood and
Anemia Rt P Am I 8
Karst. cardiovascular system
Wettinia aequalis (O.F. Cook
Dental health Unspecified Ph P Ch I 24
& Doyle) R. Bernal
Cholesterol Fr P Ch I 24
nutrition
Inflammation
Urinary system Fr P Ch I 24
of kidneys
Wettinia augusta Poepp. & Infections and
Lice Fr C Am I 48
Endl. infestations
Infections and
172
Wettinia maynensis Spruce Anthelmintic Lf P Am, An I 13, 39
infestations
Not specified at all Unspecified Fr, Ph P Am I 30
!
!

*1: Acosta–Solís 1971; 2: Aguilar 2006; 3: Aguirre 2006; 4: Albán 1994; 5: Alexiades 1999; 6: Antolinez 1999; 7: Armesilla 2006; 8: Ayala 1984; 9: Báez 1998; 10: Báez, and Backevall. 1998; 11: Balick 1986; 12:
Balslev and Barfod. 1987; 13: Balslev et al. 1997; 14: Balslev et al. 2008; 15: Barriga 1994; 16: Bernal et al. 2010; 17: Boom 1986; 18: Borchsenius et al. 1998; 19: Bourdy 1999; 20: Bourdy et al. 2008; 21: Byg and
Balslev. 2004; 22: Caballero 1995; 23: Cárdenas and Ramírez. 2004; 24: Cárdenas et al. 2002; 25: Castaño–Arboleda et al. 2007; 26: Cerón 1995; 27: Cerón 2003; 28: Cerón and Montalvo 1998; 29: Cerón and
Montalvo 2002; 30: Cerón and Reyes 2007a; 31: Cerón and Reyes 2007b: 32: Cerón et al. 2004; 33: Cerón et al. 2005; 34: Cerón et al. 2011; 35: Cerón et al. 2012; 36: Cerro et al. 2003; 37: Chávez 1996; 38: Cornejo
1998; 39: Cruz et al. 2009; 40: Davis and Yost 1983; 41: DeFeo 1992; 42: Denevan and Treacy 1987; 43: Desmarchelier et al. 1996; 44: Dugand 1961; 45: Etupiñan–Gonzáles and Jimenéz–Escobar 2010; 46: Forero
2005; 47: Frausin et al. 2010; 48: Galeano 1992; 49: Galeano and Bernal 2010; 50: García Barriga 1974; 51: García Cossio et al. 2002; 52: García et al. 1996; 53: Garzón 1985; 54: Garzón and Macuritofe 1992; 55:
Giraldo–B 2004; 56: Giraldo–Tafur 1995; 57: Girault 1987; 58: Glenboski 1983; 59: Gomez et al. 1996; 60: Gutiérrez–Vásquez and Peralta 2001; 61: Henkemans 2001; 62: Hinojosa 1991; 63: Huertas 2007; 64:
Iglesias 1987; 65: Iglesias 1989; 66: Játiva and Alarcón 1994; 67: Kothari 1993; 68: Kronik 1999; 69: Kvist et al. 1998; 70: Kvist et al. 2001; 71: La Rotta et al. 1987; 72: La Rotta et al. 1989; 73: Langevin 2002; 74:
Ledezma 2011; 75: López et al. 1998; 76: Luziatelli et al. 2010; 77: Macía 2004; 78: Macía, unpubl.; 79: Marles et al. 1998; 80: Mejía 1983; 81: Mejía 1988b; 82: Mejía 1992; 83: Mejía and Rengifo 2000; 84: Mesa
2011; 85: Miller 2002; 86: Miranda et al. 2009; 87: Mollinedo 2000; 88: Mondragón and Smith 1997; 89: Moraes 2004; 90: Moraes et al. 2005; 91: Moraes et al. 1996; 92: Moreno Suárez and Moreno Suárez 2006;
93: Ojeda 1994; 94: Ortiz Gómez 1989; 95: Ortiz 1994; 96: Pacheco et al. 1998; 97: Paniagua Zambrana 1998; 98: Paniagua Zambrana 2001; 99: Paniagua Zambrana 2005a; 100: Paniagua Zambrana 2005b; 101:
Paniagua Zambrana et al., unpubl.; 102: Pérez–Arbeláez 1956; 103: Pérez 2002; 104: Pino and Valois 2004; 105: Ponce 1992: 106: Prado 2008: 107: Proctor 1992: 108: Programa de Desarrollo Alternativo en
Colombia 1995; 109: Quintana and Vargas 1995; 110: Restrepo 1996; 111: San Sebastián 1995; 112: Sánchez 2005; 113: Santín Luna 2004; 114: Sanz–Biset et al. 2009; 115: Schultes 1951; 116: Schultes 1974; 117:
Schultes and Raffauf 1990; 118: Seoane and Soplín 1999: 119: Silva and García 1997; 120: Sosnowska et al. 2010; 121: Telléz 1979; 122: Thomas and Vandebroek 2006; 123: Ticona 2001; 124: Valadeau et al. 2010;
125: Van den Eynden et al. 2004; 126: Vargas 1997; 127: Vásquez 1992; 128: Vásquez and Vásquez 1998; 129: Zuluaga 2003
** Numbers of localities follow Appendix 1.
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Plant parts: Br Bract, Fl Flower, Fr Fruit, Lf Entire leaf, Ls Leaf sheath, Lr Leaf rachis, Ph Palm heart, Pt Petiole, Rt Root, Sd Seed, Sl Spear leaf, Sp Spine, St Stem, Ns Not specified.
Ecoregions: Am Amazon, An Andes, Ch Chocó.
Countries: B Bolivia, C Colombia, E Ecuador, P Peru. Human groups: A Afro-American, I Indigenous, M Mestizo, Ni Not identified.
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CAPÍTULO 4
The influence of socioeconomic factors on traditional

knowledge: a cross scale comparison of palm use in
northwestern South America
Este capítulo ha sido publicado como:

Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., Cámara-Leret, R., Bussmann, R.W., Macía, M.J. (2014).
The influence of socioeconomic factors in the conservation of traditional knowledge:
a cross scale comparison of palm use patterns in Northwestern South America
Ecology and Society 19(4):9
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ABSTRACT
We explored the power of 14 socioeconomic factors for predicting differences in

traditional knowledge about palms (Arecaceae) at the personal, household, and
regional levels in 25 locations of the Amazon, Andes and Chocó of northwestern
South America. Using semi-structured interviews we gathered data on palm uses with
2050 informants, in 53 communities and four countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
and Bolivia ). We performed multilevel statistical analysis which showed that the
influence of each socioeconomic factor differed depending on whether the analysis
was performed on the overall palm knowledge or on individual use categories. At the
general palm knowledge level, highlights the gender that was the only factor that had
a significant association in all five subregions, showing that men had more knowledge
than women and the age that had a positive significant association only in the
lowlands. Most of the analyzed socioeconomic factors had a greater influence on the
lowland ecoregions of the Amazon and Chocó, although with mixed trends in these
ecoregions. Our results show that there are no regional patterns in the predictive
power of socioeconomic factors and that their influence on palm-use knowledge is
highly localized. We can conclude that (1) conservation strategies of traditional
knowledge of palm-use in the region should be developed mainly at local level, and
(2) large-scale comparable ethnoecological studies are necessary to understand
indigenous communities livelihoods at different scales.
KEYWORDS: Arecaceae, indigenous communities, livelihood, quantitative

ethnobotany, traditional ecological knowledge, tropical rainforests
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INTRODUCTION
Traditional knowledge (TK) is an important component in improving livelihoods

(Reyes-García et al. 2008), the management of natural resources (Mackinson and
Nottertad 1998, Berkes et al. 2000, Huntington 2000) and practices relating to the
protection of ecosystems and species (Shackeroff and Campbell 2007). This type of
knowledge is developed by local communities through experiences adapting to their
environment. It is dynamic and continuously modified, but very little attention has
been focused on understanding the changes resulting from adaptations to new
environmental, cultural, social, and economic conditions (Gómez-Baggethun and
Reyes-García 2013). Such changes may lead to the loss of local knowledge systems
(Benz et al. 2000, Brosi et al. 2007), which could result in a reduced ability to cope
with environmental changes.
In the last 15 years, a large number of studies have sought to understand how social,
economic, cultural, environmental, and geographical factors influence the TK about
plants at small scales. Factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, birthplace, and level of
education have been identified as important on an individual level (Luoga et al. 2000,
Byg 2004, Byg and Balslev 2006, Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007). Family size,
integration into the market economy (e.g. sale of animals and agricultural products),
or amount of material goods at family level (e.g. possessions of farm animals, tools,
and transport) have been linked to the household level (Byg and Balslev 2001, 2004,
Reyes-García et al. 2005). Access to commercial centers, and to health, education,
electricity or water, as well as land tenure systems and settlement history have shown
a greater relevance at the community level (Takasaki et al. 2001, Byg et al. 2007,
Vandebroek 2010). Although many of these studies might reflect the specific relation
that each culture has with natural resources, without a unifying theory or common
research method we cannot discern whether such findings reflect patterns and
behaviors that are similar, or even identical, between different cultures and broader
scales (Alburquerque and Medeiros 2012). Several studies have used meta-analyses to
analyze large-scale usage patterns of plants (Moerman et al. 1999, Molares and Ladio
2009, Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. 2011), although comparisons are difficult to make,
given the diversity of the objectives and methods employed.
Evidence of these patterns can serve for generating strategies for the preservation of
knowledge at regional scales, without neglecting characteristics of each region and
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the dynamic nature of knowledge. If levels of TK can be predicted from

socioeconomic data, conservation actions could focus better on the population sectors
with more knowledge and facing greater risks of loss. To compare the influence of
these factors on the knowledge of multiple cultures at communities and individuals
levels, research needs to be designed very carefully to allow the elucidation of
common patterns (Alburquerque and Medeiros 2012).
In this study we examine the influence of socioeconomic variables on TK across
different ecoregions (Amazon, Andes, and Chocó) of northwestern South America
using a standardized interview protocol. Specifically, we evaluate the predictive
power of 14 socioeconomic factors previously identified as being important in
determining knowledge differences at the personal level (gender, age, ethnicity,
education, language spoken, migration status, time in residence), and at the household
level (size of family, tenure of farm animals, farm size, tools, transport, house size,
house constructions materials). We use palms (Arecaceae) as a model group, because
of their extraordinary importance for the livelihoods of indigenous and non-
indigenous populations in the region (Balick 1984, Prance et al. 1987, Phillips and
Gentry 1993, Galeano 2000, Macía 2004, Lawrence et al. 2005, Brokamp et al. 2011),
and because many species of useful palms show similar use patterns that are shared
between different cultures and regions (Macía et al. 2011, Cámara-Leret et al. 2014).
In addition, palms are conspicuous and abundant in many tropical rainforest habitats,
and their taxonomy, diversity, and distribution are well known (Henderson et al.
1995, Borchsenius et al. 1998, Moraes 2004, Pintaud et al. 2008, Galeano and Bernal
2010). To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to test the influence of
socioeconomic factors on TK across larges spatial scales and different cultural
groups, about a keystone plant family in South America or any other large region of
the world.
METHODS
Study region
Research was conducted in the Amazon and Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia, as well as the Chocó of Colombia and Ecuador. We interviewed participants
in 25 localities inhabited by indigenous, Afro-american, mestizo, and multiethnic
groups (Fig. 4.1, Appendix 4.1). The Amazon ecoregion was defined as the lowlands
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to the east of the Andes below 1000 m elevation (e.g. Renner et al. 1990, Jørgensen
and León-Yánez 1999). The Andes ecoregion was defined as the humid montane
forests on both slopes of the Andes above 1000 m, including the inter-Andean valleys
of Bolivia that receive less precipitation (Beck et al. 1993). The Chocó ecoregion was
defined as the humid forests along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern
Ecuador, below 1000 m. Localities were selected in each ecoregion to have an
uniform ethnic composition, varying degrees of accessibility to markets and access to
mature forests for harvesting palms (Appendix 4.1).
Localities included more than one community if the number of people interviewed in
a single community was lower than 87 (7 expert informants + 80 general informants),
as defined in our research protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2010). The analyses
were conducted in five sub-regions. We subdivided the Amazon ecoregion into two
sub-regions: the northwestern Amazon, with four localities in Colombia and Ecuador;
and the southwestern Amazon, with 10 localities in Peru and Bolivia. The Andes
ecoregion was subdivided into the northwestern Andes, with four localities in
Colombia and Ecuador, and the southwestern Andes, with five localities in Peru and
Bolivia. The Chocó ecoregion included three localities in Colombia and northwestern
Ecuador (Fig. 4.1, Appendix 4.1).
Data collection
Ethnobotanical data and socioeconomic information were gathered through semi-
structured interviews using a standardized protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2010,
Cámara-Leret et al. 2012). Prior to starting interviews, we obtained the necessary
permits and established informed consent with the communities and informants. From
March 2010 to December 2011, we collected ethnobotanical information with two
types of informants: experts, of whom we interviewed 5-7 in each community (n =
159), and general informants, of whom we interviewed 10 - 89 in each community (n
= 1891). Experts were selected by consensus of community members during a
communal meeting. General informants were selected by researchers to achieve a
balanced representation of gender and age classes within the localities. We divided
informants into five age classes (18–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51–60, and > 60 years old) to
achieve an equal representation of all ages. Within the age classes, approximately
50% of people we interviewed were women and 50% were men (Table 4.1, Appendix
4.2). We first interviewed the expert informants through “walks in the woods,” during
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which we documented all palm species that grew in the surroundings of the
communities, collected vouchers, identified the species, documented their uses, and
recorded their local names. These vernacular names were later used in the interviews
with the general informants. We then conducted semi-structured interviews with the
general informants, visiting them in their homes. We asked each person about each of
the species that were reported during interviews with experts. Interviews were
conducted in Spanish. In cases where an informant did not speak Spanish, the
interviews were conducted with the help of local interpreters. We gathered
information on 14 socioeconomic variables concerning personal (seven variables:
gender, age, ethnicity, education, languages spoken, migration status, time in
residence) and household (seven variables: size of family, tenure of farm animals,
farm size, tools, transports, house size, house constructions materials) data from all
informants (Table 4.2). Palms were identified in the field wherever possible, and
vouchers were only collected if the on site identification needed additional
confirmation. Voucher specimens were deposited in the herbaria AAU, AMAZ, COL,
LPB, and QCA (herbarium acronyms according to Thiers (2013).
Data analysis
We grouped the socioeconomic data obtained in the interviews into three types of
variables: nominal (gender, ethnicity, languages spoken), ordinal (migration status,
tenure of farm animals, tools, transports, house construction materials) and
continuous (age, size of family, educations, tine in residence, farm size, house size)
(Table 4.2).
To determine the influence of socioeconomic factors on TK levels we calculated two
different indicators of knowledge: 1) Palm use-reports, representing the sum of all
palm uses reported by an informant for all species known by that person, and 2)
Useful palm species, representing the sum of all useful species an informant knew.
The term “use-report” is defined as an individual palm use mentioned by an
informant. For this purpose, we use the definition of “palm-use” given by Macía et al.
(2011), which defines it as the use associated to a use category and use subcategory
for a specific plant part. In an initial analysis, both indicators showed strong
correlations (Northern Amazon r=0,87; Southern Amazon r=0.79; Chocó r=0.84;
Northern Andes r=0.64; Southern Andes r=0.82). For this reason, we decided to use
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only the number of useful palm species as the dependent variable in all subsequent
analyses.
All palm uses and useful species reported in the interviews were classified in 10 use
categories following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (Cook 1995)
with some modifications proposed by Macía et al. (2011): Animal food, Construction,
Cultural, Environmental, Fuel, Human food, Medicinal and veterinary, Toxic,
Utensils and tools, and Other uses (including indirect uses, especially the use of beetle
larvae that develop in rotting trunks).
To describe and compare TK in relation to the 14 socioeconomics factors evaluated in
the five sub-regions studied, we first conducted a descriptive analysis of the whole
data using a MANOVA and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test for the eight
categorical factors (categorical variables, levels with less than 10 replicas were not
included in the analyses) and Pearson correlations for the six continuous factors
(continuous variables) (Table 4.2). Based on this analyses we selected the
socioeconomic factors that were included in subsequent analyses. We excluded those
categorical variables that showed significant differences between their different
levels, and excluded continuous variables with r<0.05.
Table 4.1: Distribution of the 2050 interviews conducted in 53 communities in

northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) by gender and
ethnicity in five age groups. Additional data on distribution in other evaluated factors
are shown in Appendix 4.2.
Attributes Northern Southern Northern Southern Chocó Total

Number of communities Amazon
11 Amazon
23 Andes
5 Andes
8 6 53
Gender
Female 147 413 194 119 160 1033
Male 153 415 148 149 152 1017
Ethnicity
Indigenous 299 438 167 252 138 1294
Mestizo 1 390 172 16 87 666
Afro-american - - 3 - 87 90
Age (years)
18 - 30 86 235 110 58 91 580
31 - 40 79 190 75 63 64 471
41 - 50 55 175 53 73 50 406
51 - 60 36 106 42 36 53 273
> 60 44 122 62 38 54 320
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(Amazon, Andes, Chocó), countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia) and
communities where palm ethnobotanical data were recorded.
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Table 4.2: Description of 14 socioeconomic variables gathered from 2050 informants

in 25 localities of northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia).
Independent variable Variable type Levels

Gender Nominal 1) Men; 2) Women
Age Continuous Between 18 and 102 years
Ethnicity Nominal 1) Indigenous; 2) Mestizo; 3) Afro-american
Size of family (number of
Continuous Between 0 and 20
children)
Education (years) Continuous Between 0 and 24 years
1) Only native language; 2) Only Spanish; 3) Native language and
Languages spoken Nominal
Spanish
1) Non-migrant; 2) Migrant from other ethnic group in the same
Migratory status Ordinal
ecoregion; 3) Migrant from other ecoregion
Time in residence (years) Continuous Between 0.17 and 102 years
Farm animals Ordinal 1) No animals; 2) Subsistence Livestock; 3) Commercial Livestock
Farm size (ha) Continuous Between 0 and 50 ha
1) Low cost (e.g. machetes, axes, bows and arrows, fishhooks,
traditional agricultural tools) ; 2) Average cost (e.g. fishing-nets,
Tools Ordinal
carts, shotguns/rifles, plow, mechanical seed distributors); 3) High
cost (e.g. fumigators, tractors, chainsaws, water pumps)
1) No transport; 2) No fuel consumption (e.g. canoe, bicycle); 3)
Transport Ordinal Low fuel consumption (e.g. motorbike, small outboard motor); 4)
High fuel consumption (e.g. truck, large outboard motor)
House size (m2) Continuous Between 8 and 936 m2
House construction 1) Local plant materials ≥ 50%; 2) Mixed material ≥ 50%; 3)
Ordinal
materials Foreign commercial materials ≥ 50%
Locality Nominal 25
To assess the variations in TK in the five sub-regions, we implemented a statistical

multilevel model of the effects of socioeconomic factors on the knowledge of useful
palm species. Multilevel models (also known as hierarchical linear models or mixed
models) are an extension of linear regression that can be used to account for clustered
sampling designs and to explicitly model contextual effects (Bryk and Raudenbush
1992, Goldstein 2003, Gray et al. 2008). The dependent variable for our analyses was
the number of useful palm species and the independent variables with fixed effect
were the socioeconomic factors that were selected in each sub-region based on the
initial descriptive analysis. These were added as a random factor to the categorical
variable-locality. The one-level random-intercept model that we constructed has the
following formula:
Yi j is the independent variable, γ00 is the common intercept, β and τ are the respective
coefficients of the continuous variables Xi and categorical X’. r0 j has a normal
distribution with median 0 and standard deviation σL represents the variability of the
25 localities studies. ei j is the error or residual for each the interviewees. The same
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analyses were applied in each of the 10 use categories. All analyses were performed
in R 3.0.1 (R Development Core Team 2014).
RESULTS
Descriptive analysis of socioeconomic variables and palm-use knowledge

Localities in the Amazon showed the greatest palm-use knowledge, followed by the
Chocó and Andes (Table 4.3). Northern Amazonian localities reported the highest
values regarding both the number of use-reports and useful palm species, and
northern Andean localities had the lowest values.
The following patterns resulting from the descriptive and comparative analysis are all
shown in Table 4.3. In all sub-regions except in the localities of southern Amazon
men knew more than women. Age showed a positive relationship with knowledge in
all sub-regions, although in most cases the relationship was weak (r<0.20). With
regard to ethnicity, we found that indigenous people had more knowledge than
mestizos in both the southern Amazon and the Chocó, while mestizos had more
knowledge in the other two sub-regions. Afro-americans were surveyed only in the
Chocó and were the group that knew most after the indigenous population. We did
not evaluate ethnicity among the locations of the northern Amazon because all
informants were indigenous. The relationship between family size (expressed as the
number of children) and knowledge presented a positive trend in all cases. The effect
was lowest in the northern Andes (r=0.04), and highest in the Chocó (r=0.32). In
contrast, in the Southern Andes the effect was slightly negative (r=-0.07). Concerning
education, we found a negative relationship in all sub-regions, indicating that people
had less knowledge about useful palms the longer they had received formal education,
except in the southern Amazon. In the northern Amazon, southern Andes, and Chocó,
people who exclusively spoke the local language or who additional spoke Spanish had
greater knowledge than people who only spoke Spanish. In contrast, we found the
opposite pattern in the southern Amazon and northern Andes. People who immigrated
from a different ecoregion to where they were living now had less knowledge, except
in the northern Andes where their knowledge was greater. The relationship between
the time of residence in the community and knowledge showed a positive
relationship, indicating that people living longer in a place had a greater knowledge
about useful palms in three of the five sub-regions evaluated, with the degree
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declining from northern Amazon, to southern Amazon and southern Andes. For
locations in the northern Andes and the Chocó, the relationship was negative but with
a very low slope.
In the northern and southern Amazon, people with a low purchasing power had a
greater knowledge (Table 4.3). Specifically, people possessing only subsistence-
oriented animals, basic tools, small areas of cultivation, and who used local materials
to build mainly small houses had greater knowledge. The transportation system did
not affect knowledge differences. Within the Chocó, knowledge was positively
related to animal husbandry for subsistence or markets, to basic tools, small areas of
crops (although the slope was small, r=–0.27), and to transport that did not use fuel.
Knowledge was not related to the use of local (cheaper) or external (more expensive)
construction materials in homes. In the Andes, we found two different patterns: in the
northern Andes, animal husbandry and possession of tools determined differences in
knowledge. Size of cultivated land showed a very low correlation (r=0.06). A greater
knowledge corresponded either to people lacking transportation or having
transportation with high fuel consumption (more expensive), and with primarily
external materials (more expensive) for construction of homes, which were larger. In
the southern Andes, only the absence of transportation and larger homes were
associated with greater TK.
Multivariate analysis and palm use knowledge

We found that two to six socioeconomic factors had a significant association with
knowledge of the informants in the five sub-regions evaluated (Table 4.4). Of these,
gender had a significant association in all five sub-regions. Similar to the descriptive
analyses, in all sub-regions men had more knowledge than women, although the
difference was just a little more than two species. Differences were greatest among
locations of the northern Amazon (2.1 species less), followed by the southern Andes
(1.4 species less).
Age had a positive significant association only in the lowlands (Amazon and Chocó,
Table 4.4). However, the increase of knowledge with age was very low (between 0.1
and 0.02 species per year). This increase was greater in the northern Amazon than in
the southern Amazon. Ethnicity had a significant association with knowledge only in
the northern Andes and Afro-americans had a greater knowledge than the mestizo and
indigenous population (approx. 3 species more). Family size only had a significant
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positive association in the southern Amazon (0.1 species per additional family
member). Education had a significant but negative association only in the Chocó (0.1
species less per year of education). The migration status of people had an effect only
in the Amazon. In both northern and southern Amazon sub-regions migrants knew
fewer palm species than non-migrants. The difference was greatest in the northern
Amazon where migrants knew up to 12 species less. No significant association was
found in any of the five sub-regions evaluated for language spoken or residence time.
Regarding the factors that measured the purchasing power of local inhabitants, we
found that between one and two factors had a significant association with knowledge
of the informants in the five sub-regions, except in the northern Andes (Table 4.4). In
the northern Amazon we found a significant association of means of transport. People
with basic means of transport, with no fuel consumption, knew fewer species (1.3
species). In addition, people who used mainly external materials (often acquired in
trade centers) to build their house knew less species (2.1 species) than those using
only local material or a mixture of local and external materials. In the southern
Amazon, animal tenure had a positive significant association with knowledge, with
people who raised animals for subsistence reporting more species (0.7 more species)
than people who did not keep animals or who raised livestock for commercial
purposes. People who had high cost tools (e.g. tractors, chainsaws, sprayers, water
pumps) had more knowledge (1.3 species more) than people with tools of average
cost (e.g. fishing nets, trucks, shotguns/rifles, plows, seeders) or tools common to
most people (e.g. machetes, axes, bows and arrows, fishhooks, traditional farming
tools) and other basic tools (low cost). In the Chocó, we found that only livestock
keeping had a significant association with knowledge, with people who raised animals
for commercial purposes having more knowledge than people who did not have any
animals or were breeding them only for subsistence (1.8 more species). House size
was the only factor with a significant association with knowledge in the southern
Andes, with people having larger houses reporting more species (0.01 species more
per 1 m2 increase in house surface).
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Table 4.3: Descriptive statistics of palm use knowledge in the five sub-regions evaluated in Northwestern South America. Letters (a, b, c)
indicate significantly disserent means based on an unifactorial Anova test ( p<0.05). (*) Levels with less than 10 replicas, not included in the
analyses.
Northern Amazon Southern Amazon Chocó Northern Andes Southern Andes

N Mean ± SD N Mean ± SD N Mean ± SD N Mean ± SD N Mean ± SD
Overall useful species 300 26.5 ± 7.0 828 17.0 ± 4.9 312 14.4 ± 5.3 342 6.2 ± 2.2 268 12.5 ± 4.8
Overall use- reports 75.92 ± 29.4 47.19 ± 17.6 41.55 ± 20.2 14.37 ± 6.0 38.95 ± 16.5
Comparison of means
(categorical variables)
Gender
Male 153 27.4 ± 6.8a 415 17.1 ± 5.0 a 152 15.2 ± 5.3 a 148 6.7 ± 2.3 a 149 13.3 ± 5.0 a
Female 147 25.6 ± 7.0 b 413 17.0 ± 4.8 a 160 13.6 ± 5.1 b 194 5.8 ± 2.1 b 119 11.4 ± 4.2 b
Ethnicity
Indigenous 299 26.5 ± 7.0 438 16.7 ± 4.2 b 138 17.6 ± 3.9 a 167 4.9 ± 2.0 b 252 12.6 ± 4.8 a
187
Mestizo 1 18.0 * 390 17.5 ± 5.6 a 87 7.9 ± 1.7 c 172 7.3 ± 1.7 a 16 9.6 ± 3.4 b
Afro-american - - - 87 15.8 ± 3.4 b 3 9.3 ± 1.2* - -
Language spoken
Only native language 15 25.6 ± 6.0 a 19 17.6 ± 4.2 b 12 20.2 ± 1.6 a - - 4 15.5 ± 6.2*
Only Spanish 23 19.7 ± 4.5 b 393 18.4 ± 5.1 a 197 12.8 ± 5.3 b 211 6.9 ± 2.0 a 9 11.1 ± 4.1*
Native language and
262 27.1 ± 6.9 a 416 15.7 ± 4.4 b 103 16.8 ± 4.0 a 131 5.0 ± 2.0 b 255 12.5 ± 4.7
Spanish
Migration status
Non-migrant 241 26.5 ± 7.1 a 510 17.5 ± 4.4 b 247 15.9 ± 4.7 a 228 5.5 ± 2.1b 248 12.7 ± 4.7 a
Migrant from other ethnic
group in the same 58 26.5 ± 6.4 a 208 18.9 ± 4.4 a 19 9.8 ± 4.7 b 52 7.1 ± 1.7 a 2 15.0 ± 12.7*
ecoregion
Migrant from other
1 19.0* 110 11.5 ± 4.0 c 46 8.4 ± 2.0 b 62 7.8 ± 1.7 a 18 9.4 ± 3.2 b
ecoregion
Farm animal
No animals 163 25.3 ± 6.4 b 90 16.2 ± 4.5 b 87 12.2 ± 5.2 b 236 6.3 ± 2.2 a 20 10.6 ± 3.8 a
Subsistence livestock 135 28.0 ± 7.4 a 679 17.5 ± 4.8 a 215 15.1 ± 5.0 a 93 5.9 ± 2.3 a 209 12.9 ± 4.7 a
!
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Northern Amazon Southern Amazon Chocó Northern Andes Southern Andes
Commercial livestock 2 21.5 ± 3.5* 59 12.6 ± 3.6 c 10 18.2 ± 4.2 a 13 6.0 ± 1.6 a 39 11.1 ± 5.0 a
Tools
Low cost 212 27.3 ± 7.2 a 91 17.9 ± 5.1 a 299 14.3 ± 5.3 339 6.2 ± 2.2 81 12.1 ± 4.8 a
Average cost 75 24.7 ± 5.9 b 557 17.6 ± 4.8 a 9 17.8 ± 4.8* 1 8.0* 128 13.5 ± 5.2 a
High cost 13 24.5 ± 6.0 b 180 14.9 ± 4.4 b 4 13.5 ± 1.7* 2 8.0* 59 10.8 ± 2.6 a
Transport
No transport 109 25.8 ± 7.0 a 236 17.0 ± 5.0 a 185 12.0 ± 4.7 c 284 6.4 ± 2.1 a 210 13.1 ± 5.0 a
No fuel consumption 146 27.5 ± 6.6 a 295 16.7 ± 4.8 a 100 18.8 ± 3.3 a 25 4.0 ± 1.8 b 51 9.7 ± 1.8 b
Low fuel consumption 24 26.3 ± 8.4 a 272 17.4 ± 4.7 a 17 14.6 ± 5.0 b 14 4.1 ± 2.2 b 2 14.0 ± 11.3*
High fuel consumption 21 23.2 ± 6.7 b 25 16.9 ± 6.4 a 10 14.2 ± 2.3 b 19 6.8 ± 1.2 a 5 12.6 ± 5.4*
House construction
materials
Local plant materials ≥
122 29.0 ± 5.5 a 634 17.5 ± 4.7 a 25 18.0 ± 4.5 a - - 71 10.1 ± 2.4 b
50%
Mixed material ≥ 50% 9 30.3 ± 4.1* 18 13.4 ± 5.0 b 210 12.1 ± 4.5 b 306 6.0 ± 2.2 b 13 13.5 ± 5.1 a
188
Foreign commercial
169 24.5 ± 7.4 b 176 15.7 ± 5.3 b 77 19.6 ± 2.5 a 36 7.4 ± 2.1 a 184 13.3 ± 5.1 a
materials ≥ 50%
Pearson correlation
(continuous variables)
Age 0.36 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.17
Size of family (number
0.12 0.22 0.32 0.04 -0.07
of children)
Education -0.08 0.01 -0.51 -0.05 -0.23
Time in residence (years) 0.41 0.2 -0.05 -0.14 0.36
Farms size (ha) -0.17 -0.04 -0.09 0.06 -0.06
House size (m2) -0.04 0.002 -0.27 0.01 0.47
!
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Table 4.4: Mixed-model effect of the number of known useful palms species and coefficients of the 14 socioeconomic factors evaluated in the
five sub-regions of northwestern South America. Levels of significance: *p<0.05, **p<0.01. ne: not evaluated; nd: no data. Reference category
is: (1) Men; (2) Indigenous; (3) Only native language spoken; (4) Non-migrant; (5) Non farm animals; (6) Low cost tools; (7) No transport; (8)
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of local plant materials.
Northern Southern Northern Southern

Chocó
Amazon Amazon Andes Andes
Intercept (γ00) 21.991** 13.677** 15.52** 4.948** 12.318**
Socieconomic factors
Women (1) -2.159** -0.534** -1.175** -0.513** -1.407**
189
Age 0.118** 0.037** 0.068** 0.014 -0.005
Mestizo (2) nd 0.128 -7.188 1.408 -0.234
Afro-american (2) nd nd -3.617 2.940* -
Size of family 0.067 0.086* ne ne ne
Education 0.002 0.052 -0.083* -0.006 0.001
Only Spanish spoken (3) 0.125 -0.566 -0.089 0.001 ne
Native language and Spanish spoken (3) 0.552 -0.118 -0.868 0.545 ne
Migrant from other ethnic group in the
0.591 0.195 -0.744 0.048 0.985
same ecoregion (4)
Migrant from other ecoregion (4) -12.211* -1.502** -0.77 0.65 -2.495
Time in residence 0.024 0.01 -0.003 -0.003 0.011
Subsistence livestock (5) 0.782 0.731* -0.118 ne ne
!
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Northern Southern Northern Southern

Chocó
Amazon Amazon Andes Andes
Commercial livestock (5) -0.166 0.356 1.813* ne ne
Farm size 0.348 ne -0.003 ne ne
Average cost tools (6) -0.236 1.210** ne ne ne
High cost tools (6) -0.448 1.285** ne ne ne
No fuel consumption transport (7) -1.266* ne 0.118 -0.360 -0.138
Low fuel consumption transport (7) 0.009 ne 1.075 0.005 1.534
High fuel consumption transport (7) 0.455 ne -0.235 -0.177 -0.085
House size ne ne 0.004 ne 0.013*
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of mixed
0.625 -0.743 -0.072 0.000 0.532
material (8)
190
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of foreign
-2.142** 0.218 0.057 0.174 0.005
commercial materials (8)
Locality standard deviation (σL) 5.276 4.113 3.599 1.118 4.037

Interviewed residuals (ei j) 4.041 2.599 2.131 1.628 2.863
!
!
Palm-use knowledge by use-categories and socioeconomic factors

The distribution of palm use in the 10 use categories showed similar patterns in the
five sub-regions (Fig. 4.2). The six categories with the highest use values were
Human food, Construction, Utensils and tools, Cultural, Medicinal and veterinary,
and Other uses. In the northern Andes, these two last categories were irrelevant.
Fig. 4.2: Average number of use-reports (dark grey bars) and useful species (light
grey bars) in the five sub-regions in northwestern South America reported by 2050
informants in 10 use-categories: Human food (HmFd); Construction (Const); Utensils
and tools (Utens); Cultural (Cult); Other uses (Other); Medicinal and veterinary
(Medic); Fuel; Animal food (AnFd); Environmental (Envi); Toxic.
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The multivariate model applied to each of the use categories in each of the five sub-
regions showed that between one and seven of the 14 socioeconomic factors had a
significant association with the palm-use knowledge of the informants (Table 4.5)
However, none of the factors had a common association on all use categories in the
five sub-regions. Gender showed a significant association primarily in the southern
Andes, influencing six use-categories (of the eight evaluated). In all cases, men’s
knowledge was greater than women’s, especially regarding Construction, Utensils
and tools and Human food. Age had a significant positive association on palm species
knowledge, and most use categories in the lowlands (Amazon and Chocó) showed
high significance levels. The association on use categories was similar between
localities of the Amazon. In contrast to the Amazon, in the Chocó we found that
Construction, Medicinal and veterinary, and Utensils and tools did not show a
significant association. Ethnicity had a significant association mainly in the northern
Andes, where Afro-americans had a greater knowledge about Medicinal and
veterinary species, but less for Utensils and tools, and mestizos had more knowledge
about Human food and Environmental use. In the Chocó, Afro-americans had a
greater knowledge about the Environmental use of palms, but lower with regard to the
use for Human food, and the mestizos had less knowledge than the indigenous about
Cultural use and Human food. Family size had a significant association mainly in the
southern Amazon, where the association was positive regarding Human food, Utensils
and tools and Other uses. Education had a significant association only in three sub-
regions. In the southern Amazon, it had a positive association on the Cultural use,
Medicinal and veterinary, and for Utensils and tools. In the northern Andes, the
positive association affected only the Cultural use and in the southern Andes, the use
for Animal food. The language spoken had a significant association on Medicinal and
veterinary knowledge in the southern Amazon, where people who spoke Spanish and
the local language, had a better knowledge than people who spoke only Spanish or
only their local language. The same pattern was found in the northern Andes for
Human food, while an opposite pattern was found for Fuel. In the Chocó, people who
spoke Spanish had a greater knowledge regarding the use for Human food, than
people who spoke only their local language.
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Table 4.5: Mixed-model efect of the number of known useful palm species in all use-categories and the coefficients of the 14 socieoeconomic
factors with significative association in the five sub-regions in northwestern South America. Levels of significance: *p<0.05, **p<0.01.
Reference category is: (1) Men; (2) Indigenous; (3) Only native language spoken; (4) Non-migrant; (5) Non farm animals; (6) Low cost tools;
(7) No transport; (8) House construction w/ ≥ 50% of local plant materials. Use categories: Animal food (AnFd); Construction (Const); Cultural
(Cult); Environmental (Envir); Fuel; Human food (HmFd); Medicinal and veterinary (MedVet); Toxic; Utensils and tools (Utens); Other uses
(Other). (-): No data.
!
ANFD
CONST
CULT
ENVIR
FUEL
HMFD
MEDVET
TOXIC
UTENS
OTHER
Northern Amazon
Intercept (γ00) 0.958 7.518** 9.278** 0.155 0.198 13.229** 1.404 - 7.523** 4.299*
Socioeconomic factors
Women (1) -0.388** -
193
Age 0.09** 0.067** 0.023* - 0.101** 0.047**
Size of family - -0.102*
Subsistence livestock (5) 0.359* -
Farm size -0.319** -0.332* - -1.235*
Average cost tools (6) 0.294* -
No fuel consumption transport (7) -0.175* -
Low fuel consumption transport (7) -0.259* -
High fuel consumption transport (7) -2.052* -
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of mixed material (8) -4.481** -
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of foreign commercial -1.30** -
materials (8)
Locality standard deviation (σL) 1.211 3.092 5.864 0.501 0.146 2.703 1.211 - 2.419 2.961
Interviewed residuals (ei j) 1.073 3.71 3.534 0.93 0.506 2.728 1.333 - 4.469 2.028
!
!
ANFD
CONST
CULT
ENVIR
FUEL
HMFD
MEDVET
TOXIC
UTENS
OTHER
Southern Amazon
Intercept (γ00) -0.051 6.574** 0.186 0.157 -0.006 9.577** 0.294 - 2.266** 1.862*
Women (1) -0.526** 0.015 -0.325* -
Age 0.035** 0.016* 0.018** 0.01** - 0.024**
Mestizo (2) -0.096** -
Size of family 0.105** - 0.054* 0.040*
Education 0.084** 0.042** - 0.052*
Native language and Spanish spoken (3) 0.693** -
Migrant from other ecoregion (4) -0.729* -0.651* 0.062** -1.05** - -1.069** -0.119
Subsistence livestock (5) 1.001** - 0.540* 0.508**
Commercial livestock (5) 1.25** 0.212** -
Average cost tools (6) 0.720* 1.190** - 0.995** 0.357*
194
High cost tools (6) 0.836* 1.245** - 0.804**
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of foreign commercial 0.422* 0.633** 0.55** - 0.459* 0.256*
materials (8)
Locality standard deviation (σL) 0.175 2.541 2.502 0.526 0.038 2.488 1.036 - 1.654 2.004
Interviewed residuals (ei j) 0.383 2.113 1.874 0.416 0.143 1.871 1.035 - 1.899 1.288
Chocó
Intercept (γ00) 0.385 7.754** 5.643** 0.538 1.011** 8.622** 0.964 0.061 5.848** 2.475
Women (1) -0.231**
Age 0.006* 0.018* 0.023* 0.017**
Mestizo (2) -5.33**
!
!
ANFD
CONST
CULT
ENVIR
FUEL
HMFD
MEDVET
TOXIC
UTENS
OTHER
Afro-american (2) 2.037* -3.054*

Only spanish spoken (3) 1.778*
Subsistence livestock (5) 0.744*
Commercial livestock (5) 1.436** 2.346* 1.214** 1.983* 1.449** 2.919**
No fuel consumption transport (7) 0.324*
High fuel consumption transport (7) 0.984* 0.931*
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of mixed material (8) -2.156* -1.623* -1.171** -0.493* -1.079** -0.135* -2.295**
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of foreign commercial -1.465** -0.487* -1.480*
materials (8)
Locality standard deviation (σL) 0.229 2.706 1.681 0.768 0.119 1.022 0.465 0.063 2.143 2.964
195
Interviewed residuals (ei j) 0.693 2.652 2.147 1.268 0.742 2.25 1.25 0.11 2.668 1.384
Northern Andes
Intercept (γ00) - 1.63** 1.159** 0.06 0.364** 3.095** 0.18 - 1.84** -0.01
Women (1) - -0.105* -
Mestizo (2) - 0.215* -0.363** 1.295** -
Afro-american (2) - 0.555** - -1.573*
Education - 0.019* -
Native language and Spanish spoken (3) - -0.231** 0.388* -
Migrant from other ethnic group in the same - 0.34* 0.271* - -0.088
ecoregion (4)
Locality standard deviation (σL) - 0.155 0.269 0.001 0.093 0.464 0.062 - 0.729 0.092
Interviewed residuals (ei j) - 1.092 0.682 0.469 0.386 0.799 0.280 - 0.969 0.352
!
!
ANFD
CONST
CULT
ENVIR
FUEL
HMFD
MEDVET
TOXIC
UTENS
OTHER
Southern Andes
Intercept (γ00) -0.137 4.372** 1.398** - 0.387* 5.458** 1.757** - 2.855** 2.179**
Women (1) -0.85** -0.425** - -0.436** -0.386** - -0.482** -0.363**
Age - - -0.011*
Education 0.034** - -
Migrant from other ethnic group in the same 1.682* - -
ecoregion (4)
Migrant from other ecoregion (4) -0.492* - -
High fuel consumption transport (7) - -1.271** -
House size 0.009** 0.009** - -
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of mixed material (8) -0.218* - -
House construction w/ ≥ 50% of foreign commercial 0.383* - -
materials (8)
196
Locality standard deviation (σL) 0.346 0.97 0.641 - 0.109 0.437 0.674 - 0.659 0.001
Interviewed residuals (ei j) 0.315 1.441 1.067 - 0.497 1.141 1.043 - 1.214 0.759
!
!
!
!
!
The migration status had a significant association with knowledge in the southern
Amazon, where people who had migrated from a different ecoregion knew fewer
palm species than non-migrants for Construction, Cultural use, Human Food, and
Utensils and tools (Table 4.5). In the Andes, people who had migrated from the same
ecoregion had more TK on Cultural uses than people who had not migrated. The same
pattern was found for Environmental uses in the northern Andes. None of the five
sub-regions showed a significant association of time of residence in the community
on any of the use categories.
Many of the factors that measured the purchasing power of local inhabitants showed
an association with TK in the lowlands (Amazon and Chocó) (Table 4.5). In the
northern Amazon, people who raised animals for subsistence knew more Animal food
uses than people who did not breed animals. The same pattern was found in the
southern Amazon for Cultural use, Utensils and tools, and for Other uses, and in the
Chocó for Utensils and tools. A different pattern was found in the southern Amazon,
where people who raised animals for commercial purposes knew more Cultural and
Environmental uses than people who did so only for subsistence. The same pattern
was found in the Chocó for all uses except Cultural, Fuel, Toxic, and Other uses.
Farm size had a significant association on TK only in the northern Amazon where
people who had larger fields knew less Animal food, Medicinal and veterinary and
Utensils and tools uses. The association between the possession of tools and TK was
only evaluated in the Amazon ecoregion, and it was significant in the southern
Amazon, where people who did not have any tools were less knowledgeable about
Construction, Cultural use, Utensils and tools and Other uses. The possession of
means of transport had a significant association only in the northern Amazon where
knowledge in Construction was lower in people who had transport with higher fuel
consumption, and in the Chocó, with opposite pattern, regarding the Environmental
and Medicinal and veterinary use of palms. House-size, evaluated in only two sub-
regions, had a positive association in the northern Andes especially in Construction,
and Cultural use, indicating that people who had bigger houses generally were more
knowledgeable. The material used in the construction of houses had mainly an
association with palm knowledge in the lowlands. In the Chocó, people who used
mainly local material for their houses knew more for all categories than people using
mixed or external material. In the northern Amazon people who had their houses built
with external materials knew less about Human food than who had built their homes
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using mixed material. In the southern Amazon, people who primarily used external
material had a greater knowledge in Construction, Cultural use, Human food, and for
Utensils and tools than the ones who used mixed material in their home construction.
DISCUSSION
Our analyses highlight the strong association between socioeconomic factors and TK
about palms across ecoregions in northwestern South America, with the existence of
distinct patterns in all sub-regions. The influence of socioeconomic factors on TK
varied when overall palm-use knowledge or knowledge in the different use categories
are considered.
Men knew more useful palm species than women in most sub-regions, which could be
a result of the division of responsibilities, duties, and experience at intra- and inter-
household, or even community level, due to their greater participation in activities
such as hunting, clearing fields, building houses, and making tools (Hanazaki et al.
2000, Byg and Balslev 2004). In the Amazon, this might be explained by the fact that
the harvest of palms to a large extent requires large physical strength, and is done by
men, although women might do the final processing. The significant differences
found in the Andes can be explained by the fact that men tend to work outside their
villages and travel much more than women, which gives them more opportunities to
learn new uses for palms species they already know. With exception of the southern
Andes, our study did not find significant differences based on gender in use categories
such as Medicinal and veterinary or Cultural, for which earlier studies reported a
greater knowledge of women (Figueiredo et al. 1993, Stagegaard et al. 2002).
Age was associated to differences in TK in the lowlands, but not in the Andes.
Although we could not find a tendency for the influence of age in relation to the use
categories, the low slope with respect to the relationship between age and knowledge
in the localities of the lowlands, suggests that older people are not “experts” with a
much higher level of knowledge than younger people. This suggests an ongoing
process of TK transmission and in situ acquisition in contact with their environment
covering the necessities that arise over their lives (Phillips and Gentry 1993, Zarger
2002, Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007, Godoy et al. 2009).
Our results in relation to ethnicity indicate that in some regions the indigenous
population had more knowledge in some categories, especially those closely linked
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with cultural use of forest resources, like Medicinal and veterinary and Human Food,
as reported in other studies (Ladio 2001, Campos and Ehringhaus 2003, Balslev et al.
2010). In other cases however, the TK of mestizos was equal to, or even greater than
that of the indigenous population. This has been interpreted in other studies as an
effect of mestizos’ ample experience with external resources, which may motivate an
interest to learn about resources available in their nearby environment (Byg et al.
2007, Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007). However, this could also be influenced by the
greater access of mestizo communities to markets, encouraging them to learn about
palm species that can provide additional income. On the other hand, our finding that
the TK of Afro-americans was almost similar to that of the indigenous population
could reflect the long history of contact that has favored knowledge exchange
(Caballero 1995). Most of our study communities in the Chocó have much better
market access than those in the Amazon, resulting in a reduced dependence on palm
resources, which could have possibly led to lower TK levels in the indigenous
population of the former region.
The influence of family size on knowledge has been linked to the ability to
successfully meet the needs of the household, mainly related to food and health.
Although in general terms, the median number of children per family is not very high
and does not differ between the sub-regions (between 3.7 and 4.7, Appendix 2),
family size only had a positive association with TK in the southern Amazon, and only
on knowledge about Human Food and Other uses. This association could be related to
the influence of other factors like education, which was positive in these localities, or
to ethnicity, because these uses could be closely related to traditional culture and its
appreciation by the local population.
The Chocó was the only region where formal education had a significant negative
association on palm-use knowledge. A negative association of education on TK has
been reported because children and adolescents are removed from their natural,
cultural and physical environment to have a better formal education, which in turn
limits the opportunity to learn and participate in activities related to the transmission
of the TK from their elders (Somnasang and Moreno-Black 2000, Zarger 2002, Ladio
and Lozada 2004). An opposite effect was observed in the localities of the southern
Amazon, where the average number of years at school was lowest. Such effect was
most closely linked with cultural use of forest resources, and could reflect the
inclination of people with a formal education to place a greater value on TK and
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strive harder to acquire it (Zent 1999), thus helping to generate environmental

awareness (Godoy and Contreras 2001, Heckler 2002).
The patterns we found in relation to the language spoken and its association with
knowledge contradicts other findings that associate increasing bilingualism with
lower ethnobotanical knowledge (Zent 2001). However, this pattern could also be
related to the stages of the learning process. During the early stages of life, learning is
often strongly linked to the local language of the community. In contrast, at later
stages learning is influenced by formal education that frequently limits the use of
native languages. From adolescence to adulthood learning involves a strong
acquisition of practical skills that are necessary for establishing a new family
(Ohmagari and Berkes 1997, Hunn 2002, Reyes-García et al. 2007). At all these
stages, language provides the mechanism for socialization and intergenerational and
intercultural knowledge transfer, favoring the acquisition of new knowledge that
could potentially be useful, such as use for Human food, as shown in our study.
The association between migration status and knowledge was only significant in the
Amazon, which could reflect a longer tradition of palm use in this ecoregion (Campos
and Ehringhaus 2003) but also a greater reliance on oral traditions for cultural
transmission. Additionally, migration of informants into communities of a different
ethnicity in the same ecoregion could give them access to additional knowledge
through new worldviews and different cultural uses of palms. The high values found
in the northern Amazon with relation to this factor, especially with regards to
migrants from other ecoregions, could be considered as an artifact due to the small
sample size of this group.
In the present study, wealth is measured primarily as agricultural and livestock assets,
and therefore also reflects the different productive practices people engage in. The
extraction and use of natural resources such as plants is an integral part of the
livelihood strategies, and socioeconomic tradeoffs regarding investment in external
agricultural practices, animal husbandry, tools, capital, and labor influence the use of
natural resources and the interest to maintain TK (Coomes 1996; Wiersum 1997,
Takasaki et al. 2001). However, the different practices and productive activities of
households could also be related to factors such as family history, availability of labor
and capital, and past experiences (Coomes and Barham 1997; Scatena et al. 1996). A
loss of interest in TK of plants and other natural resources could also be due to the
availability of alternative industrial products that people can access due to the
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availability of alternative opportunities, such as wage labor, trade-oriented

agriculture, or migration to urban centers (Benz et al., 2000; Ladio 2001; Ladio and
Lozada, 2001). In general terms, our results show that the association of wealth with
knowledge was not very strong. In the northern Amazon, members of the less wealthy
families knew a greater number of species of useful palms for categories like
Construction, Human food and Cultural use. In agreement with past studies, we found
that people with less access to purchased goods had a better knowledge of useful
species (Arnold and Ruiz Pérez 2001), although this was probably influenced by the
reduced access of the communities to commercial centers (Byg and Balslev 2001,
Byg et al. 2007). We encountered the opposite effect in the southern Amazon, the
Chocó and the southern Andes, where it was especially visible in categories like
Construction, Utensils and tools, Cultural, and Medicinal and veterinary uses. In this
case a greater knowledge of palm use could be interpreted as a function of a person’s
attitude towards the surrounding environment. An informant curious about his or her
environment, with a commercial and experimental attitude, would be more likely to
have a good knowledge of plants that can be potentially useful, and this knowledge,
would be reflected in a higher standard of living in a long run, especially in
communities where agricultural products are not very diverse (Byg and Balslev
2001). We found no association between wealth and TK in the northern Andes,
probably because this is the region where communities are more densely populated,
have greater infrastructure development, and are well connected to commercial
centers. For these reasons, the factors we evaluated as indicators of purchasing power
do not reflect the wealth of people as well as in the other sub-regions.
Although our analyses are based only on palms, the most commonly cited plant
family in Neotropical ethnobotany and a keystone group for the subsistence of local
people (Macía et al. 2011), for other plant families we also expect a highly localized
association between socioeconomic factors and TK. Our assessment indicates that
regional-scale research and application of a standard method can efficiently help to
unravel these patterns.
CONCLUSIONS
We have shown that there are no regional patterns in the predictive power of the
evaluated socioeconomic factors, and that their association with palm-use knowledge
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is highly localized. The differences found in the influence of socioeconomic factors

reflect how highly variable and dynamic knowledge is. Most socioeconomic factors
evaluated showed an association with TK in the lowlands (Amazon and Chocó),
although with different trends, unlike the Andes where the effect was very small.
Although it seems logical that the socioeconomic factors evaluated should display a
localized influence, our study highlights that generalizations made from analyzing
this type of factors can lead to erroneous conclusions if applied without taking the
characteristics and particularities of each place into account. We argue that
understanding the heterogeneity of knowledge within a given area is crucial to design
conservation practices that build on the intricate links between knowledge, practices,
and institutional context. These findings provide a strong argument for the
conservation of TK using local strategies that consider all these possible variations
and influence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our deep gratitude to the 2050 kind and selfless people who agreed to
share their time and knowledge with us. The collaboration of representatives of
regional and local organizations of the 53 communities visited was essential to obtain
work permits. We thank the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales at Universidad Nacional
de Colombia, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Universidad Nacionál
Mayor de San Marcos, and the Instituto para el desarrollo local y la conservación de
la diversidad biológica y cultural andino amazónica (INBIA) in Peru, the Universidad
Mayor de San Andrés in Bolivia, and the William L. Brown Center at the Missouri
Botanical Garden for devoting resources and efforts to facilitate our work. Special
thanks to Erika Blacutt, Carolina Tellez, Carlos Vega, Juan Carlos Copete, Marybel
Soto, Lina Camelo, and Mateo Jaimes for their invaluable assistance in data collection
in the field, and Luis Marconi for his statistical recommendations. This study was
funded by European Union 7th Framework Programme (contract 212631), the Russel
E. Train Education for Nature Program of the WWF, and the Anne S. Chatham
Fellowship of the Garden Clubs of America, for which we are grateful.
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tropical forest conservation and development objectives? Ecological Economics
39:437–447.
Balick, M. J. 1984. Ethnobotany of palms in the Neotropics. Advances in Economic
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APPENDIX 4.1
Characteristic of the 53 communities where 2050 people were interviewed about their knowledge of palm use in Northwestern South America
(Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia).
(a)! The information about the nearest town and the time it takes to reach to it was obtained from interviews with informants. The data represents
the town and the time reported most frequently by the informants.
(b)! Availability of electricity: (1) no electricity, (2) free electricity, (3) paid electricity. Access to education: (1) no school, (2) primary school,
(3) secondary school, (4) community college or university. Access to healthcare: (1) without health post (only traditional medicine), (2)
health post / community nurse, (3) health post / physician (4) local hospital.
!
Social services available
Ecoregion - Country Accessibility (a) (b)
Number of
Nº Ethnic Group Linguistic family
Nearest town (Distance in informants
Community (population) Type access
Nº locality
hr.)
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
Northern Amazon
207
Colombia
1 Curare (130) 1 Multiethnic indigenous Multiethnic La Pedrera (1.5) Fluvial 1 2 1 19
2 Yucuna (160) 1 Multiethnic indigenous Multiethnic La Pedrera (1) Fluvial 1 2 1 19
3 Angostura (180) 1 Multiethnic indigenous Multiethnic La Pedrera (0.75) Fluvial 1 2 1 17
4 Camaritagua (60) 1 Multiethnic indigenous Multiethnic La Pedrera (0.33) Fluvial 1 1 1 10
5 San Martín de Amacayacu (430) 2 Tikuna Language isolate Leticia (6) Fluvial 1 2 1 88
Ecuador
6 Zábalo (170) 3 Cofan Chibchan (Barbacoan) Lago Agrio (6) Fluvial 1 2 1 14
7 Pacuya (150) 3 Cofan Chibchan (Barbacoan) Lago Agrio (6) Fluvial 1 1 1 13
8 Dureno (450) 3 Cofan Chibchan (Barbacoan) Lago Agrio (0.33) Fluvial 1 2 1 55
9 Wayusentsa (150) 4 Achuar Jivaroan Kapawi (3) Fluvial 1 2 1 15
10 Kapawi (220) 4 Achuar Jivaroan Kapawi (0) Fluvial 1 3 1 35
11 Kusutko (80) 4 Achuar Jivaroan Kusutko (0) Fluvial 1 2 1 15
Southern Amazon
Peru
12 San Martín (500) 5 Cocama Tupi Nauta (18) Fluvial 3 3 3 87
13 El Chino (550) 6 Mestizo Castellano Iquitos (10) Fluvial 1 2 2 79
14 Santa Ana (450) 7 Mestizo Castellano Iquitos (5) Fluvial 2 3 1 89
15 Yamayakat (1000) 8 Aguaruna Jivaroan Imacita (0.25) Fluvial 3 2 3 36
16 Cusu Chico (150) 8 Aguaruna Jivaroan Imacita (1) Fluvial 3 2 3 13
!
!
APPENDIX 4.1: continued

Number of
Nº locality
hr.)
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
17 Nueva Samaria (80) 8 Aguaruna Jivaroan Imacita (0.75) Fluvial 1 2 1 20

18 Villa Santiago (120) 9 Mestizo-Amakaeri Castellano Masuko (0.5) Tarmac 1 2 3 40
19 Santa Rosa (500) 9 Mestizo Castellano Masuko (1) Tarmac 3 3 3 24
20 Unión Progreso (300) 9 Mestizo Castellano Puerto Maldonado (1) Tarmac 3 2 1 14
21 Palma Real (300) 10 Ese Eja Tacanan Puerto Maldonado (4) Fluvial 1 2 2 89
Bolivia
22 Santa María (250) 11 Mestizo Castellano Riberalta (1) Loose surface road 3 2 3 41
23 26 de Octubre (180) 11 Mestizo Castellano Riberalta (1) Road 1 2 2 38
24 Alto Ivón (500) 12 Chacobo Panoan Riberalta (4) Road 1 3 3 56
25 Motacuzal (30) 12 Chacobo Panoan Riberalta (3.5) Road 1 2 2 24
26 San Benito (90) 13 Yuracaré Language isolate San Gabriel (1.66) Fluvial/road 1 2 1 17
27 Sanandita (60) 13 Yuracaré Language isolate San Gabriel (1.5) Fluvial/road 1 2 1 13
28 San Antonio (90) 13 Yuracaré Language isolate Ichoa (2) Road 1 2 1 14
208
29 Secejsama (100) 13 Yuracaré Language isolate Isinuta (1.5) Road 1 3 1 16
30 25 de Mayo (100) 14 Mestizo-Tacana Castellano-Tacanan San Buenaventura (1) Road 1 2 3 23
31 Buena Vista (240) 14 Mestizo-Tacana Castellano-Tacanan San Buenaventura (0.75) Road 1 2 3 36
32 San Isidro (50) 14 Leco-Tacana Language isolate-Tacanan San Buenaventura (0.5) Road 1 2 2 18
33 San Silvestre (100) 14 Tacana Tacanan San Buenaventura (1.5) Road 1 2 2 29
34 Sta. Rosa de Maravilla (50) 14 Mestizo-Tacana Castellano-Tacanan San Buenaventura (1.75) Road 1 2 3 12
Nothern Andes
Colombia
35 Sibundoy (13000) 15 Camsá Language isolate Sibundoy (0) Tarmac 3 4 4 82
36 Santiago (5800) 16 Inga Quechuan Santiago (0) Tarmac 3 4 4 76
37 Juisanoy (2000) 16 Inga Quechuan Santiago (0.5) Loose surface road 3 1 1 11
Ecuador
38 Nanegalito (3200) 17 Mestizo Castellano Quito (4) Tarmac 3 4 4 86
39 Mindo (1500) 18 Mestizo Castellano Quito (3) Tarmac 3 4 3 87
!
!

Number of
Nº locality
hr.)
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
Southern Andes
Peru
40 Lamas Wayku (1200) 19 Chanka Quechuan Lamas (0.25) Tarmac 3 2 3 68
41 Aviación (300) 19 Chanka Quechuan Lamas (2.5) Loose surface road 2 2 3 22
Bolivia
42 Irimo (350) 20 Leco Language isolate Apolo (3) Loose surface road 2 2 2 50
43 Munaypata (80) 20 Leco Language isolate Apolo (1.5) Loose surface road 2 3 2 18
44 Pucasucho (280) 20 Leco Language isolate Apolo (4) Loose surface road 2 2 3 21
45 Illipanayuyo (150) 21 Leco Language isolate Apolo (4) Loose surface road 1 2 2 24
209
46 Santo Domingo (220) 21 Leco Language isolate Apolo (7) Loose surface road 2 2 2 33
47 Correo (260) 21 Leco Language isolate Apolo (7) Loose surface road 2 3 3 32
Chocó
Colombia
48 Puerto Pervel (1500) 22 Afro-american Castellano Quibdo (2) Tarmac 3 2 3 86
49 Aguacate (312) 23 Emberá Chocó La Playa (24) Fluvial 1 2 1 44
50 Villanueva (200) 23 Emberá Chocó La Playa (24) Fluvial 1 2 1 44
Ecuador
51 Puerto Quito (1500) 24 Mestizo Castellano Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 4 3 88
52 Chigüilpe (130) 25 Tsáchila Tsafiki (Barbacoan) Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 2 3 34
53 Peripa (130) 25 Tsáchila Tsafiki (Barbacoan) Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 2 3 16
!
!
!
APPENDIX 4.2
Distribution of the 2050 informants interviewed in 25 localities of northwestern South America across the 14 socioeconomic variables evaluated,
in accordance with the description in Table 2. For the continuous variables the information is given as Mean ± SD.
!
1) Socioeconomic factor at personal level

Gender Age Ethnicity Education Language Migratory status Time in residence
spoken
Sub-region - Localities 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 Mean ± SD 1 2 3 1 2 3 Mean ± SD
Northern Amazon 153 147 86 79 55 36 44 299 1 - 4.9±4.2 15 23 262 241 58 1 30.0±16.5
1 42 23 17 17 13 6 12 64 1 - 4.4±3.7 - 20 45 37 28 - 19.1±10.1
2 42 46 20 20 17 15 16 88 - - 5.2±4.0 1 - 87 80 7 1 38.7±15.3
3 38 44 26 21 13 8 14 82 - - 4.1±3.9 9 3 70 81 1 - 34.6±17.6
4 31 34 23 21 12 7 2 65 - - 5.8±4.9 5 - 60 43 22 - 23.4±13.0
Southern Amazon 415 413 235 190 175 106 122 438 390 - 5.0±3.5 19 393 416 510 208 110 27.6±16.8
5 44 43 19 17 24 10 17 49 38 - 5.4±3.4 - 82 5 37 47 3 27.2±19.6
6 34 45 26 23 12 9 9 - 79 - 4.6±2.4 - 79 - 39 39 1 27.6±12.4
7 39 50 22 21 19 11 16 - 89 - 5.3±3.0 - 89 - 67 22 - 37.0±18.1
8 35 34 21 17 12 11 8 69 - - 6.4±4.4 6 2 61 69 - - 30.8±14.3
9 45 33 22 14 16 11 15 12 66 - 5.9±4.0 1 23 54 22 8 48 26.1±17.2
10 38 51 35 22 13 10 9 86 3 - 4.4±2.6 - 1 88 80 7 2 35.5±16.2
11 39 40 10 18 19 14 18 1 78 - 4.6±3.5 - 72 7 5 70 4 16.0±12.4
210
12 40 40 37 21 13 6 3 80 - - 4.3±4.6 12 1 67 79 1 - 24.5±13.4
13 32 28 18 16 14 4 8 58 2 - 3.1±2.7 - 1 59 39 8 13 19.0±10.5
14 69 49 25 21 33 20 19 83 35 - 5.3±3.2 - 43 75 73 6 39 28.4±17.7
Northern Andes 148 194 110 75 53 42 62 167 172 3 7.7±4.6 - 211 131 228 52 62 33.1±21.4
15 30 52 31 19 11 6 15 82 - - 8.4±5.1 - 13 69 82 - - 39.9±18.6
16 34 53 24 17 13 14 19 85 2 - 6.5±4.2 - 25 62 87 - - 42.7±19.7
17 36 50 26 19 16 10 15 - 86 - 7.5±4.2 - 86 - 24 36 26 23.0±18.5
18 48 39 29 20 13 12 13 - 84 3 8.3±4.7 - 87 - 35 16 36 26.9±21.9
Southern Andes 149 119 58 63 73 36 38 252 16 - 4.7±3.4 4 9 255 248 2 18 36.0±18.4
19 54 36 14 16 27 14 19 86 4 - 3.1±3.1 4 4 82 85 1 4 46.0±17.6
20 50 39 26 22 23 7 11 89 - - 6.0±2.9 - 3 86 88 1 - 32.4±14.6
21 45 44 18 25 23 15 8 77 12 - 5.0±3.6 - 2 87 75 - 14 29.3±18.3
Chocó 152 160 91 64 50 53 54 138 87 87 5.2±4.8 12 197 103 247 19 46 25.6±17.6
22 47 39 18 14 19 16 19 - - 86 5.9±4.9 - 86 - 84 1 1 29.4±12.2
23 42 46 32 23 14 14 5 88 - - 1.8±2.4 12 23 53 85 3 - 14.8±17.6
24 41 47 30 16 7 15 20 - 87 1 7.6±4.3 - 88 - 30 13 45 25.0±14.6
25 22 28 11 11 10 8 10 50 - - 5.5±5.1 - - 50 48 2 - 39.4±18.7
!
!

!
2) Socioeconomic factor at household level
House construction
Size family Farm animal Farm size Tools Transport House size
material
Sub-region - Localities Mean ± SD 1 2 3 Mean ± SD 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 Mean ± SD 1 2 3
Northern Amazon 4.7±3.3 163 135 2 0.7±0.7 212 75 13 109 146 24 21 59.2±37.6 122 9 169
1 4.9±2.8 32 32 1 1.2±0.8 39 26 - 23 25 15 2 63.6±42.1 11 3 51
2 4.2±3.2 33 55 - 0.5±0.3 80 5 3 25 55 6 2 57.3±33.2 43 6 39
3 5.2±3.5 47 35 - 0.9±0.8 56 16 10 46 19 - 17 68.6±45.4 5 - 77
4 4.7±3.8 51 13 1 0.3±0.3 37 28 - 15 47 3 - 45.4±20.1 63 - 2
Southern Amazon 4.2±3.0 90 679 59 1.6±1.4 91 557 180 236 295 272 25 64.2±59.9 634 18 176
5 5.2±3.5 7 80 - 1.4±0.8 2 66 19 4 34 45 4 67.4±39.5 75 - 12
6 3.9±2.7 5 72 2 1.4±1.3 - 77 2 2 35 40 2 100.6±57.2 77 - 2
7 4.6±3.1 12 77 - 2.0±2.2 22 62 5 23 37 29 - 71.2±31.6 73 - 16
8 4.3±3.3 4 65 - 0.9±0.6 34 34 1 59 2 5 3 44.7±27.4 49 2 18
211
Sub-region - Localities Mean ± SD 1 2 3 Mean ± SD 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 Mean ± SD 1 2 3
3.0±2.5 7 61 10 2.3±1.8 14 9 55 32 - 39 7 109.3±153.8 22 11 45
9
10 3.2±2.1 23 63 3 1.1±0.9 8 49 32 30 31 27 1 41.2±22.8 63 1 25
11 6.6±3.4 6 68 5 2.5±1.5 1 61 17 16 24 35 4 60.0±22.9 71 4 4
12 4.4±3.0 1 77 2 1.7±0.8 2 78 - 6 29 45 - 59.8±27.3 75 - 5
13 3.3±2.6 19 41 - 1.0±0.1 4 11 45 29 29 2 - 46.0±21.4 17 - 43
14 3.3±1.6 6 75 37 1.8±1.0 4 110 4 35 74 5 4 46.2±19.9 112 - 6
Northern Andes 3.7±3.2 236 93 13 0.5±2.0 339 1 2 284 25 14 19 81.2±47.2 - 306 36
15 3.4±3.2 55 27 - 0.5±0.6 82 - - 50 20 11 1 86.2±43.4 - 80 2
16 4.1±3.3 40 36 11 0.3±0.4 87 - - 77 5 3 2 81.2±34.0 - 87 -
17 3.8±3.1 70 16 - 0.8±2.8 83 1 2 78 - - 8 73.5±50.9 - 70 16
18 3.5±3.2 71 14 2 0.6±2.7 87 - - 79 - - 8 84.0±57.0 - 69 18
Southern Andes 4.7±3.0 20 209 39 2.0±1.8 81 128 59 210 51 2 5 56.3±35.9 71 13 184
19 4.0±2.7 5 78 7 1.8±1.5 26 61 3 88 - 1 1 83.1±46.2 2 5 83
20 5.2±3.1 7 63 19 2.2±1.5 14 50 25 56 33 - - 45.4±15.2 38 2 49
21 4.8±3.0 8 68 13 2.2±2.3 41 17 31 66 18 1 4 40.1±20.0 31 6 52
Chocó 3.8±3.2 87 215 10 1.8±5.2 299 9 4 185 100 17 10 54±31.1 25 210 77
22 4.2±3.3 21 61 4 0.4±0.7 84 1 1 43 28 12 3 54.9±17.2 1 79 6
23 4.4±3.4 12 72 4 0.9±1.0 83 5 - 16 72 - - 36.4±18.2 18 - 70
24 3.2±2.9 42 45 1 2.3±8.7 88 - - 85 - 3 - 65.3±41.0 - 88 -
25 3.7±3.0 12 37 1 4.8±4.7 44 3 3 41 - 2 7 63.3±34.2 6 43 1
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CAPÍTULO 5
Understanding transmission of traditional knowledge across

northwestern South America: A case study of palms
(Arecaceae)
Este capítulo ha sido enviado como:

Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., Cámara-Leret, R., Bussmann, R.W., Macía, M.J.
Understanding transmission of traditional knowledge across northwestern South
America: A case study of palms (Arecaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society
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ABSTRACT
The transmission of traditional knowledge (TK) depends largely on the ability of
people to preserve and learn new knowledge. Different and opposing evidence about
loss, persistence and generation of TK has been reported, but cross-cultural
comparisons are notably missing. We interviewed 2050 participants in 25 localities in
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, across three ecoregions (Amazon, Andes,
Chocó), and three cultural groups (indigenous, mestizos, Afro-americans). Our main
aims were to (1) explore the transmission of palm use knowledge for 10 use
categories across five age cohorts, and (2) identify the use categories in which
knowledge is widely shared by all age cohorts or unique to one cohort. TK in
different age-cohorts in the Amazon and the Chocó was heterogeneous, and increased
with age. TK in the Andes was more evenly distributed between generations, with
divergent tendencies in relation to age. TK about Human food and Construction was
widely distributed. Medicinal and veterinary, Utensils and tools, and Cultural uses
were more unique. Our cross-cultural and multiple-scale study indirectly show that
the maintenance of TK is rely on multiple factors, including ecological, social,
cultural and economical, and provide a strong argument for their conservation using
local strategies that consider all these possible influences.
KEYWORDS: Acculturation, cultural change, ecosystem services, ethnobotany,

indigenous people, livelihood, loss of ecological knowledge, tropical rain forests.
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INTRODUCTION
The transmission of traditional knowledge (TK) in many rural and indigenous

communities has improved livelihoods in times of disturbance and change (e.g.
Colding, Elmqvist & Olsson 2003; Pardo-de-Santayana & Macía 2015). During the
last decades various studies reported conflicting evidence on changes occurring in TK
(Begossi, Hanazaki & Tamashiro 2002; Godoy et al. 2009a; Zent & Maffi 2010), and
different hypotheses have been coined to explain these opposite findings. On the one
hand, the decrease in TK has been attributed to (i) decrease in plant diversity due to
land use change (Shanley & Rosa 2004; Rocha & Cavalcante 2006); (ii) erosion of
cultural practices and local languages (Benz et al. 2000); (iii) replacement of
traditional education by formal schooling (Stenberg et al. 2001); and (iv) economic
factors that lead to migration, urbanization, new transportation routes, and integration
into the market economy (Godoy et al. 2005; Reyes-García et al. 2005). On the other
hand, the persistence of TK has been attributed to (i) ecosystem characteristics such
as low floristic diversity, which promotes rapid learning and more widely distributed
knowledge (Lykke, Kristensen & Ganaba 2004); (ii) the maintenance of traditions and
livelihood systems (Zarger & Stepp 2004); and (iii) forest-based market activities,
including commercialization of non-timber forest products (Godoy et al. 1998). Other
authors highlight that differences in both the selection of methods to measure TK and
in the statistical techniques utilized can also account for the contradictory findings
(Reyes-García et al. 2003; Ladio & Lozada 2004; Reyes-García et al. 2007).
Often, studies estimating acculturation have compared TK among different age
cohorts and have inferred TK loss if older participants know more than younger ones
(Phillips & Gentry 1993; Estomba, Ladio & Lozada 2006). While this approach
provides a snapshot in time of TK, it can also lead to an erroneous impression of
acculturation of young vs. older participants; unless participants’ position in the
lifecycle is considered, for instance knowledge of women after motherhood is higher
than knowledge of women without children (Voeks 2007). Other studies have
however measured acculturation based on birth periods (i.e. age cohorts) and related it
to changes in education, livelihood shifts (e.g. wage work outside their community),
and access to transport infrastructure (Godoy et al. 2009a; Reyes-García et al. 2013a).
The observed trends have also been explained by the adaptive nature of TK in
response to livelihood changes (Ross 2002; Reyes-García et al. 2005; 2013b; Zent &
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Maffi 2010). The idea that TK systems are able to adapt to both external and internal
pressures has been a mainstay in applied ecology (Berkes, Colding & Folke 2000).
Analyzing such changes only in terms of lost knowledge, however, tends to downplay
the dynamic nature of TK and places little emphasis on understanding adaptive
responses to new environmental, social and economic conditions (Hanazaki et al.
2013). Consequently, our understanding of how these processes affect the
transmission of TK systems and its ability to evolve and adapt is highly fragmentary.
Several studies have examined the causes of the loss or alteration of TK, but few have
considered the intercultural context of these processes at larger scales, as other studies
have pointed out (Hanazaki et al. 2013, Reyes-García et al. 2013a). To our
knowledge, Cámara-Leret et al. (2014) is the only cross-cultural study that examined
medicinal palm use patterns at multiple scales (ecoregions, countries, human groups,
communities, and individuals) in northwestern South America. Most medicinal
knowledge was not shared among most of the analyzed scales, although minor
knowledge components were widely shared, even across countries. The above study
pointed to the complexity of TK patterns at different scales, and to the importance of
standard protocols to render results from local studies comparable at larger scales.
In this work, we also study TK transmission over large scales, but focus on all palms
uses across three ecoregions (Amazon, Andes, Chocó), four countries (Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia), and three human groups (indigenous, mestizos, and Afro-
americans) of northwestern South America using a standardized interview protocol.
Specifically, we ask two main questions: (1) Is TK uniformly distributed across age
cohorts and use categories?, and (2) Which use categories are mainly shared across
age cohorts or are unique to a single age cohort?.
We used palms (Arecaceae) as a model group because of their importance for the
livelihoods of indigenous and non-indigenous populations in tropical America
(Phillips & Gentry 1993; Galeano 2000; Macía, 2004); their abundance and wide
distribution in rainforest habitats (Pintaud et al. 2008; Balslev et al. 2011) and also
because many palm species have uses that are shared among or unique to different
cultures and regions (Macía et al. 2011; Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a).
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METHODS
Study region
Our research was conducted in 25 localities within three ecoregions: the Amazon
(n=14 localities) and Andes (n=7) of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and the
Chocó (n=4) of Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 5.1). We classified ecoregions following
Macía et al. (2011), with the Amazon defined as the lowlands to the east of the Andes
and below 1000 m elevation; the Andes as the humid montane forests on both slopes
of the Andes above 1000 m, including the inter-Andean valleys of Bolivia with lower
precipitation; and the Chocó as the humid forests along the Pacific coast of Colombia
and northern Ecuador, below 1000 m. Localities were inhabited by indigenous (n=15
localities), Afro-american (n=1), mestizo (n=8), and multiethnic indigenous groups
(n=1). Localities were selected in each ecoregion to have uniform ethnic
composition, varying levels of education and health services, accessibility to markets
and access to mature forests for harvesting palms. Localities included more than one
community if the number of people interviewed in a single community was lower
than 87 people (7 expert informants + 80 general informants), as defined in our
research protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana, Macía & Cámara-Leret 2010, Cámara-Leret,
Paniagua-Zambrana & Macía 2012) (Appendix 5.1).
Data collection
Ethnobotanical data were gathered through semi-structured interviews, and
socioeconomic data through structured interviews using a standardized research
protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2010; Cámara-Leret et al. 2012). Prior to starting
interviews, we obtained the necessary permits and established informed consent with
the communities and informants. From March 2010 to December 2011, we collected
ethnobotanical information with two types of informants: experts, of whom we
interviewed 0-7 in each community (n=159), and general informants, of whom we
interviewed 10-89 in each community (n=1891). Experts were selected by consensus
of community members during a communal meeting. General informants were
selected by researchers to achieve a balanced representation of gender and age cohorts
within the localities. We divided informants into five age cohorts, starting at 18 years
and using a range of 10 years for each age cohort (18–30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, and
>60 years old) to achieve an equal representation of all ages (Appendix 5.2). Within
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the age cohorts, approximately 50% were women and 50% were men. We first
interviewed expert informants through “walks in the woods,” during which we
documented all palm species that grew in the surroundings of the communities,
collected vouchers, identified the species, documented their uses, and recorded their
vernacular names. These names were later used in the interviews with general
informants. We then conducted semi-structured interviews with general informants
during household visits. We asked each person about each of the species that were
reported during interviews with experts. Additionally, we gathered personal
information (gender, age, ethnicity, education level, languages spoken, migration
status, time in residence) and household data (size of family, tenure of farm animals,
farm size, tools, transports, house size, house constructions materials) to determine
the socioeconomic context of each informant. Interviews were conducted in Spanish,
or with local interpreters whenever informants did not speak Spanish. Palms were
identified in the field wherever possible, and vouchers were collected when our field
identifications needed confirmation. Voucher specimens were deposited in the
herbaria AAU, AMAZ, COL, LPB, and QCA (herbarium acronyms according to
Thiers (2015).
Data analysis
Data were analyzed at the species level, with the exception of Bactris gasipaes, for
which we differentiated the wild var. chichagui from the cultivated var. gasipaes. All
palm uses and useful species reported in the interviews were classified in 10 use
categories following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (Cook 1995)
with the modifications proposed by Macía et al. (2011). Use categories included
Animal food, Construction, Cultural, Environmental, Fuel, Human food, Medicinal
and veterinary, Toxic, Utensils and tools, and Other uses (including indirect uses,
especially the use of beetle larvae that develop in rotting trunks). We calculated two
different indicators of TK: 1) number of useful palm species, and 2) number of palm
uses, modified from Macía et al. (2011) and defined as a specific use of a palm part
from a given species associated to a use category, a use sub-category, and considering
a different palm use for each product, food or artifact made using the same part of the
plant. We performed a Kruskal-Wallis test and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test
to test for significant differences in the total number of useful palm species and palm
uses cited by different age cohorts in each of the 25 localities. We applied the same
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analysis to test for significant differences in TK in the 10 use categories across age
cohorts. Since both indicators of TK were strongly correlated (r ≥ 0.6), we used only
one indicator, i.e. palm uses in the subsequent analyses. In each locality and for each
use category, we identified how many palm uses were widely shared by all age
cohorts (hereafter “common” uses) or just by one age cohort (hereafter “unique”
uses).
(Amazon, Andes, Chocó), countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia) and localities
(n=25) where palm ethnobotanical data were gathered. See Appendix 5.1 for details
on localities.
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Using a Kruskal-Wallis test and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test, we evaluated
if the proportion of informants that reported common uses differed from the
proportion of informants that reported unique uses. All analyses were performed
using R 3.01 (R Development Core Team 2015).
RESULTS
A total of 3354 palm uses corresponding to 139 different palm species were reported
in 2050 interviews across northwestern South America (Table 5.1). TK peaked in the
Amazon, with informants in northern Amazonia, especially in Colombia, citing the
highest number of palm uses and useful palm species, followed by informants in
localities in southern Amazon of Peru, and in the Chocó of Colombia.
Transmission of TK across age cohorts

We found significant differences in the distribution of TK across age cohorts in 14 of
the 25 localities, which represent all human groups and ecoregions (Fig. 5.2). Age
cohorts showed significant differences in 75% of localities in northern Amazon (Figs.
5.2 A-C), and in 50% of the southern Amazon (Figs. 5.2 D-H), although without a
clear pattern across human groups. In the Andes, only two mestizo localities in
Ecuador showed significant differences (Figs. 5.2 I-J) whereas in the Chocó, all
localities showed significant differences in relation to age cohorts (Figs. 5.2 K-N).
In those localities with statistically significant differences, younger respondents (18-
40 years) knew fewer palm uses than older respondents (>41 years old), except for the
Chocó Emberá locality where the opposite pattern was found (Fig. 5.2 L). Only in
two indigenous localities of the northern Amazon did TK gradually increase with age
(Figs. 5.2 A-B).
Transmission of TK across use categories

The five use categories with the highest use values for all human groups in the
lowlands were Utensils and tools, Construction, Human food, Cultural, and Other
uses in the Amazon, and Medicinal and veterinary instead of Other uses for the last
use category in the Chocó (Table 5.1). In the Andes, Construction, Utensils and tools,
Human food, Cultural and Environmental were the most important use categories for
all human groups in Colombia and Ecuador. The same occurred in Peru and Bolivia,
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but Environmental was replaced by Medicinal and veterinary uses.
Table 5.1: Total number of useful palm species, palm uses, and palm uses per use
category reported in the 25 localities in northwestern South America (Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia). See Appendix 1 for details on localities.
Palm uses per use category
Useful species
Environmental
Medicinal and
Ecoregion
Construction
Human food
Animal food
Utensils and
Palm uses
Other uses
Ethnicity-Locality no.
veterinary
Cultural
Toxic
tools
Fuel
Northern Amazon
Multiethnic indigenous-1 55 687 27 119 110 2 17 120 50 - 213 29
Tikuna-2 50 550 8 88 116 16 - 61 51 - 154 56
Cofan-3 41 277 - 55 48 2 3 44 6 - 93 27
Achuar-4 32 261 5 62 22 - - 53 10 - 69 40
Southern Amazon
Cocama-5 39 290 4 81 30 8 2 53 20 - 73 19
Mestizo-6 37 335 11 89 32 2 - 61 42 - 58 40
Mestizo-7 35 223 4 65 21 2 - 51 20 - 45 15
Aguaruna-8 30 288 1 78 16 - 2 63 23 - 86 19
Mestizo-Amakaeri-9 23 218 3 60 31 4 1 43 9 - 31 36
Ese Eja-10 25 304 1 50 45 - - 53 25 - 76 54
Mestizo-11 26 243 4 45 33 3 - 38 41 - 61 18
Chácobo-12 24 222 1 29 33 - - 34 29 - 63 33
Yuracaré-13 18 144 1 22 15 - 2 35 23 - 35 11
Mestizo-Tacana-14 20 134 - 39 17 - - 38 9 - 28 3
Northern Andes
Camsá-15 15 108 - 29 28 4 1 12 - - 34 -
Inga-16 20 131 - 39 27 2 3 17 7 - 36 -
Mestizo-17 16 102 - 32 13 11 - 25 2 - 16 3
Mestizo-18 15 108 1 34 21 3 - 23 5 - 13 8
Southern Andes
Chanka-19 28 319 1 88 36 1 14 60 22 - 69 28
Leco-20 16 169 3 33 19 - 2 23 39 - 36 14
Leco-21 15 130 1 29 16 - 1 21 24 - 29 9
Chocó
Afro-american-22 30 366 5 105 39 20 1 56 26 2 109 3
Emberá-23 38 391 9 96 46 5 8 95 24 - 100 8
Mestizo-24 17 117 1 33 17 8 1 28 5 - 13 11
Tsa’chila-25 21 292 2 50 50 4 3 45 26 - 56 56
Total 139 3354 61 571 575 63 48 346 398 2 1036 254
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Fig. 5.2: Number of palm uses (dark gray bars) and useful species (light gray bars)
cited by five age cohorts in the 14 localities in northwestern South America were
significant differences in at least one use category are shown. Letters (e.g. a, b, c)
indicate significantly different means based on a Kruskal-Wallis tests and its
corresponding post hoc Tukey test (p < 0.05), with the levels indicated by different
letters showing significant differences. See Appendix 1 for details on localities.
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In 19 localities (76%), informant’s age significantly explained differences in TK for

1-5 of the 10 use categories (Table 5.2). In three of four localities of the northern
Amazon, Construction, Human food, Medicinal and veterinary, and Utensils and tools
showed significant differences related to age cohorts. Younger respondents (18-30
years) knew fewer palm uses than older respondents (>31). TK of Construction use
clearly increased with age, except among the Achuar. Human food was more
concentrated among informants >51 years old, except among the Tikuna where TK
was more evenly distributed. Medicinal and veterinary uses, Utensils and tools, Other
uses and Cultural use were more homogenous amongst informants >31 years old.
In southern Amazonia, seven localities (70%, four indigenous and three mestizo)
showed differences of TK related to age in different use categories (Table 5.2).
Utensils and tools was the only category showing significant differences in more than
50% of localities, especially in indigenous communities. Construction and Cultural
uses showed significant differences in three localities, two Mestizo in the first
category, and two indigenous in the second one. Human food, Medicinal and
veterinary and Other uses showed differences in two localities, the first only in
mestizo areas. Younger respondents (18-30 years) knew fewer palm uses than older
respondents (>31 years), except for Cultural use amongst the Ese Eja, where
participants >60 years had less knowledge. Knowledge about Human food, Medicinal
and veterinary, Utensils and tools, and Other uses was concentrated in participants
>41 years old.
In the Andes, five localities (71%, three indigenous and two mestizo) showed
significant differences related to age cohorts (Table 5.2). Construction, Human food,
and Utensils and tools had significant differences in only two localities, and in the
first case both were mestizo. In 50% of these localities, the younger respondents (18-
30 years) knew fewer palm uses than older respondents (>31 years), except for (a)
Human food among the mestizos of locality 18 and amongst the Leco, (b) Utensils
and tools among the mestizos of locality 17, and (c) Cultural use among the Inga. The
knowledge of Construction and Other uses was higher among older informants (>41
years). For Cultural uses, TK peaked in participants 31-60 years old, and for Utensils
and tools in informants >31 years. Human food showed two opposite peaks, one
among the younger informants and another among those >51 years old.
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Table 5.2: Mean number of palm uses (±SD) cited by five different age cohorts for
the six most important use categories in northwestern South America (Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia). Only the localities with significant differences in at least
one use category are shown (bold). Letters (a, b, c) indicate significantly different
means based on a Kruskal-Wallis test and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test (p <
0.05), with the levels indicated by different letters showing significant differences.
See Appendix 1 for details on localities.
Ecoregion -
Age cohort Medicinal and
Ethnicity- Construction Cultural Human food Utensils and tools Other uses
(years) veterinary
Locality no.
18-30 14.3±4.4 c 18.6±5.8 22.8±3.0 b 3.9±1.2 b 11.9±5.0 b 8.6±3.5 b
Northern 31-40 17.5±3.2 bc 20.0±4.6 25.5±2.0 a 4.5±1.6 ab 13.7±4.8 ab 12±2.9 ab

Amazon - 41-50 19.2±4.5 ab 22.8±4.8 25.7±2.3 a 5.4±1.9 ab 19.6±6.1 a 12.8±4.0 a
Tikuna-2 51-60 20.1±6.6 ab 22.9±5.9 26.4±3.2 a 5.7±2.6 a 16.5±10.3 ab 14.1±4.8 a
> 60 22.6±5.9 a 22.6±5.2 27.5±4.1 a 5.1±1.8 ab 19.5±9.3 a 13.8±4.6 a
18-30 7.2±2.7 c 7.4±2.8 b 15.8±4.0 bc 0.7±0.6 b 7.7±4.7 b 4.3±3.7
Northern 31-40 9.6±5.0 bc 9.5±2.1 ab 15.4±2.7 c 0.7±0.7 b 11.1±5.4 ab 4.5±4.4

Amazon - 41-50 11.6±2.3 abc 9.5±3.5 ab 16.8±2.2 bc 0.9±0.4 ab 10.1±3.9 ab 6.9±3.7
Cofan-3 51-60 13.6±7.2 ab 11.5±3.5 a 19.0±1.3 ab 0.8±1.0 ab 11.6±5.5 ab 8.1±5.7
> 60 16.0±7.9 a 9.9±3.3 ab 20.1±2.7 a 1.5±1.0 a 14.2±7.3 a 7.9±7.9
18-30 14.7±2.7 b 6.1±2.3 24±2.6 b 0.9±1.0 b 8.4±4.1 b 18.3±3.6 b
Northern 31-40 16.9±3.1 ab 7.6±2.4 26.6±2.1 a 1.8±1.1 a 13.1±4.3 a 22.6±4.7 ab
Amazon - 41-50 18.6±3.2 a 7.7±1.8 25.8±3.0 ab 2.0±1.3 a 13.5±4.9 ab 23.2±4.9 a
Achuar-4 51-60 16.9±3.0 ab 7.7±3.2 28.4±2.9 a 1.9±0.9 ab 11.3±4.2 ab 24.4±4.5 ab
> 60 17.5±0.7 ab 4.0±0.0 30.0±0.0 a 1.0±0.0 ab 15.5±2.1 ab 25±1.4 ab
18-30 16.2±3.8 2±2.1 18.3±2.7 1.9±1.2 5.5±3.7 3.2±2.6 b
Southern 31-40 18.2±4.5 2.4±1.7 18.5±2.6 2.1±1.6 7.0±3.4 3.5±3.2 b

Amazon - 41-50 18.5±4.1 2.0±1.9 20.4±3.7 2.3±1.6 6.7±4.5 7.1±4.8 a
Mestizo-6 51-60 17.2±4.2 2.2±1.7 19.9±4.3 1.3±1.2 7.2±3.7 4.1±2.6 ab
> 60 17.4±4.9 2.0±1.9 21.3±4.2 1.3±1.0 7.0±3.2 3.4±2.6 ab
18-30 11.6±4.2 b 2.5±1.3 15.4±2.5 b 1.0±0.8 b 5.9±2.1 2.0±1.3
Southern 31-40 14.3±3.6 ab 2.3±1.2 17.1±3.1 ab 1.4±0.9 ab 6.8±1.7 2.1±1.1

Amazon - 41-50 14±3.3 ab 1.7±1.3 17.3±2.3 ab 1.8±1.0 a 7.3±2.3 2.1±1.0
Mestizo-7 51-60 17.5±2.2 a 1.8±1.0 19.2±2.5 a 2.0±0.9 a 7.9±1.6 2.1±0.9
> 60 13.9±3.4 ab 1.8±1.3 19.5±2.7 a 1.9±0.8 a 7.5±2.6 1.8±1.4
18-30 20.2±6.3 2±1.9 23.9±5.4 1.4±1.4 6.5±3.9 b 8.1±1.5
Southern 31-40 20.2±5.8 1.4±1.7 23.7±3.4 1.3±2.2 5.1±3.7 b 7.8±1.7

Amazon - 41-50 22.4±3.5 2.3±2.3 28.3±4.3 1.5±1.4 11.4±4 a 7.2±2.6
Aguaruna-8 51-60 23.5±4.8 1.2±1.2 24.2±4.4 0.6±0.7 6.3±5.4 b 6.9±1.9
> 60 23.1±6.0 2.3±2.6 25.8±6 1.1±1.5 8.3±4.7 ab 8.5±1.2
18-30 9.7±3.4 11.3±4 ab 17.8±3.1 1.1±0.9 b 9.1±4.3 b 8.5±4.3 b
Southern 31-40 11.5±2.8 13.8±3.9 a 19.6±4.7 1.3±0.7 b 12.1±4.6 ab 12.0±4.0 a

Amazon – 41-50 10.5±2.0 14.4±4.0 a 18.7±2.4 1.5±1.0 ab 13.9±5.5 a 9.4±4.2 ab
Ese Eja-10 51-60 10.2±1.6 11.0±4.6 ab 20.8±4.6 2.5±1.4 a 10.3±3.6 ab 11.2±4.7 ab
> 60 12.3±3.5 7.8±5.1 b 18.3±3.0 1.7±1.5 ab 12.4±5.3 ab 8.2±5.2 ab
18-30 7.5±2.5 b 3.8±1.3 c 12.4±2.4 c 4.1±1.5 3.5±1.3 b 3.3±1.0
Southern 31-40 12.9±3.3 a 4.6±1.7 bc 14.9±2.1 bc 5.3±2.5 6.3±2.5 ab 4.1±2.4
Amazon - 41-50 14.2±3.1 a 6.1±2.3 ab 17.2±2.2 a 6.1±1.1 9.1±4.4 a 3.9±1.5
Mestizo-11 51-60 13.6±2.5 a 6.6±2.5 ab 15.8±2.9 ab 5.4±2.0 8.3±4.1 a 3.8±1.5
> 60 13.4±1.5 a 6.7±2.3 a 15.9±2.1 ab 5.4±2.1 8.6±2.8 a 3.4±1.3
18-30 7.1±3.0 b 3.2±2.7 13.9±2.8 2.7±1.7 7.3±3.3 b 5.0±3.4
Southern 31-40 8.1±2.1 ab 3.4±3.3 14.1±2.3 2.5±1.4 8.2±2.6 ab 5.0±2.9

Amazon - 41-50 10.5±2.4 a 3.0±2.9 15.4±2.3 4.1±2.3 10.4±4.1 a 5.9±3.0
Chácobo-12 51-60 7.5±2.1 ab 1.2±1.0 15.5±1.9 2.3±1.6 7.3±3.6 ab 4.2±2.3
> 60 9.0±0.0 ab 2.7±0.6 15.0±3.0 2.3±1.5 10.0±5.0 ab 2.7±1.5
18-30 10.2±1.2 3.9±1.6 b 10.8±2.6 1.1±0.9 11.3±3.1 b 1.6±1.9
Southern 31-40 10.1±2.6 5.3±2 ab 13.4±4.4 1.2±1.6 14.9±3.7 a 2.5±3.1

Amazon - 41-50 10.1±1.6 5.6±1.9 a 13.9±3.1 1.4±1.6 15.0±4.1 a 1.8±2.6
Yuracaré-13 51-60 9.3±1.0 5.5±1.0 ab 10.8±1.0 0.8±1.0 9.8±1.9 ab 0.8±1.5
> 60 9.9±1.9 5.8±1.0 ab 14.3±3.1 0.9±1.1 12.4±3.1 ab 1.0±1.6
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Ethnicity - Age cohort Medicinal and
Construction Cultural Human food Utensils and tools Other uses
Locality no. (years) veterinary
18-30 2.6±1.5 2.9±1.3 3.2±0.6 - 2.4±1.6 b -
31-40 2.8±1.2 3.0±0.9 3.6±0.8 - 3.0±1.3 ab -
Northern Andes
41-50 2.3±0.7 2.8±0.9 3.7±0.7 - 3.4±1.1 ab -
- Camsá-15
51-60 2.7±0.8 3.2±1.6 3.7±1.6 - 3.7±0.8 ab -
> 60 3.1±1.1 3.5±1.1 3.5±0.7 - 3.8±2.0 a -
18-30 3.2±3.4 2.8±1.0 b 5.2±1.6 - 3.0±2.7 -
31-40 2.9±2.2 4.9±1.9 a 5.2±0.9 - 4.0±2.3 -
Northern Andes
41-50 3.1±3.6 3.8±1.7 ab 5.0±0.9 0.3±0.9 4.2±3.0 -
- Inga-16
51-60 3.7±3.8 5.1±2.1 a 5.5±0.9 0.1±0.4 5.2±3.3 -
> 60 3.8±2.4 3.5±1.0 b 5.3±1.6 0.2±0.5 4.0±2.2 -
18-30 2.2±2.4 b 2.4±0.9 6.1±2.4 0±0.2 0.3±0.8 b 0.1±0.2 b
31-40 1.5±1.3 b 2.2±0.5 5.7±1.7 - 0.3±0.8 b 0.1±0.2 b
Northern Andes
41-50 3.5±2.7 ab 2.8±1.1 7.2±2.9 - 0.9±1.7 ab 0.2±0.4 ab
- Mestizo-17
51-60 4.7±3.3 a 2.8±1.6 7.1±2.9 - 1.7±2.3 a 0.1±0.3 ab
> 60 3.1±2 ab 2.5±0.9 5.3±1.7 0.1±0.3 0.1±0.3 b 0.3±0.5 a
18-30 3.7±2.5 b 2.9±0.9 7.1±2.0 ab 0.2±0.4 0.8±1.1 0.3±0.6
31-40 4.2±1.5 ab 2.8±0.8 6.5±1.2 b 0.1±0.2 0.7±1.0 0.3±0.5
Northern Andes
41-50 4.1±2.0 ab 3.1±1.3 6.1±1.4 b 0.2±0.4 0.5±0.7 0.2±0.4
- Mestizo-18
51-60 4.8±2.1 ab 3.6±1.3 6.9±1.2 ab 0.1±0.3 0.6±0.5 0.2±0.4
> 60 6.1±2.0 a 2.7±1.2 8.2±2.2 a 0.3±0.8 1.5±1.5 1.1±1.5
18-30 5.9±2.7 3±1.6 9.7±2.3 ab 3.7±3.3 5.5±3.1 4.0±1.6
31-40 6.7±1.8 2.7±1.4 10.3±2.4 a 3.2±3.1 6.0±3.4 3.7±1.6
Southern Andes
41-50 6.8±1.8 3.0±1.6 10.0±3.7 ab 4.0±2.8 6.1±3.9 3.5±1.4
- Leco-20
51-60 5.9±1.7 2.7±1.4 9.6±2.4 ab 5.3±3.5 5.7±4.0 4.3±0.5
> 60 4.9±1.8 2.1±1.2 7.3±2.5 b 3.7±2.8 3.4±1.8 3.1±1.1
18-30 6.4±6.7 c 3.6±1.5 16.4±3.7 1.3±0.8 5.2±4.3 b 0.1±0.2
31-40 11.2±4.8 bc 3.6±2.7 17.6±4.4 1.5±0.9 8.8±4.7 ab 0.1±0.5
Chocó –
Afro-american- 41-50 14.7±5.3 ab 3.3±1.6 17.2±3.0 2.0±0.9 8.3±3.7 ab 0.1±0.3
22
51-60 14.4±3.9 ab 2.5±1.6 16.2±2.3 1.4±0.6 10.3±3.6 a -
> 60 17.2±5.2 a 2.7±1.4 17.3±3.0 1.8±0.9 11.3±4.7 a 0.1±0.2
18-30 15.9±4.0 b 4.8±3.5 19.0±3.8 b 0.5±1 ab 7.2±3.5 b 0.5±0.8
31-40 17.6±3.9 ab 5.4±4.5 19.2±4.6 b 0.9±1.2 ab 8.8±4.8 ab 0.2±0.5
Chocó –
41-50 17.1±5.0 ab 7.3±3.9 20.9±5.4 ab 1.0±1.3 a 10.6±5.3 ab 0.9±1.5
Emberá-23
51-60 19.6±4.3 a 7.1±5.0 24.1±5.9 a 1.7±1.4 a 12.8±5.4 a 1.1±1.5
> 60 16.8±2.3 ab 4.8±2.6 16.6±3.1 b 0.2±0.5 b 6.4±1.8 ab -
18-30 4.1±1.8 b 2.1±1.0 7.3±1.9 b 0.5±0.6 0.7±0.9 -
31-40 4.9±1.5 b 2.5±1.1 8.3±2.0 ab 0.2±0.4 1.1±0.9 -
Choco –
41-50 8.6±3.7 a 2.4±1.4 8.4±2.1 ab 0.4±0.5 0.3±0.5 1.0±1.3
Mestizo-24
51-60 5.9±2.3 ab 2.0±1.4 7.7±1.2 b 0.3±0.6 0.7±0.8 0.2±0.8
> 60 7.0±2.3 a 1.6±0.8 9.9±1.9 a 0.2±0.4 0.8±1.0 2.0±2.0
18-30 6.1±3.1 b 5.8±2.4 13.5±4.6 b 0.2±0.4 3.6±1.6 5.0±2.1
31-40 11.7±3.2 a 10±5.8 15.9±2.7 ab 1.8±3.5 7.1±5.4 11±6.9
Chocó –
41-50 12.2±2.6 a 10±3.1 17.6±1.9 ab 1.6±1.8 5.4±2.2 9.5±7.0
Tsa'chila-25
51-60 11.5±2.8 a 9.1±1.0 18.8±3.8 a 0.4±0.5 4.5±1.2 9.5±3.5
> 60 14.3±2.1 a 9.4±3.4 18.6±3.1 a 1.2±0.8 5.1±0.9 9.9±2.7
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In the Chocó, between two and four use categories showed significant differences
related to age cohorts in all localities (Table 5.2). Construction was the only use
category with significant differences in all localities and in most cases, knowledge
was higher among informants >31 years. Knowledge of Human food uses showed
significant differences in three localities, two of them indigenous, and was
concentrated among people >41 years. Utensils and tools showed significant
differences in two indigenous localities, and were concentrated among participants
>31 years. Medicinal and veterinary use showed significant differences only among
the Embera, and was higher among those <60 years.
Common TK
Between 13-43% of all palm uses reported in each locality was common TK reported
by all five age cohorts (Fig. 5.3). Common TK was greater in southern Amazonia, and
was not correlated with the number of uses in localities (Table 5.1). In general, the
number of use categories with common uses and the proportion of common uses in
relation to all palm uses in a given ethnobotanical category were higher in the
Amazon (northern and southern) and the Chocó than in the Andes (Fig. 5.4).
In northern Amazonia, more common TK was reported for Human food (31-55% of
all palm uses, Figs. 5.4 F1-4), Other uses (21-65%, Figs. 5.4 I1-4) and Construction
(18-36%, Figs. 5.4 B1-4). Informants >41 years knew more common TK, except in
the Achuar where it was concentrated among people >60 years (Table 5.3). In
southern Amazonia, more common TK was found in Human food (45-70%, Figs. 5.4
F5-14), Construction (23-51%, Figs. 5.4 B5-14) and Other uses (27-73%, Figs. 5.4 I5-
14). High percentages of common TK for Cultural uses were found in the Yuracaré
(Fig.5.4 C13), Cocama (Fig. 5.4 C5) and Ese Eja (Fig. 5.4 C10); and Utensils and
tools amongst Yuracaré (Fig. 5.4 H13), Mestizo-Tacana (Fig. 5.4 H14) and Ese Eja
(Fig. 5.4 H10). Common TK was lowest for Medicinal and veterinary uses (4-33%,
Figs. 5.4 G5-14). Only among the mestizos in locality 11 was common TK
significantly higher among informants >41 years (Table 5.3).
In the Andes, common TK was highest for Human food (25-71%, Figs. 4 F15-21),
followed by Construction (13-41%, Figs. 4 B15-21), Cultural (10-31%, Figs. 4 C15-
21) and Utensils and tools (7-28%, Figs. 4 H15-21). We found no significant
differences in the proportion of respondents who reported uses for the remaining use
categories in all age cohorts (Table 3). In the Chocó, common TK was highest for
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Human food (28-54%, Figs. 5.4 F22-25), Construction (21-29%, Figs. 5.4 B22-25)
and Cultural uses (10-26%; Figs. 5.4 C22-25). Most of informants reporting this
knowledge were >31 years old for Afro-americans, between 41-50 years for Tsa’chila
and 18-40 and >51 years old among the mestizos of locality 24 (Table 5.3).
Fig. 5.3: Common palm uses reported by all age cohorts (dark gray bars) and unique
uses only reported by one age cohort (light gray bars) in 25 localities in northwestern
South America. Bars represent the relative percentage of palm uses in a locality.
Numbers above each bar indicate the number of different palm uses. Letters (above
the figure columns) and numbers (to the right of the figure rows) are used as
coordinates to facilitate to locate the respective figure in the text.
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Fig. 5.4: Common palm uses reported by all age cohorts (dark gray bars) and unique
uses only reported by one age cohort (light gray bars) for nine use categories in 25
localities in northwestern South America. Bars represent the relative percentage of
uses in a locality. Numbers above each bar indicate the number of uses. ND: no data
reported. Letters (above the figure columns) and numbers (to the right of the figure
rows) are used as coordinates to facilitate to locate the respective figure in the text.
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Fig. 5.4: continued
Unique TK
Between 12-60% of the palm uses reported across localities were unique TK reported
by a single age cohort (Fig. 5.3). Unique TK peaked in the Chocó (30-44%), and the
northern Andes (30-60%), and was lowest in the Amazon (northern and southern
localities). Overall, the number of use categories represented in unique uses was
higher in the Amazon and Chocó (Fig. 5.4). In the northern and southern Amazon,
Medicinal and veterinary was the use category with the highest percentage of unique
TK (22-74%, Figs. 5.4 G1-14), followed by Utensils and tools (17-65%, Figs. 5.4 H1-
14) and Cultural uses (9-68%, Figs. 5.4 C1-14). In most localities, Fuel (Figs. 5.4 E1-
14), Environmental (Figs. 5.4 D1-14) and Animal food (Figs. 5.4 A1-14) had the
highest percentage of unique uses (100%), but these were also the use categories with
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the lowest total number of palm uses (Table 5.1). In the northern Amazon the
proportion of respondents who reported unique uses was significantly higher in the
>30 age cohort for the multiethnic community, and for the Tikuna >60 age cohort
(Table 5.3). In seven localities (70%) of the southern Amazon, five of them
indigenous, the proportion of respondents who reported unique uses was statistically
significant (Table 5.3).
In the northern Andes, unique TK was highest in Construction (38-62%, Figs. 5.4
B15-18), Cultural (23-60%, Figs. 5.4 C15-18) and Utensils and tools (36-55%, Figs.
5.4 H15-18). As in Amazonia, Environmental (Figs. 5.4 D15-18) and Fuel (Figs. 5.4
I15-18) showed the highest percentages of unique uses, but these use categories also
had the lowest number of uses. Unique TK was peaked in the >50 age cohort, except
among the Camsá where it was also higher in the >30 age cohorts (Table 5.3). In the
southern Andes, unique TK was highest in Other uses (11-60%, Figs. 5.4 I19-21),
Utensils and tools (10-43%, Figs. 5.4 H19-21) and the Medicinal and veterinary uses
(27-33%, Figs. 5.4 G19-21). In the Chocó, as in other ecoregions, unique TK peaked
in the use categories with few uses: Fuel (12.5-100%, Figs. 5.4 E22-25),
Environmental (25-80%, Figs. 5.4 D22-25) and Animal food (22-100%, Figs. 5.4
A22-25). High percentages of unique TK were also found in Medicinal and veterinary
(54-80%, Figs. 5.4 G22-25), Other uses (12-72%, Figs. 5.4 I22-25) and Utensils and
tools (34-61%, Figs. 5.4 H22-25). The Emberá (<60 years) and Tsa’chila (>50 and
<60 years) showed significant differences in the proportion of people who mentioned
unique TK (Table 5.3).
DISCUSSION
Patterns of TK transmission across different scales

Our study evidences that TK transmission about palms shows distinct patterns at all
analyzed scales (ecoregions, countries, human groups) in northwestern South
America. Common and unique TK was different across age cohorts within each
locality, which evidences the dynamic nature of knowledge. Both the conservation of
knowledge in certain use categories together with the incorporation of new
knowledge in others (e.g. knowledge reported only by the younger generations),
represent important elements of TK that change with socioeconomic and
environmental conditions.
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Table 5.3: Proportion of informants in each age cohort who report (A) Common uses
and (B) Unique uses in northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia). Only localities with statistically significant differences are shown. Letters (a,
b, c) indicate significantly different means based on a Kruskal-Wallis analysis and its
corresponding post hoc Tukey test (p < 0.05), with the levels indicated by different
letters showing significant differences. See Appendix 1 for details on localities.
Age cohorts (years)

Ethnicity-Locality 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60
A. Common uses
Northern Amazon
Multiethnic indigenous-1 44.15 ± 3.11 b 44.29 ± 3.11 b 49.87 ± 3.11 ab 57.12 ± 3.11 a 53.73 ± 3.11 ab
Tikuna-2 45.00 ± 2.53 b 52.80 ± 2.53 ab 55.79 ± 2.53 a 55.88 ± 2.53 a 55.74 ± 2.53 a
Cofan-3 44.50 ± 3.52 b 50.33 ± 3.52 ab 54.83 ± 3.52 ab 60.03 ± 3.52 a 59.63 ± 3.52 a
Achuar-4 66.11 ± 2.78 b 74.58 ± 2.78 b 74.10 ± 2.78 b 76.59 ± 2.78 b 96.99 ± 2.78 a
Southern Amazon
Mestizo-11 47.94 ± 4.02 b 60.46 ± 4.02 ab 64.94 ± 4.02 a 63.45 ± 4.02 ab 64.05 ± 4.02 a
Chocó
Afro-american-22 37.21 ± 3.59 b 48.33 ± 3.59 ab 49.17 ± 3.59 ab 50.34 ± 3.59 ab 54.51 ± 3.59 a
Mestizo-24 70.22 ± 5.93 a 61.13 ± 5.93 ab 38.97 ± 5.93 b 68.96 ± 5.93 a 77.58 ± 5.93 a
Tsa’chila-25 17.19 ± 2.39 c 42.09 ± 2.39 b 75.45 ± 2.39 a 36.50 ± 2.39 b 34.37 ± 2.39 b
B. Unique uses
Northern Amazon
Multiethnic indigenous-1 1.01 ± 2.29 b 1.88 ± 3.23 a 1.64 ± 3.92 ab 2.30 ± 5.87 a 2.05 ± 3.96 a
Tikuna-2 1.01 ± 2.52 b 0.71 ± 2.31 b 1.97 ± 5.73 b 0.75 ± 2.11 b 4.15 ± 5.14 a
Southern Amazon
Cocama-5 0.89 ± 1.99 b 0.79 ± 1.87 b 1.15 ± 2.24 ab 1.06 ± 4.29 b 2.87 ± 4.41 a
Aguaruna-8 2.52 ± 4.41 ab 3.11 ± 3.40 a 2.94 ± 6.19 a 0.53 ± 2.16 b -
Mestizo-Amakaeri-9 0.53 ± 1.47 b 1.20 ± 3.01 b 1.34 ± 2.88 ab 1.25 ± 3.64 b 3.01 ± 3.84 a
Ese Eja-10 2.76 ± 3.59 a 1.77 ± 3.40 ab 1.08 ± 2.69 b 1.09 ± 3.61 ab 0.69 ± 3.98 b
Mestizo-11 - 1.95 ± 4.00 b 1.70 ± 3.70 b 1.01 ± 2.50 b 3.68 ± 5.78 a
Chácobo-12 1.46 ± 2.13 b 0.71 ± 1.70 b 4.16 ± 5.54 a - 2.19 ± 8.31 ab
Yuracaré-13 0.73 ± 2.93 b 3.94 ± 4.21 a 2.44 ± 4.16 ab - 0.99 ± 3.41 b
Northern Andes
Camsá-15 2.48 ± 3.06 a 0.49 ± 1.53 b - 2.82 ± 6.30 a 2.06 ± 3.71 ab
Mestizo-17 1.44 ± 3.49 ab 0.99 ± 2.08 ab 0.39 ± 2.21 b 3.44 ± 5.45 a 2.91 ± 5.07 ab
Mestizo-18 1.72 ± 0.74 ab 0.16 ± 0.74 b 0.72 ± 0.74 b 1.30 ± 0.74 ab 4.80 ± 0.74 a
Southern Andes
Chanka-19 0.38 ± 1.62 c 0.40 ± 1.54 c 2.35 ± 3.36 ab 1.38 ± 2.87 bc 2.92 ± 4.81 a
Leco-20 1.73 ± 2.49 ab 0.92 ± 2.07 ab 2.04 ± 3.67 a 0.29 ± 2.04 b 1.48 ± 3.89 ab
Chocó
Emberá-23 1.08 ± 1.96 ab 1.58 ± 2.69 ab 1.24 ± 2.71 ab 2.17 ± 4.16 a 0.66 ± 3.95 b
Tsa’chila-25 0.16 ± 1.18 b 4.70 ± 4.71 a 3.87 ± 6.56 ab 0.32 ± 1.99 b 2.41 ± 6.13 ab
The patterns in the Amazon and the Chocó show more heterogeneity in the TK of
different age cohorts and a positive trend of age in relation to knowledge that can be
explained by different factors complementarily. On the one hand, the high species
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diversity enables access to a wide range of potential resources (De la Torre et al.
2009; Macía et al. 2011; Cámara-Leret et al. 2014b; c) where contact with nature still
remains vital to the acquisition of knowledge (Atran, Medin & Ross 2004; Lawrence
et al. 2005). On the other hand, the diversity of indigenous groups favors a highly
distinctive ethnobotanical knowledge (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Macía et al.
2011; Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a) and to the fact that in these ecoregions, knowledge
about the use of palms is crucial for livelihoods (Macía 2004; Pérez-Ojeda del Arco et
al. 2011; Reyes-García et al. 2013b). External factors, such as geographic isolation,
lack of communication, limited access to markets (Byg, Vormisto & Balslev 2007;
Godoy et al. 2009b), and limited services (e.g., health centers) (Benz et al. 2000),
foster greater dependence on local resources for subsistence. Additionally, the general
trend that young know less than older people, as has previously been found (Begossi
et al. 2002; Byg & Balslev 2004), may be the result of both knowledge transmission
and in situ learning (Phillips & Gentry 1993; Godoy et al. 2009a). Still, we also found
the opposite pattern, where middle-aged informants knew more in some localities
than the other generations, which could be a reflection of periods in which people had
the opportunity to travel and learn more outside their communities.
In the Andes, the overall pattern that TK was evenly distributed between generations
may be explained by its lower palm diversity that favors quick learning of non-
specialist knowledge (Lykke et al. 2004). It may also be influenced by accelerated
deforestation, with remaining palms often existing only in small and remote
populations (De la Torre et al. 2012). These changes may be accompanied by changes
in the benchmarks for learning, and changes in the abundance of resources like the
disappearance of certain useful species, which would then not be known to the
younger generation (Hanazaki et al. 2013). Forest destruction, population growth, and
greater access to commercial centers in many cases force people to work outside their
communities, thus exposing them to learn about species absent in their home
ecoregion (Browder 2002; Reyes-García et al. 2005). This is especially evident in the
Ecuadorian Andes, where communities are more densely populated, have greater
infrastructure development, and are highly market dependent. In this scenario, social
changes, such as the construction of hospitals and schools (Zent 2001; Byron 2003;
Reyes-García et al. 2010) and economic changes as the incorporation into market
economies (Godoy et al. 2009b) have greatly affected traditional learning processes
(Reyes-García et al. 2008; 2013b).
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TK transmission across different use domains

Our findings indicate that although the most important domains of knowledge are
commonly cited (e.g. Utensils and tools, Construction, Human food, Cultural, and
Medicinal and veterinary), they all show distinct tendencies at all scales (ecoregions,
countries or localities), which was previously reported at the intra-cultural level
(Case, Pauli & Soejarto 2005;Reyes-García et al. 2013b). For example, Construction
knowledge increased with age in the northern Amazon, northern Andes, and the
Chocó. This trend may be explained by the under exposure of young people to this
knowledge because of the major use of external resources as building materials
(Appendix 1). This might have led to a lack of interest in learning about local
construction, and thus to the absence or the loss of knowledge (Case et al. 2005;
Reyes-García et al. 2013b). In contrast, this knowledge was more homogeneously
distributed among generations in the southern Amazon and southern Andes, likely
because of the greater use of local materials in construction (Appendix 1) that lead to
processes of knowledge transfer and active learning in situ (Phillips & Gentry 1993;
Zarger 2002; Godoy et al. 2009a).
In relation to Human food, TK was more homogeneously distributed among all age
cohorts in the southern Amazon and the Andes, and more heterogeneously distributed
in the northern Amazon and Chocó, with higher knowledge amongst the oldest
participants. This overall pattern could be associated to the different diversity of
palms in these ecoregions since the larger palm diversity in the northern Amazon and
Chocó might result in the retention of ethnobotanical knowledge by the older
generation about rare species that are overlooked by the younger generation in the
forest (e.g. understory species of the genus Bactris for Human food, Cámara-Leret et
al. 2014c). Additionally, these patterns may be due to a higher diversity of understory
species in the northern Amazon and Chocó than in the southern Amazon and Andes
(Balslev et al. 2011). These ecoregion-scale differences in turn increase the likelihood
that younger informants overlook these less salient palms in the northern Amazon and
Chocó, but reduce between-group differences in knowledge in the southern Amazon
and Andes. The influence of an increasing adoption of market economies, agricultural
products and purchased food, including food items that were previously harvested
from forests (Bryon 2003; Godoy et al. 2009b; Reyes-García et al. 2013b), could be
generating a lack of interest of the younger generations to learn about local foods,
because other options are readily available. We find a low percentage of uses reported
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only in one age cohort which could be explained because the contact and experience
with food resources tend to be more evenly distributed within the population, even
when one assumes knowledge to be patterned according to variables such as gender,
social status, occupation and age (Byg & Balslev 2004; Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2007; 2014; Quave & Pieroni 2015). Extensive contact and dependence on food
plants starts during childhood, and people usually experiment with these more often
than with other uses (Phillips & Gentry 1993).
The greater knowledge about Utensils and tools mainly by the older generations (>41
years), in particular in the Amazon and the Chocó, especially the high percentage of
unique TK could be related to a growing exposure of the new generations to new
technology (e.g. tools and alternative utensils available in commercial centers), and
the perception that these are more effective (Godoy et al. 2005; Reyes-García et al.
2013b). This trend could also explain the homogeneity found in the knowledge of
different age cohorts in the Andes, where knowledge in general was lower than in the
lowlands. However in certain cases, the ability to use this type of knowledge in
subsistence activities (e.g. as tour guides, sale of handcrafts) could encourage people
to learn more (Guest 2002), as could be the case of the Achuar in Amazonian
Ecuador.
The homogeneity of knowledge about Cultural use in most localities is probably due
to the dominance of certain types of uses at each locality, many of them for
commercial purposes (e.g. necklaces, hats, dyes). This can be explained by the low
percentage of common TK on Cultural uses. The high percentage of uses cited by
only one age cohort, especially by the younger generation (<41 years old), could be
related to the increased exposure of these generations to activities related to tourism,
and the possibility of generating income activities by using this type of knowledge
(Guest 2002).
The trends found in relation to Medicinal and veterinary knowledge is in line with
previous findings of high levels of unique TK across northwestern South America
(Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a). This can be related to the nature of medicinal knowledge
and the particular way it is acquired and transmitted among individuals, households,
communities and ethnic groups (Potvin & Barrios 2004; Vandebroek et al. 2004a;
2004b; Mathez-Stiefel & Vandebroek 2012). The lower Medicinal and veterinary
knowledge in the northern Amazon, especially among the younger generation (<41
years old), and the low percentage of widely shared uses, may be related to the lack of
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interest (Almeida et al. 2012), the predominant use and accessibility of alternative
health services (i.e. health clinics, paramedics, hospitals) (Quilan & Quilan 2007), and
changes in the lifestyle and environment (Hanazaki et al. 2013). The homogeneity
found in most of the southern Amazon, the Andes, and the Chocó, and the low
percentage of uses widely shared among all generations, underlines the dominance of
a small number of uses that are possibly covering primary health needs (Paniagua-
Zambrana, Cámara-Leret & Macía 2015). It might also reflect the increasing
influence of allopathic medicine, since most communities have health posts, and in
the Andes even hospitals, where the majority of illnesses are treated (Appendix 1).
Researchers have highlighted that changes in local worldviews and the stigmatization
of indigenous cultures might also play a role in explaining the loss of medicinal TK
(Case et al. 2005; Vandebroek et al. 2004b).
Overall, the perception of knowledge loss among young people when comparing
ethnobotanical domains among different age groups should be analyzed with caution,
because the current plant use practices rely on a complexity of factors (Paniagua et al.
2014). Fluctuations in these factors can cause changes in the reference (baseline) of
different generations and consequently account for differences in intergenerational
knowledge (Hanazaki et al. 2013). Although our analyses are based on palms, a major
plant group for livelihood systems in the Neotropics (Macía et al. 2011), further work
is needed to validate these patterns in other plant groups. More comparative studies
are needed to consider the high multiculturalism in the tropics, and to explore patterns
of intergenerational variations at larger scales.
CONCLUSIONS
Our cross-cultural and multiple-scale study shows strong variation in transmission of

palm TK across use categories in northwestern South America. Positive, null and
negative trends of TK between generations of different localities highlight that great
care is needed when extrapolating local results. The different patterns among
ecoregions, countries and cultural groups indirectly show that the mechanisms by
which TK is maintained rely on multiple factors, including ecosystem properties,
social factors such as cultural identity and maintenance of traditions to preserve TK,
and economic factors such as access to services and infrastructure. Our findings thus
provide a strong argument for the conservation of TK using local strategies that
!
235
!
consider all these possible variations and influences. To preserve the heterogeneity of
TK within a given area, it is crucial to designing conservation practices that build on
the intricate links between knowledge, practices, and institutional context.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our deep gratitude to the 2050 informants who kindly agreed to share
their time and knowledge with us. The collaboration of representatives of regional
and local organizations of the 53 communities visited was essential to obtain work
permits. We thank the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales at Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Universidad Nacional Mayor
de San Marcos, and the Instituto para el desarrollo local y la conservación de la
diversidad biológica y cultural andino amazónica (INBIA) in Peru, the Universidad
Mayor de San Andrés in Bolivia, and the William L. Brown Center at the Missouri
Botanical Garden for devoting resources and efforts to facilitate our work. Special
thanks to Erika Blacutt, Carolina Tellez, Carlos Vega, Juan Carlos Copete, Marybel
Soto, Lina Camelo, and Mateo Jaimes for their invaluable assistance in field
interviews. We are grateful for the funding of this study provided by the European
Union 7th Framework Programme (contract 212631), the Russel E. Train Education
for Nature Program of the WWF, the Anne S. Chatham Fellowship of the Garden
Clubs of America, and the William L. Brown Center.
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APPENDIX 5.1
Characteristics of the 25 localities in northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) where 2050 interviews about palm
uses were gathered.
(a) The information about the nearest town and the time to reach it were obtained from interviews. The data represents the town and the time
most frequently reported by the informants; (b) Availability of electricity: (1) no electricity, (2) free electricity, (3) paid electricity. Access to
education: (1) no school, (2) primary school, (3) secondary school, (4) community college or university. Access to healthcare: (1) without health
post (only traditional medicine), (2) health post / community nurse, (3) health post / physician (4) local hospital; (c) Percentage of house
construction materials in relation to the total number of interviewees by locality; (d) Average ± SD in relation to the total number of interviewees
by locality
!
Social services
Accessibility (a) House construction material (c)
available (b)
Ecoregion - Country
241
Locality Community (population census Ethnic Group
SD(d)!
approximately) Nearest town

Type access
50%
(Distance in hours)
≥ 50%
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
materials ≥ 50%
Mixed material ≥
Average farm size (ha) ±
Foreign commercial
Local plant materials
Northern Amazon-Colombia
! ! !
1 Curare (130) Multiethnic indigenous La Pedrera (1.5) Fluvial 1 2 1 16.9 4.6 78.5 1.2±0.8
Yucuna (160) Multiethnic indigenous La Pedrera (1) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
Angostura (180) Multiethnic indigenous La Pedrera (0.75) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
Camaritagua (60) Multiethnic indigenous La Pedrera (0.33) Fluvial 1 1 1
! ! ! !
2 San Martín de Amacayacu (430) Tikuna Leticia (6) Fluvial 1 2 1 48.9 6.8 44.3 0.5±0.3
Northern Amazon-Ecuador
! ! ! ! !
3 Zábalo (170) Cofan Lago Agrio (6) Fluvial 1 2 1 6.1 - 93.9 !
0.9±0.8
Pacuya (150) Cofan Lago Agrio (6) Fluvial 1 1 1
! ! ! !
Dureno (450) Cofan Lago Agrio (0.33) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
!
!

Social services
Accessibility (a) House construction material ©
available (b)
Ecoregion – Country
SD(d)!

Type access
50%
(Distance in hours)
≥ 50%
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
materials ≥ 50%
Mixed material ≥
Foreign commercial

4 Wayusentsa (150) Achuar Kapawi (3) Fluvial 1 2 1 96.9 - 3.1 0.3±0.3
Kapawi (220) Achuar Kapawi (0) Fluvial 1 3 1
! ! ! !
Kusutko (80) Achuar Kusutko (0) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
Southern Amazon-Peru
! ! !
5 San Martín (500) Cocama Nauta (18) Fluvial 3 3 3 86.2 - 13.8 1.4±0.8
6 El Chino (550) Mestizo Iquitos (10) Fluvial 1 2 2 97.5 - 2.5 1.4±1.3
7 Santa Ana (450) Mestizo Iquitos (5) Fluvial 2 3 1 82.0 - 18.0 2.0±2.2
8 Yamayakat (1000) Aguaruna Imacita (0.25) Fluvial 3 2 3 71.0 2.9 26.1 0.9±0.6
242
Cusu Chico (150) Aguaruna Imacita (1) Fluvial 3 2 3
! ! ! !
Nueva Samaria (80) Aguaruna Imacita (0.75) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
9 Villa Santiago (120) Mestizo-Amakaeri Masuko (0.5) Tarmac 1 2 3 28.2 14.1 57.7 2.3±1.8
Santa Rosa (500) Mestizo Masuko (1) Tarmac 3 3 3
! ! ! !
Unión Progreso (300) Mestizo Puerto Maldonado (1) Tarmac 3 2 1
! ! ! !
10 Palma Real (300) Ese Eja Puerto Maldonado (4) Fluvial 1 2 2 70.8 1.1 28.1 1.1±0.9
Southern Amazon-Bolivia
! ! ! ! !
11 Santa María (250) Mestizo Riberalta (1) Loose surface road 3 2 3 89.9 5.1 5.1 !
2.5±1.5
26 de Octubre (180) Mestizo Riberalta (1) Road 1 2 2
! ! ! !
12 Alto Ivón (500) Chacobo Riberalta (4) Road 1 3 3 93.8 - 6.3 1.7±0.8
Motacuzal (30) Chacobo Riberalta (3.5) Road 1 2 2
! ! ! !
!
!

Social services
available (b)
SD(d)!

Type access
50%
(Distance in hours)
≥ 50%
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
materials ≥ 50%
Mixed material ≥
Foreign commercial

13 San Benito (90) Yuracaré San Gabriel (1.66) Fluvial/road 1 2 1 28.3 - 71.7 1.0±0.1
Sanandita (60) Yuracaré San Gabriel (1.5) Fluvial/road 1 2 1
! ! ! !
San Antonio (90) Yuracaré Ichoa (2) Road 1 2 1
! ! ! !
Secejsama (100) Yuracaré Isinuta (1.5) Road 1 3 1
! ! ! !
14 25 de Mayo (100) Mestizo-Tacana San Buenaventura (1) Road 1 2 3 94.9 - 5.1 1.8±1.0
Buena Vista (240) Mestizo-Tacana San Buenaventura (0.75) Road 1 2 3
243
! ! ! !
San Isidro (50) Leco-Tacana San Buenaventura (0.5) Road 1 2 2
! ! ! !
San Silvestre (100) Tacana San Buenaventura (1.5) Road 1 2 2
! ! ! !
Sta. Rosa de Maravilla (50) Mestizo-Tacana San Buenaventura (1.75) Road 1 2 3
! ! ! !
Northern Andes-Colombia
! ! !
15 Sibundoy (13000) Camsá Sibundoy (0) Tarmac 3 4 4 - 97.6 2.4 0.5±0.6
16 Santiago (5800) Inga Santiago (0) Tarmac 3 4 4 - 100 - 0.3±0.4
Juisanoy (2000) Inga Santiago (0.5) Loose surface road 3 1 1
! ! ! !
Northern Andes-Ecuador
! ! ! ! !
17 Nanegalito (3200) Mestizo Quito (4) Tarmac 3 4 4 - 81.4 18.6 !
0.8±2.8
18 Mindo (1500) Mestizo Quito (3) Tarmac 3 4 3 - 79.3 20.7 0.6±2.7
Southern Andes-Peru
! ! !
19 Lamas Wayku (1200) Chanka Lamas (0.25) Tarmac 3 2 3 2.2 5.6 92.2 1.8±1.5
Aviación (300) Chanka Lamas (2.5) Loose surface road 2 2 3
! ! ! !
!
!

Social services
available (b)
SD(d)!

Type access
50%
(Distance in hours)
≥ 50%
Education
Electricity
Healthcare
materials ≥ 50%
Mixed material ≥
Foreign commercial

Southern Andes-Bolivia
! ! ! ! !
20 Irimo (350) Leco Apolo (3) Loose surface road 2 2 2 42.7 2.2 55.1 !
2.2±1.5
Munaypata (80) Leco Apolo (1.5) Loose surface road 2 3 2
! ! ! !
Pucasucho (280) Leco Apolo (4) Loose surface road 2 2 3
! ! ! !
21 Illipanayuyo (150) Leco Apolo (4) Loose surface road 1 2 2 34.8 6.7 58.4 2.2±2.3
Santo Domingo (220) Leco Apolo (7) Loose surface road 2 2 2
! ! ! !
Correo (260) Leco Apolo (7) Loose surface road 2 3 3
! ! ! !
Chocó-Colombia
! ! !
244
22 Puerto Pervel (1500) Afro-american Quibdo (2) Tarmac 3 2 3 1.2 91.9 7.0 0.4±0.7
23 Aguacate (312) Emberá La Playa (24) Fluvial 1 2 1 20.5 - 79.5 0.9±1.0
Villanueva (200) Emberá La Playa (24) Fluvial 1 2 1
! ! ! !
Chocó-Ecuador
! ! ! ! !
24 Puerto Quito (1500) Mestizo Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 4 3 - 100 - !
2.3±8.7
25 Chigüilpe (130) Tsa’chila Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 2 3 12.0 86.0 2.0 4.8±4.7
Peripa (130) Tsa’chila Santo Domingo (0.5) Tarmac 3 2 3
! ! ! !
!
!
!
APPENDIX 5.2
Distribution of informants by gender and age cohorts in 25 localities in northwestern South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia)
were traditional knowledge on palm use were gathered.
No. Informants
No. Informants by age cohort (years)
by gender
Ecoregion No. No.

Human group Ethnicity Men Women 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60
Country Locality Informants
Northern Amazon
Multiethnic
Colombia Indigenous 1 65 42 23 17 17 13 6 12
indigenous
Tikuna 2 88 42 46 20 20 17 15 16
Ecuador Indigenous Cofan 3 82 38 44 26 21 13 8 14
Achuar 4 65 31 34 23 21 12 7 2
245
Southern Amazon
Peru Indigenous Cocama 5 87 44 43 19 17 24 10 17
Mestizo Mestizo 6 79 34 45 26 23 12 9 9
Mestizo 7 89 39 50 22 21 19 11 16
Indigenous Aguaruna 8 69 35 34 21 17 12 11 8
Mestizo-
Mestizo 9 78 45 33 22 14 16 11 15
Amakaeri
Indigenous Ese Eja 10 89 38 51 35 22 13 10 9
Bolivia Mestizo Mestizo 11 79 39 40 10 18 19 14 18
Indigenous Chácobo 12 80 40 40 37 21 13 6 3
Yuracaré 13 60 32 28 18 16 14 4 8
Mestizo-
Mestizo 14 118 69 49 25 21 33 20 19
Tacana
!
!
No. Informants
No. Informants by age cohort (years)
by gender
Ecoregion No. No.

Human group Ethnicity Men Women 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60
Country Locality Informants
Northern Andes
Colombia Indigenous Camsá 15 82 30 52 31 19 11 6 15
Indigenous Inga 16 87 34 53 24 17 13 14 19
Ecuador Mestizo Mestizo 17 86 36 50 26 19 16 10 15
Mestizo 18 87 48 39 29 20 13 12 13
Southern Andes
Peru Indigenous Chanka 19 90 54 36 14 16 27 14 19
Bolivia Indigenous Leco 20 89 50 39 26 22 23 7 11
Leco 21 89 45 44 18 25 23 15 8
Chocó
246
Afro-
Colombia Afro-american 22 86 47 39 18 14 19 16 19
american
Indigenous Emberá 23 88 42 46 32 23 14 14 5
Ecuador Mestizo Mestizo 24 88 41 47 30 16 7 15 20
Indigenous Tsa’chila 25 50 22 28 11 11 10 8 10
2050 1017 1033 580 2050 406 273 320
!
!
!
247
!
!
248
CAPÍTULO 6
The socioeconomic context of the use of

Euterpe precatoria Mart. and E. oleracea Mart.
in Bolivia and Peru
Este capítulo es un manuscrito que se pretende enviar a una revista internacional:

Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y., Bussmann, R.W., Macía, M.J. The Socioeconomic context
of the use of Euterpe precatoria Mart. and E. oleracea Mart. in Bolivia and Peru.
249
ABSTRACT
Traditional knowledge (TK) has enabled communities to adapt to specific conditions.

However, this local context is being dramatically affected by changes through
globalization and modernization of societies. Joining market economies is an important
facet of globalization, and has been considered one of the factors causing these changes.
In this paper we seek to identify socio-economic factors that are related to the
knowledge and use of species that are known to be important as a source of non-timber
forest products of commercial interest in mestizo and indigenous communities in the
Amazon region of Peru and Bolivia. Our research focused on the use of two of palm
species known in the region under the main vernacular name Asaí, both of which are
source of two highly commercialized resources: palm-hearts and fruit. Euterpe
precatoria Mart. is native to the region and E. oleracea Mart. is being introduced as a
sustainable alternative source for the use of both resources. We found that, although in
two countries mestizos knew more about the uses of E. precatoria, even in use
categories such as Medicinal and veterinary and Construction. In Peru knowledge was
higher among people with greater purchasing power. This could be related to the
commercial importance that both the fruit and the palm-hearts have had in the markets
of the region, and especially the influence of accessibility and size of the markets. In
Bolivia, although part of the resources that generate income, the use of E. precatoria
was homogeneously distributed. The addition of E. oleracea within the body of
traditional knowledge is recent, and although its most important uses are related to fruits
and palm hearts, it is now also slowly used for Medicinal use and Construction similar
to E. precatoria. The contribution of each of the species to the knowledge that forms
part of people’s livelihood strategies is different however. This should be taken into
account in the planning and implementation of development programs and conservation
considering the use of these species.
KEYWORDS: Arecaceae, agroforestry, Asaí, Non Timber Forest Products, palm heart
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INTRODUCTION
Millions of people worldwide depend on forest products and services for their daily
income (Gram et al. 2001; Vedeld et al. 2007). The importance of these products
(timber and non-timber) for subsistence and welfare of the people has been documented
in various tropical regions (Wiersum 1997; Neumann & Hirsch 2000; Sunderlin et al.
2005). Besides its importance in daily life, forest resources are also a source of income
in times of scarcity and emergency (Neumann & Hirsch 2000; de Sherbinin et al. 2007).
To increase the revenue from forest products has been perceived as a strategy to
improve the income of the poorest households in rural areas (Pokorny et al. 2012;
Stanley et al. 2012). However, market demand for forest products and development of
agroforestry systems has historically been one of the most significant elements
underlying social and environmental change in the Amazon with strong implications
for use strategies and livelihoods of rural populations (Brondizio et al. 2002).
Although many studies have identified increased exposure to a market economy as one
of the factors that could lead to changes in traditional knowledge (TK) that allows
people in rural areas to make use of forest resources (Brodt 2001; Godoy et al. 2005;
Reyes-García et al. 2005). This is due to the integration in external markets which leads
mostly to specialized extraction concentrated only in certain products, a
homogenization in agricultural activities, and the replacement of local products with
products from abroad, resulting in a higher socioeconomic heterogeneity and
undermining the existence traditional common knowledge (Godoy 2001; Ruíz-Peréz et
al. 2004; Vadez et al. 2004; Godoy et al. 2005; Reyes-García et al. 2005). Other
research has found that the different activities, through which local people are linked to
the market, were associated with the conservation of their knowledge (Godoy et al.
1998). The sale of agricultural products or paid employment has been associated with
lower levels of knowledge about local resources. However, integration into the market
through the sale of timber and non-timber forest products was associated with a greater
understanding and use of forest resources (Takasaki et al. 2001). However, the use of
resources for income generation also depends on other factors such as the type of access
that families have to the forest, wealth, age and gender, and other skills that influence
the knowledge and use of resources (Coomes & Barham 1997; Coomes et al. 2004).
Understanding how the use of forest resources relates to rural incomes is essential for
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designing policies to support livelihoods and sustainable development incentives in
these regions (Belcher et al. 2005; Kusters et al. 2006).
In this research and using palms as an example, we identified socio-economic factors
that are related to the knowledge and use of species that are known to be important as
a source of products of commercial interest. Palms (Arecaceae) are one of the most
important families of useful plants (e.g. Bernal 1992; Borchsenius et al. 1998; Macía
2004; Moraes 2004; De la Torre et al. 2008; Galeano & Bernal 2010; Macía et al. 2011).
Many of these species are locally used without including them in a system of generation
of direct income, but other products are marketed to a lesser extent, whether local or
regionally, and other even larger scales, such as national and international (Brokamp et
al. 2011). The market for palm products has been very dynamic and difficult to predict.
With trade current volumes several wild species cannot meet demand in a sustainable
manner. Thus, there will most likely be an increasing pressure to switch from extraction
to agroforestry systems production and plantations (Brodizio et al. 2002; Moegenburg
& Levey 2002; Ruíz-Peréz et al. 2004; Weinstein & Moegenburg 2004; Brokamp et al.
2011).
Our research focused on the use of two species of neotropical palms of the genus
Euterpe (E. precatoria Mart. and E. oleracea Mart.), which are known in the region
under the main vernacular and commercial name Asaí (Henderson et al. 1995; Pintaud
et al. 2008). Euterpe precatoria Mart. (Fig. 6.1 A) is a solitary palm that occurs
naturally below 2000 m elevation, on terra firme forests and along river banks, in
periodically inundated areas. Their distribution range is very broad, from Belize in the
North to Brazil and Bolivia in the South (Kahn 1991; Henderson et al. 1995). In this
area E. precatoria has been reported frequently for it’s traditional use in house
construction (e.g. posts, walls and for thatch), household utensils (e.g. fans, baskets,
brooms) and other artifacts (e.g. fishing tools), as well as medicinal uses, but especially
as food source (e.g. fruits and palm-hearts) (Macía et al. 2011) (Fig. 6.1 D-L). In
contrast Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Fig. 6.1 B-C) is a clonal species that grows in
periodically inundated areas in Northern South America, in particular the Brazilian
Amazon, the Orinoco basin, and in costal swamps of Colombia and Ecuador (Kahn
1991; Henderson et al. 1995). Because of its economic importance as a source of palm
heart and fruits (Bernal et al. 2011; Brokamp et al. 2011), it has started to be grown and
use in different regions of Peru and Bolivia, outside its natural range (Velarde &
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Moraes, 2009; Bernal et al. 2011; Bussmann and Paniagua 2012; Vincent Boss-CIPCA
pers. com.). Until the early 1990s the economic importance of these species was not
recognized in Peru and Bolivia. After that, as result of industrial marketing, massive
palm heart exploitation started in natural populations of E. precatoria, until the early
2000s when the market fell strongly (Mejía 1992; Zonta & Llanque 1994; Ríos 2001;
Stoian 2004; Agrodataperu 2010; Anonymous 2010). Currently palm harvesting in both
countries still exploits the natural populations of E. precatoria, while E. oleracea is
cultivated and included in agroforestry systems in these areas (Zonta & Gocalvez 2000;
Velarde and Moraes 2009; Bernal et al. 2011). Similarly, the market for fruits of both
species has become more important during the last decade (Sabbe et al. 2009; Brokamp
et al. 2011). The fruits of Euterpe have a high content of carbohydrates and mono-
saturated fatty acids that provide energy; in addition they contain ten times more
phenolic antioxidants than grape and other fruits with elevated levels of anthocyanines
and carotenoids (Menezes et al. 2011; Yuyama et al. 2011; Kang et al. 2012). These
nutritional characteristics caused that during the last 10 years asaí has changed from
being a food for rural populations to an important product in large urban markets
worldwide (Ellin 2009; Kugel 2010; Brokamp et al. 2011). Its regional importance (as
a raw material for the manufacture of beverages and ice cream) has promoted the
commercialization of the fruits of E. precatoria, harvested in wild populations, and
cultivation of E. oleracea. They constitute an important source of income in these
regions (Brokamp et al. 2011; Madre Tierra S.L. de Amazonia/IPHAE, pers. com.).
The incorporation of E. oleracea arises in these regions as a sustainable alternative to
the use of palm-hearts (because it is a multicaule species), and fruit harvest (because it
has a high productivity per plant) (Bovi & castro, 1993; Nogueira 2006; Velarde &
Moares 2009).
We comparatively evaluated the influence of 14 socioeconomic factors that have been
associated with the palm TK in the region (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2014), both at
personal and family level, about knowledge and use of both species of Euterpe in
indigenous and mestizo communities in Amazonian Peru and Bolivia, and trying to
identify in which groups of the society such knowledge is held.
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Fig. 6.1: Presence and use of E. oleracea and E. precatoria in Amazonian communities
in Peru and Bolivia. A) Individuals of E. precatoria in secondary forest close to the
communities (Mestizos-Riberalta, Bolivia); B) Plantation of E. oleracea in fallow field
(Mestizos-Riberalta, Bolivia); C) E. oleracea planted as ornamental (Cocama, Peru);
D) House walls made from planks of the trunks of E. precatoria (Cocama, Peru); E)
Walls made from split trunks, and roof made from leaves of E. precatoria (Chácobo,
Bolivia); F) Edges of roof made from leaves of E. precatoria (Mestizos Riberalta,
Bolivia); G) Umsha, a carnival ornament made from E. precatoria (Cocama, Peru); H)
Palm hearts of E. precatoria cut for sale (Mestizos Iquitos, Peru); I -J) Harvest of ripe
fruits of E. precatoria (Mestizos Riberalta, Bolivia); K) Dyed seeds to E. precatoria
for jewelry production (Cocama, Peru); L) Root of E. precatoria used as medicine.
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METHODS
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Data collection
Ethnobotanical data about the two species of Euterpe were gathered through semi-
structured interviews using a standardized research protocol (Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2010, Cámara-Leret et al. 2012). Prior to starting interviews, we obtained the necessary
permits and established informed consent with the communities and informants. From
March 2010 to December 2011, we interviewed 483 people in 10 communities
inhabited by indigenous (n=5) and mestizo (n=5) groups in the Amazon of Peru and
Bolivia (Fig. 6.2, Appendix 6.1).
Fig. 6.2: Map of the study areas in Peru and Bolivia showing the 10 communities where
Euterpe use-data were recorded.
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Communities were selected to have a uniform ethnic composition and their divergent
proximity to centers of commerce where products of both Euterpe precatoria and E.
oleracea were marketed. We divided informants into five age classes, starting at 18
years as an average age at which most individuals have their own households and using
a range of 10 years for each age class (18–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51–60, and > 60 years
old) to achieve an equal representation of all ages. Within the age classes,
approximately 50% of people we interviewed were women and 50% were men (Table
6.1). Interviews were conducted in Spanish. In cases where an informant did not speak
Spanish, the interviews were conducted with the help of local interpreters. We gathered
socioeconomic information from all informants through structured interviews
regarding 14 socioeconomic variables concerning personal data (seven variables:
gender, age, ethnicity, education, languages spoken, migration status, time in residence)
and household data (seven variables: size of family, tenure of farm animals, farm size,
tools, transports, house size, house constructions materials) (Table 6.2).
Table 6.1: Distribution of the 483 interviews conducted in 10 communities of

Amazonian Peru and Bolivia by gender in five age groups. Additional data on the
communities are shown in Appendix.
Gender Age (years)
Number Number of
Country Ethnic Group
communities informants
Men Women 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 > 60
Peru Cocama 1 44 43 19 17 24 10 17 87
Mestizo (Iquitos) 2 73 95 48 44 31 20 25 168
Aguaruna 3 35 34 21 17 12 11 8 69
Mestizo
Bolivia 2 39 40 10 18 19 14 18 79
(Riberalta)
Chácobo 2 40 40 37 21 13 6 3 80
Total 10 231 252 135 117 99 61 71 483
Data analysis
We grouped the socioeconomic data obtained in the interviews into three types of
variables: nominal (gender, ethnicity, languages spoken), ordinal (migration status,
tenure of farm animals, tools, transports, house construction materials), and continuous
(age, size of family, educations, time in residence, farm size, house size) (Table 6.2).
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Table 6.2: Description of 14 socioeconomic variables gathered from 483 informants in
10 communities of Amazonian Peru and Bolivia.
Independent Variable
Levels
variable type
Gender Nominal 1) Men; 2) Women
Age Continuous Between 18 and 91 years
Ethnicity Nominal 1) Indigenous; 2) Mestizo
Size of family
(number of Continuous Between 0 and 18
children)
Education (years) Continuous Between 0 and 16 years
Languages spoken Nominal 1) Only native language; 2) Only Spanish; 3) Native language and Spanish
1) Non-migrant; 2) Migrant from other ethnic group in the same ecoregion; 3)

Migratory status Ordinal
Migrant from other ecoregion
Time in residence
Continuous Between 0.17 and 85 years
(years)
Farm animals Ordinal 1) No animals; 2) Subsistence livestock; 3) Commercial livestock
Farm size (ha) Continuous Between 0 and 10 ha
1) Low cost (e.g. machetes, axes, bows and arrows, fishhooks, traditional
agricultural tools) ; 2) Average cost (e.g. fishing-nets, carts, shotguns/rifles, plow,
Tools Ordinal
mechanical seed distributors); 3) High cost (e.g. fumigators, tractors, chainsaws,
water pumps)
1) No transport; 2) No fuel consumption (e.g. canoe, bicycle); 3) Low fuel

Transport Ordinal consumption (e.g. motorbike, small outboard motor); 4) High fuel consumption (e.g.
truck, large outboard motor)
House size (m2) Continuous Between 10 and 272 m2
House construction 1) Local plant materials ≥ 50%; 2) Mixed material ≥ 50%; 3) Foreign commercial
Ordinal
materials materials ≥ 50%
All palm-uses reported for both species of Euterpe in the interviews were classified in
7 use categories following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (Cook 1995)
with some modifications proposed by Macía et al. (2011): Construction, Cultural,
Environmental, Human food, Medicinal and veterinary, Utensils and tools, and Other
uses (including indirect uses, especially the use of beetle larvae that develop in rotting
trunks). Then, uses in categories were divided in subcategories to specifically analyze
palm-uses. To determine the influence of socioeconomic factors on knowledge of both
Euterpe species, we calculated the palm use-reports, representing the sum of all palm-
uses reported by an informant for each of the two species of Euterpe. For this purpose,
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we use the definition of “palm-use” given by Macía et al. (2011), which defines it as
the use associated to a use category and use subcategory for a specific plant part. To
identify the socioeconomic factors associated to TK about both Euterpe species, we
used the following ethnobotanical indicators: 1) Total palm use-reports, and 2) the palm
use-report in three use-categories in which both species had at least one reported: a)
Construction, b) Human food and c) Medicinal and veterinary, and 3) the palm use-
report in the two use sub category of Human food: 1) Beverage and 2) Food, which was
the only use-category that showed significant differences in relation to use knowledge.
To describe and compare TK about the both Euterpe species in relation to the 14
socioeconomic factors evaluated, we conducted a descriptive analysis of the data set
using a MANOVA (Multivariate analysis of variance) and its corresponding post hoc
Tukey test for the eight categorical factors (categorical variables; levels with less than
10 replicas were not included in the analyses) and Pearson correlations for the six
continuous factors (continuous variables) (Table 6.2). All analyses were performed
using JMP 11.0 (SAS Institute 2013).
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RESULTS
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Uses of Euterpe precatoria and E. oleracea in Peruvian and Bolivian Amazon
A total of 70 palm-uses distributed in seven use categories and 31 subcategories were
reported for the two species evaluated: 69 palm-uses (52 in Peru and 27 in Bolivia) and
2147 palm use-reports (63 and 37% in Peru and Bolivia respectively) in seven use
categories (seven in Peru and six in Bolivia) corresponded to Euterpe precatoria, and
17 palm-uses (16 in Peru and 5 in Bolivia) and 223 palm use-reports (64 and 36% in
Peru and Bolivia respectively) in five use categories (five in Peru and three in Bolivia)
corresponded to E. oleracea (Table 6.3). In Peru for both species the category
Medicinal and veterinary was the one reporting the highest number of uses: 27 uses for
E. precatoria and seven uses for E. oleracea (Table 6.3). In the case of E. oleracea, the
use for Construction (four uses) and Human food (three uses), occupied the second and
third place. In the case of E. precatoria, the use for Construction (eight uses), was the
second most important followed by Cultural uses (six uses), and the use for Human
food (three uses) occupied the fifth rank.
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Table 6.3: Uses of Euterpe oleracea (A) and E. precatoria (B) gathered from 483 informants in 10 amazonian communities in Peru and Bolivia,
distributed by ethnic groups and use categories. Use reports shown in parenthesis. (*) Local name for an ornament used during carnaval; (**)
Axis used to form rubber bales (made from Hymenea courbaril).
A. Uses of Euterpe oleracea
Palm Use category Palm Use sub-category Part plant used Peru Bolivia
Awajun Cocama Mestizo-Iquitos Chácobo Mestizo-Riberalta
Construction Houses Stem - - Frame (6) / Walls (8) / Flooring (2) - Walls (1)
Thatch Entire leaf Thatch (2) - Thatch (2) - Thatch (3)
Environmental Ornamental Entire plant - Ornamental (27) - - -
Human food Beverages Fruit - - Juice (8) Juice (13) Juice (41)
Food Fruit Edible (17) - Edible (3) - -
Palm heart Edible (37) - Edible (10) - Edible (21)
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Medicinal and Blood and Cardio-vascular system Root - - - - Anemia (2)
veterinary
Digestive system Root - - Gallbladder (2) - -
General Ailments with Unspecific Fruit - - Body weakness (2) - -

Symptoms
Root - - Indisposition (2) - -
Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Root Galactogogue (3) - - - -
Respiratory system Root - - Pneumonia (2) - -
Urinary system Root - - Inflammation of kidneys (2) - -
Not specified at all Root - - Unspecified (2) - -
Other uses Human food Stem Larvae edible (5) - - - -
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B. Uses of Euterpe precatoria
Palm Use Palm Use sub- Part plant Peru Bolivia

category category used
Awajun Cocama Mestizo-Iquitos Chácobo Mestizo-Riberalta
Construction Houses Stem Roof frame (4) / Floor frame (66) / Walls Roof frame (19) / Floor frame (2) / Walls (138) Walls (49) Walls (71) / Flooring (6)
Walls (4) (87) / Flooring (6) / Flooring (14) / Stake (6)
Thatch Entire leaf Thatch (5) Thatch (63) Ridgepole (5) / Thatch (12) Thatch (72) Thatch (73) / Roof edge
(4)
Stem - - Rods for thatch (6) - -
Environmental Fences Stem - - Fences (1) - -
Human food Beverages Fruit - Juice (77) Juice (136) Juice (71) Juice (77)
Food Fruit Edible (39) Edible (5) Edible (47) Edible (19) Edible (4)
Palm heart Edible (45) Edible (83) Edible (163) Edible (77) Edible (79)
Medicinal and Blood and Cardio- Fruit - Anemia (4) Anemia (1) - -
veterinary vascular system
Root - Anemia (1) / Blood Anemia (3) Anemia (4) Anemia (72)
pressure (2)
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Digestive system Fruit - - - - Diarrhea (6)
Root Hepatitis (2) Liver pain (2) Colic in babies (2) / Diarrhea (5) / Stomach - -
pain (2) / Hepatitis (5) / Liver pain (2) /
Endocrine system Root - Diabetes (3) Diabetes (2)
Gallbladder (2) - -
General Ailments with Fruit - - Body weakness (2) - -

Unspecific Symptoms
Root - Fever (1) Body pain (3) / Indisposition (2) - -
Infections and Root - Malaria (25) Malaria (33) Amoebas Amoebas (7)
infestations (21)
Metabolic system and Root - - - Malnutrition -
nutrition (2)
Musculo-skeletal Root - Rheumatism and Arthritis Hernia (2) / Rheumatism and Arthritis (1) - -
system (1)
Poisonings Stem - - - Snakebit -
antidote (7)
Root - - - Snakebit -
antidote (2)
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Palm Use Palm Use sub- Part plant Peru Bolivia
category category used Awajun Cocama Mestizo-Iquitos Chácobo Mestizo-Riberalta
Pregnancy, birth and Root Galactogogue Antiabortive (1) Antiabortive (1) / Childbirth problems (5) - -
puerperial (3)
Reproductive system Root - - Uterus infections (3) / Menstrual problems (5) - -
and sex health
Respiratory system Stem - - - Pneumonia -
(1)
Root - - Bronchitis (1) / Pneumonia (14) - -
Sensory system Root - Earache (5) - - -
Urinary system Root - Inflammation of kidneys Prostate (4) / Inflammation of kidneys (44) - -
(41)
Other medicinal uses Root - Hairloss (3) Hairloss (2) / Stomach cancer (2) - -
Not specified at all Root - - Unspecified (13) - -
Cultural uses Clothes and Spear leaf - Hats (6) - - Hats (8)
accessories
Cosmetis Fruit - - - - Hair oil (2)
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Dyes Fruit - - Dyes (9) - -
Root - - Dyes (2) - -
Spear leaf - - Dyes (1) - -
Personal adorment Seed - Jewellery (9) Jewellery (18) - Jewellery (1)
Ritual Entire plant - “Umsha” (2) (*) - - -
Utensils and Domestic and utensilis Infrutescense - - - Broom (1) -
tools
Leaf rachis - - - Broom (5) -
Spear leaf - Fan (10) / Basket (2) / - - Fan (25) / Basket (2) /
Mats (1) Mats (2)
Stem - - - - Mesons (3) / Shelf (6) /
Ceiling (7)
Hunting and fishing Stem - - Arc (2) - -
tools
Labor tools Stem - - - - "Tendal" (2)(**)
Other Human food Stem Larvae edible - - - -
(2)
Mecicinal Stem - - - Larvae -
cough (7)
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In Bolivia the use categories reporting the highest number of uses are Utensils and tools
(nine uses), Medicinal and veterinary (seven uses), Construction (four uses) and Human
food (three uses) for E. precatoria and Construction and Human food (both with two
uses) for E. oleracea (Table 6.3). In both countries we did not record any use for E.
oleracea in the use categories Utensils and tools and Cultural use. Most reported uses
for both E. precatoria and E. oleracea were found in the mestizo communities in the
region of Iquitos in Peru (43 and 13 uses respectively) and in the region of Riberalta in
Bolivia (20 and five uses respectively) (Table 6.3). In both countries all uses reported
by different ethnic groups for E. oleracea were also reported by the same ethnic groups
for E. precatoria, except Ornamental use, which was only reported by the Cocama in
Peru.
The significance of socio-economic variables in palm-use knowledge

Of the 14 assessed socioeconomic factors, we found that in both countries, three factors
showed no significant difference, neither at total knowledge level, nor in the three use-
categories common to both (Table 6.4): 1) gender; 2) animal husbandry and 3) the
material of houses construction, In addition, in Peru the relationship with age and
residence time was not significant, while in Bolivia the ownership of transport and the
size of houses were not significant.
In Peru we found for both species that: 1) the participants belonging to other ethnic
groups who had migrated within the same ecoregion had greater knowledge; and 2) the
size of the family, as well as 3) the education level did not present significant
relationships to palm use knowledge (Table 6.4). The six factors that did in fact show
a different influence on the total knowledge about both species were: 1) ethnicity, with
a major knowledge of E. precatoria amongst mestizos informants and of E. oleracea
among indigenous; 2) the language spoken, with higher knowledge of E. precatoria
among people who only spoke Spanish and of E. oleracea amongst informants speaking
both their native language and Spanish; 3) the possession of tools, with higher
knowledge of E. precatoria among people owning average and high cost tools and
without significant differences for E. oleracea, and; 4) ownership of means of transport,
with higher knowledge about E. precatoria among participants that had transport means
with no- or low- fuel consumption, but without differences in case of E. oleracea; 5)
Farm size, with a significantly positive relationship for E. precatoria, and 6) house-
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size, with a significantly positive relationship for E. precatoria and a negative
relationship for E. oleracea (Table 6.4). With regard to use-categories, both
Construction and Medicinal and Veterinary use of E. precatoria showed significant
relationships with nine and seven factors respectively (Table 6.4). In both cases we
found a higher knowledge among: 1) mestizos; 2) people who only spoke Spanish; 3)
migrants from other ethnic groups within the same ecoregion; and among participants
with 4) average and high cost tools; 5) transport with low and high fuel consumption;
6) larger farm size and 7) larger house size. In addition, the use for Construction was
higher among participants with larger families (more children) and a lower level of
education. In contrast, knowledge of E. oleracea showed significant relationships only
with the size of people’s houses, where higher knowledge corresponded to larger house
size. Regarding the use for Human food, we found that both species showed the same
significative differences, but with opposite patterns, for five factors, (Table 6.4). Higher
knowledge about E. precatoria corresponded to: 1) mestizo people; 2) people who
spoke only Spanish; 3) migrants from other ethnic group in the same ecoregion; 4)
people who did own means of transport with fuel consumption, and 5) people with
larger houses. The influence of these five factors on the two subcategories included in
the category Human food, showed that the knowledge about E. precatoria was clearly
related with the use of its fruits to the production of beverages, while in case of E.
oleracea the fruit and palm heart was used for nutrition (Table 6.5).
In Bolivia we found six factors with similar patterns for both species: 1) mestizos had
a higher knowledge; 2) people who spoke only Spanish had a higher knowledge; 3)
people belonging to other ethnic groups who had migrated in the same ecoregion knew
more; 4) older participants had higher knowledge than younger; 5) people with larger
families showed more knowledge, and 6) there was no significant relationship between
knowledge and the level of education people held (Table 6.4). The three factors that
showed a different influence over the total knowledge of both species were: 1) the time
of residence, with a significantly negative relationship only in case of E. oleracea; 2)
tool-ownership, with higher knowledge about E. oleracea linked to people with high-
cost tools, but without significant differences for E. precatoria, and 3) Farm size, with
a significantly positive relation only for E. oleracea (Table 6.4).
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Table 6.4: Relationship between uses of Euterpe oleraceae and E. precatoria (based on palm use-reports) and socioeconomic factors in the 10
Amazonian communities evaluated in Peru (A) and Bolivia (B). Letters (a, b, c) indicate significantly different means based on a MANOVA
analysis and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test (p < 0.05), with the levels indicated by different letters showing significant differences. (*)
Levels with less than 10 replicas, not included in the analyses.
A. PERU
Euterpe oleracea (Mean±SD) Euterpe precatoria (Mean±SD)
N Total palm uses Construction Human food Medicinal and veterinary Total palm uses Construction Human food Medicinal and veterinary
Comparison of means (categorical variables)
Gender
Male 152 0.4±1.1 0.1±0.4 0.3±0.6 0.1±0.3 4.0±1.9 1.4±1.1 1.8±0.7 0.8±0.7
Female 172 0.3±1.1 0.1±0.4 0.2±0.6 0.1±0.3 3.9±1.7 1.3±1.0 1.8±0.7 0.8±0.7
Ethnicity
Indigenous 118 0.5±0.8 a 0.02±0.1 0.5±0.7 a 0.03±0.1 3.2±2.3 b 1.9±1.3 b 1.5±0.8 b 0.5±0.7 b
Mestizo 206 0.3±1.2 b 0.1±0.4 0.1±0.5 b 0.1±0.02 4.4±1.3 a 1.4±0.8 a 2.0±0.6 a 1.0±0.6 a
Language spoken
Only native language 6* 0.5±0.5 - 0.5±0.5 - 1.7±1.8 0.3±0.5 1.3±0.8 -
Only Spanish 252 0.2±1.1 b 0.1±0.4 0.1±0.4 b 0.1±0.3 4.6±1.4 a 1.6±0.9 a 2.0±0.5 a 1.0±0.6 a
Native language and Spanish 66 0.8±0.9 a 0.03±0.2 0.7±0.8 a 0.1±0.2 1.7±1.4 b 0.4±0.8 b 1.2±0.9 b 0.1±0.4 b
Migration status
Non-migrant 212 0.4±0.9 b 0.04±0.3 0.3±0.6 a 0.03±0.2 3.5±1.9 b 1.1±0.9 b 1.8±0.8 b 0.7±0.6 b
Migrant from other ethnic group in the same ecoregion 108 0.2±1.2 a 0.1±0.4 0.1±0.4 b 0.1±0.4 4.7±1.3 a 1.8±0.8 a 1.9±0.5 a 0.9±0.7 a
Migrant from other ecoregion 4* 1.7±3.5 0.7±1.5 0.7±1.5 0.3±0.5 6.3±1.0 2.7±0.5 2.3±0.5 1.2±0.5 b
Farm animal
No animals 28 0.2±0.6 0.03±0.2 0.2±1.1 - 4.1±0.3 1.3±0.7 2.1±0.5 0.7±0.6
Subsistence livestock 294 0.3±1.0 0.1±0.3 0.2±0.6 0.1±0.3 3.9±0.1 1.4±1.0 1.8±0.7 0.8±0.7
264
Commercial livestock 2* 5.0±0.0 2.0±0.0 2.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 5.0±1.3 2.0±0.0 2.0±0.0 1.0±0.0
Tools
Low cost 58 0.4±0.8 0.03±0.2 0.4±0.6 0.02±0.1 2.5±1.7 b 0.6±0.7 c 1.6±0.9 0.3±0.5 b
Average cost 239 0.3±1.2 0.1±0.4 0.2±0.6 0.1±0.3 4.2±1.7 a 1.4±0.9 b 1.9±0.6 0.9±0.7 a
High cost 27 0.2±0.9 0.1±0.4 0.1±0.4 0.04±0.2 4.9±1.5 a 2.1±1.0 a 1.9±0.6 0.8±0.6 a
Transport
No transport 88 0.5±0.8 0.01±0.1 0.5±0.7 a 0.03±0.2 2.3±1.8 b 0.6±0.8 b 1.4±0.9 b 0.3±0.5 b
No fuel consumption 108 0.2±1.1 0.1±0.5 0.1±0.5 b 0.03±0.2 4.6±1.4 a 1.6±0.9 a 2.1±0.5 a 0.9±0.6 a
Low fuel consumption 119 0.3±1.2 0.1±0.4 0.1±0.5 b 0.1±0.4 4.6±1.4 a 1.7±0.9 a 1.9±0.5 a 0.9±0.6 a
High fuel consumption 9* 0.7±1.0 - 0.7±1.0 - 4.7±2.3 1.8±1.4 1.8±0.4 1.1±1.2
House construction materials
Local plant materials ≥ 50% 274 0.3±0.9 0.1±0.3 0.2±0.6 0.02±0.2 4.1±1.7 1.4±1.0 1.9±0.6 0.8±0.7
Mixed material ≥ 50% 2* 3.0±0.0 1.0±0.00 2.0±0.0 - 3.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 2.0±0.0 -
Foreign commercial materials ≥ 50% 48 0.6±1.6 0.1±0.4 0.4±0.7 0.2±0.6 3.4±2.3 1.1±1.0 1.6±0.9 0.6±0.7
Pearson correlation (continuous variables)
Age 324 -0.09 -0.01 -0.10 0.02 0.08 0.11 0.01 0.06
Size of family (number of children) 324 -0.08 -0.08 -0.08 -0.04 0.10 0.11 0.03 0.09
Time in residence (years) 324 -0.10 -0.04 -0.10 0.03 -0.02 -0.09 0.03 0.05
Education 324 0.10 0.04 0.10 0.04 -0.11 -0.12 -0.09 -0.07
Farms size (ha) 324 -0.02 0.08 -0.02 0.05 0.15 0.17 -0.001 0.16
House size (m2) 324 -0.13 0.16 -0.14 0.12 0.24 0.16 0.23 0.30
!
B. BOLIVIA
Euterpe oleracea (Mean±SD) Euterpe precatoria (Mean±SD)
N Total palm uses Construction Human food Medicinal and veterinary Total palm uses Construction Human food Medicinal and veterinary
Comparison of means (categorical variables)
Gender
Male 79 0.4±0.9 0.04±0.3 0.4±0.7 0.01±0.1 4.7±1.0 1.8±0.5 2.1±0.5 0.8±0.5
Female 80 0.4±0.8 0.01±0.1 0.4±0.7 0.01±0.1 4.4±1.2 1.7±0.67 2.0±0.1 0.7±0.5
Ethnicity
Indigenous 81 0.01±0.1 b - 0.01±0.1 b - 4.0±1.3 b 1.5±0.6 b 2.1±0.6 0.5±0.6 b
Mestizo 78 0.9±1.0 a 0.1±0.3 0.7±0.8 a 0.03±0.2 5.1±0.6 a 1.9±0.5 a 2.0±0.3 1.1±0.3 a
Language spoken
Only native language 12 - - - - 3.2±1.9 c 1.4±0.7 b 1.6±0.9 b 0.2±0.4 c
Only Spanish 73 0.9±1.0 a 0.1±0.3 0.8±0.7 a 0.03±0.2 5.0±0.6 a 1.9±0.5 a 2.1±0.3 a 1.1±0.3 a
Native language and Spanish 74 0.1±0.3 b - 0.1±0.3 b - 4.3±1.2 b 1.6±0.7 b 2.1±0.5 a 0.6±0.5 b
Migration status
Non-migrant 84 0.01±0.1 b - 0.01±0.1 b - 4.1±1.2 b 1.5±0.6 b 2.1±0.6 0.5±0.6 b
Migrant from other ethnic group in the same ecoregion 71 0.9±1.0 a 0.1±0.3 0.8±0.7 a 0.03±0.2 5.0±0.6 a 1.9±0.4 a 2.0±0.3 1.1±0.3 a
Migrant from other ecoregion 4* 0.5±1.0 - 0.5±1.0 - 5.5±0.6 2.5±0.6 2.0±0.0 1.0±0.0
Farm animal
265
No animals 7* 1.0±0.9 - 1.0±1.0 - 4.7±0.5 1.8±0.4 2.0±0.0 0.8±0.4
Subsistence livestock 145 0.4±0.8 0.03±0.02 0.3±0.6 0.01±0.1 4.5±1.2 1.7±0.6 2.0±0.5 0.8±0.6
Commercial livestock 7* 1.1±0.9 - 1.1±0.9 - 4.9±0.7 1.7±0.5 2.4±0.5 0.7±0.5
Tools
Low cost 3* 0.3±0.6 - 0.3±0.6 - 5.0±1.0 2.0±0.0 2.3±0.6 0.7±1.5
Average cost 139 0.4±0.7 b 0.01±0.1 0.3±0.6 b 0.01±0.1 4.5±1.1 1.7±0.6 2.0±0.5 0.7±0.6
High cost 17 1.2±1.2 a 0.1±0.1 1.1±1.0 a - 5.0±0.9 1.9±0.6 2.1±0.6 1.0±0.0
Transport
No transport 22 0.3±0.63 - 0.3±0.6 - 4.6±0.6 1.7±0.5 2.1±0.2 0.9±0.4
No fuel consumption 53 0.3±0.5 - 0.2±0.4 - 4.5±1.0 1.7±0.6 2.0±0.5 0.8±0.6
Low fuel consumption 80 0.0.±0.9 0.1±0.3 0.4±0.8 0.03±0.01 4.5±1.3 1.7±0.7 2.0±0.6 0.7±0.5
High fuel consumption 4* 2.0±0.01 - 2.2±0.0 - 5.5±0.6 2.0±0.0 2.5±0.6 1.0±0.0
House construction materials
Local plant materials ≥ 50% 146 0.4±0.8 0.01±0.1 0.4±0.7 0.01±0.1 4.5±1.1 1.7±0.6 2.1±0.5 0.8±0.6
Mixed material ≥ 50% 4* 1.5±0.6 - 1.5±0.6 - 5.5±0.6 2.0±0.0 2.5±0.6 1.0±0.0
Foreign commercial materials ≥ 50% 9* 0.7±1.4 0.2±0.7 0.4±0.9 - 4.7±0.7 2.0±0.0 1.7±0.7 1.0±0.0
Pearson correlation (continuous variables)
Age 159 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.01 0.44 0.45 0.07 0.33
Size of family (number of children) 159 0.34 0.08 0.34 0.07 0.42 0.28 0.15 0.36
Time in residence (years) 159 -0.26 -0.07 -0.26 -0.05 -0.09 -0.12 0.16 -0.15
Education 159 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.08 -0.09 -0.16 -0.03 0.07
Farms size (ha) 159 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.11 -0.16 0.15
House size (m2) 159 0.05 0.15 0.04 0.13 -0.03 -0.02 -0.05 0.07
!
Table 6.5: Relationship between two subcategories of Human food use of Euterpe oleraceae and E. precatoria (based on palm use-reports) and
socioeconomic factors in the 10 Amazonian communities evaluated in Peru and Bolivia. Letters (a, b, c) indicate significantly different means
based on a MANOVA analysis and its corresponding post hoc Tukey test (p < 0.05), with the levels indicated by different letters showing significant
differences. (*) Levels with less than 10 replicas, not included in the analyses.
PERU BOLIVIA
N Euterpe oleracea Euterpe precatoria N Euterpe oleracea Euterpe precatoria
Beverages Food Beverages Food Beverages Food Beverages Food
Comparison of means
Gender
Male 152 0.02±0.1 0.2±0.6 0.7±0.5 1.2±0.6 79 0.3±0.5 0.1±0.3 0.9±0.2 1.1±0.4
Female 172 0.03±0.2 0.2±0.5 0.7±0.5 1.2±0.6 80 0.3±0.4 0.1±0.3 0.9±0.3 1.1±0.4
Ethnicity
Indigenous 118 - 0.5±0.1ª 0.4±0.5b 1.1±0.7 81 0.01±0.1b - 0.9±0.3b 1.2±0.5
Mestizo 206 0.04±0.2 0.1±0.03b 0.8±0.4ª 1.2±0.5 78 0.5±0.4ª 0.3±0.4ª 0.9±0.2ª 1.1±0.2
Language spoken
266
Only native language 6* - 0.5±0.4 - 1.3±0.8 12 - - 0.7±0.5b 0.8±0.6b
Only Spanish 252 0.03±0.2 0.1±0.3b 0.8±0.4ª 1.2±0.4 73 0.5±0.4ª 0.3±0.4ª 0.9±0.2ª 1.1±0.2b
Native language and 66 - 0.7±0.8ª 0.1±0.2b 1.2±0.9 74 0.04±0.2b 0.03±0.2b 0.9±0.3ab 1.2±0.4ª
Spanish
Migration status
Non-migrant 212 0.01±0.1 0.3±0.6ª 0.6±0.5b 1.2±0.6 84 0.01±0.1b - 0.9±0.3b 1.2±0.5
Migrant from other ethnic 108 0.04±0.2 0.1±0.2b 0.8±0.4ª 1.1±0.5 71 0.5±0.4ª 0.3±0.5 0.9±0.1ª 1.0±0.3
group in the same
Migrant
ecoregionfrom other 4* 0.3±0.5 0.5±1.0 1.0±0.0 1.3±0.5 4* 0.3±0.5 0.3±0.5 1.0±0.01 1.0±0.0
ecoregion
Farm animal
No animals 28 - 0.2±0.5 0.7±0.5 1.4±0.5 7* 0.4±0.5 0.6±0.5 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.0
Subsistence livestock 294 0.02±0.1 0.2±0.5 0.7±0.5 1.2±0.6 145 0.2±0.4 0.1±0.3 0.9±0.02 1.9±0.4
Commercial livestock 2* 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 7* 0.7±0.5 0.4±0.5 1.0±0.0 1.4±0.5
!
PERU BOLIVIA
N Euterpe oleracea Euterpe precatoria N Euterpe oleracea Euterpe precatoria
Beverages Food Beverages Food Beverages Food Beverages Food
Tools
Low cost 58 - 0.4±0.6ª 0.3±0.5b 1.3±0.7 3* 0.3±0.6 - 1.0±0.0 1.3±0.6
Average cost 239 0.03±0.2 0.2±0.5ab 0.7±0.5ª 1.2±0.5 139 0.2±0.4b 0.1±0.3b 0.9±0.2 1.1±0.4
High cost 27 0.04±0.2 0.04±0.2b 0.8±0.4ª 1.1±0.5 17 0.5±0.4ª 0.5±0.5ª 0.9±0.3 1.2±0.4
Comparison of means
Transport
No transport 88 - 0.5±0.7a 0.2±0.4b 1.2±0.1 22 0.2±0.4 0.1±0.3ab 1.0±0.05 1.1±0.2
No fuel consumption 108 0.03±0.2 0.1±0.3b 0.8±0.4a 1.2±0.5 53 0.3±0.5 0.02±0.1b 0.9±0.03 1.0±0.3
Low fuel consumption 119 0.04±0.2 0.1±0.3b 0.8±0.4a 1.2±0.1 80 0.3±0.4 0.2±0.4a 0.9±0.03 1.2±0.4
267
High fuel consumption 9* - 0.7±1.0 0.7±0.5 1.1±0.2 4* 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.0 1.0±0.1 1.5±0.6
House construction
materials
Local plant materials ≥ 274 0.02±0.1 0.2±0.5 0.7±0.5 1.2±0.5 146 0.3±0.4 0.1±0.3 0.9±0.2 1.1±0.4
50%
Mixed material ≥ 50% 2* - 2.0±0.0 - 2.0±0.0 4* 1.0±0.0 0.5±0.6 1.0±0.0 1.5±0.6
Foreign commercial 48 0.04±0.3 0.4±0.7 0.5±0.5 1.1±0.7 9* 0.2±0.4 0.2±0.4 0.8±0.4 0.9±0.6
materials ≥ 50%
Pearson correlation
(continuous variables)
Age 324 -0.03 -0.10 0.02 0.10 159 0.19 0.13 0.23 -0.09
Size of family (number of 324 -0.10 -0.07 0.00 0.21 159 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.07
children)
Time in residence (years) 324 0.01 -0.10 -0.01 -0.12 159 -0.27 -0.12 -0.02 0.21
Education 324 -0.02 0.10 -0.07 0.07 159 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00
Farms size (ha) 324 0.07 -0.03 0.05 0.20 159 0.17 0.20 -0.02 -0.14
House size (m2) 324 0.11 -0.15 0.33 0.16 159 0.02 0.19 0.02 -0.09
!
With regard to use-categories, both Construction and Medicinal and Veterinary use of
E. precatoria showed significant relationships with six and five factors respectively
(Table 6.4), in both cases, higher knowledge was found among: 1) mestizos, 2) people
who only spoke Spanish, 3) migrants from other ethnic groups within the same
ecoregion, 4) older participants; 5) people with large families, and only in the case of
Construction among people with lower education, In contrast, ,a high knowledge about
E. oleracea was only related to the ownership of larger cultivated areas. The use of E.
precatoria for Human food only showed significant differences with relation to two
factors, both shared with E. oleracea: 1) language spoken, with more knowledge
between people who only spoke Spanish; and 2) time of residence, with more
knowledge in informants who actually lived more time in a community, in opposition
to the findings in E. oleracea. In addition, E. oleracea showed significant differences
with relation to: 1) ethnicity, with a higher knowledge among mestizos; 2) migratory
state, with a higher knowledge held by members of other ethnic groups who had
migrated within the same ecoregion; 3) age, with higher knowledge linked to increasing
age; 4) family size, with more knowledge in people with larger families; 5) tool-
ownership, with more knowledge in informants with high-cost tolls (e.g. fumigators,
tractors, chainsaws, water pumps), and 6) farm size, with a more extensive knowledge
in people with larger arms (Table 6.4). The influence of these eight factors on the two
subcategories included in Human food showed that the knowledge E. oleracea was
related to the use of its fruits for both the elaboration of beverages as well as the harvest
of palm hearts, in contrast to E. precatoria where the fruits were only used to produce
beverages (Table 6.5).
DISCUSSION
In general we found that the influence of the 14 socioeconomic factors evaluated on

knowledge of both Euterpe species showed more differences (in patterns and trends) in
Peru than in Bolivia.
Our own research, indicates that the higher use of E. precatoria in the Amazonian areas
of Peru and Bolivia existed mainly among mestizos, even in categories of use that were
closely related to the cultural use of the forest such as Medicinal use and Construction,
which in many other studies have been documented mostly for the indigenous
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268
population (Benz et al. 2000; Ladio 2001; Campos & Ehringhaus 2003; Byg & Balslev
2004; Byg et al. 2007; de la Torre et al. 2009). The ability of the mestizo population to
experiment and learn has already been documented in other studies, and has been
interpreted as an effect of the extensive experience that mestizos might have with
external resources, which could motivate their interest to learn and know about, and
experiment with the resources available in their immediate environment (Hanazaki et
al. 2000; Byg et al. 2007, Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2007; Souto & Ticking 2012;
Cámara-Leret et al. 2014). This capacity associated with language (Spanish) as a
mechanism of socialization and interchange (Reyes García et al. 2007), and their
capacity of mobility between communities and regions (migrants in the same
ecoregion), favored by the experience and familiarity of people with their environment,
foster the acquisition of new knowledge that could be useful allowing them adapt to
their new environment (Campos & Ehringhaus 2003).
In this study we measured wealth primarily as agricultural and livestock assets,
therefore reflecting the different productive practices in which people engaged. Socio-
economic compensation with regard to investment in introduced agricultural practices,
animal husbandry, purchase of tools, capital and labor, are part of the households
subsistence strategies, and therefore influence the decision about the removal and use
of natural resources as a source of income and in the interests of preserving traditional
knowledge (Coomes 1996; Wiersum 1997; Takasaki et al. 2001). Many studies from
the tropics indicate that the poorest households depend, sometimes entirely, on the
extraction of forest resources for their livelihoods, due to low capital requirements of
such activities (Arnold & Ruiz Pérez 2001). Other studies have identified the opposite
situation, in which only those households with sufficient capital for equipment,
transportation, and labor can have economic benefits to market forest resources
(Neumann & Hirsch. 2000).
Our results reveal two patterns in relation to the influence of factors related to the wealth
of participants on the knowledge of E. precatoria. In Peru, increased knowledge and
use of the species was more common among the wealthiest people with greater
purchasing power, even through Medicinal and Construction use could easily be
replaced when people have access to external resources or local alternatives such as
external construction material, and access to medicines and health centers (Benz et al.
2000; Zent 2001; Ladio 2001; Byron 2003). This pattern could be interpreted as a result
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269
of the attitude of people towards their environment, acquiring and preserving
knowledge that potentially could be useful (Byg & Balslev 2001). In this case it might
be related to the influence of the growing market for the products of Euterpe species
(Lewis 2008). However, as in the case of Human food use, which includes the use of
the two commercialized resources (fruits and palm-hearts), this pattern could also be
related to the accessibility (type and distance), and market characteristics (size and
diversity of products) to which people have access (Salonen et al. 2011). Communities
in Peru e.g. are required to have means to enable them to travel long distances to
markets, using transport with high fuel consumption (Peters & Hammond 1990; see
Appendix), thus limiting the potential for revenue (Gram et al. 2001; Lanjouw & Feder
2001), which probably causes that this knowledge this mainly in the hands that people
with higher purchase power (Ruiz-Pérez et al. 2004).
Unlike Peru, we do not find the influence of wealth on knowledge of E. precatoria in
Bolivia, this probably because livelihood strategies in this region are based on multiple
commercialization of forest products, none exclusively extensive, including Asaí, and
agriculture surplus (Zenteno et al. 2013). In addition the conditions of market access
are less difficult (time and type of access, see Appendix) and markets are smaller (move
less volumes), making market access and market their products do not require a large
capital investment. The places where people can sell, both the palm heart and fruits of
Asaí, are limited (Alvaro Torrez, Madre Tierra S.L. pers. comm.).
With regard to E. oleracea, our work indicates that this species is beginning to get
incorporated into the body of traditional knowledge of indigenous and mestizo
communities in both Peru and Bolivia. Although uses of both species related to
Construction and Medicine have been reported from both countries, the use for Human
consumption, including the two uses for which they are commercially known (e.g. fruits
and palm-hearts) are the most important. In Peru the knowledge of the Awajun their
use was related only to the dietary intake of fruits and palm-hearts, similar to E.
precatoria. These are probably the most common uses for commerce, and best known
in the markets that are visited by people, which might be the reason why the species is
being introduced in the area. It is noteworthy that he Cocama only knew ornamental
uses. This might be due the fact that they live within a protected area (National Park
Pacaya Samiria) limiting income development, -and projects to introduce new species
for commercial exploitation. The use-pattern for E. oleracea found in Bolivia seems to
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270
be a clear relation of factors like possession of expensive tools, and larger areas of
cultivation, which was not evident in E. precatoria, this might be related to an interest
of the specific informants, principally mestizos, in cultivating this species as a source
of income (Godoy et al. 1998; Vincent Vos, CIPCA and Alvaro Torrez, Madre Tierra
Amazonia S.L. pers. comm.) and the type of land tenure in mestizo communities
(parcelling) allowing greater possibility of incorporating cultivated species into
agroforestry systems (Ríos 2001).
Although other studies have highlighted how particular and localized the effect of
socioeconomic factors on traditional knowledge can be (Paniagua et al. 2014), our
present work allows us to highlight that these patterns vary even if only analyzing their
influence at the level of one species. Therefore, great care has to be taken with
generalizations about the importance of different species that are part of the body of
knowledge.
CONCLUSIONS
Our work shows that the influence of socioeconomic factors on the traditional
knowledge of E. precatoria and E. oleracea is highly localized. The differences found
in the influence of the factors evaluated in the communities in Peru and Bolivia show
how highly variable and dynamic traditional knowledge can be. The importance of E.
precatoria in Peru is more related to the commercial importance of both its fruits and
palm-hearts, in contrast to Bolivia, where, although the commercialization of both
resources generates some income, this is still not as important as income generated by
other resources or activities. The homogeneity we found on most knowledge of E.
oleracea in linkage to the socioeconomic factors evaluated, reflects how recent this
knowledge really is, and also shows that although some knowledge can be transmitted
through the processes of general social interaction (coexistence and knowledge sharing
living in the community), other parts re acquired through individual experimentation or
interest. Our work has shown that integration into a market economy does not
necessarily erode traditional knowledge, but can rather stimulate knowledge acquisition
and transmission, and helps to understand the role and potential of these products to
contribute to the livelihoods of households. The existence of different patterns
involving different potentials indicates the need for carefully planned intervention
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strategies. This suggests that development efforts that aim to improve forest product
incomes in rural livelihoods need to consider the diversification in livelihood strategies,
the contribution of forest products in each of the livelihood strategies, and the
sustainable livelihood assets that characterizes a particular livelihood strategy.
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Appendix 6.1: Characteristics of the 10 communities in Amazon of Peru and Bolivia where
483 interviews about Euterpe uses were gathered.
(a) The information about the nearest town and the time to reach it were obtained from
interviews. The data represents the town and the time most frequently reported by the
informants; (b) Availability of electricity: (1) no electricity, (2) free electricity, (3) paid
electricity. Access to education: (1) primary school, (2) secondary school. Access to healthcare:
(1) without health post (only traditional medicine), (2) health post / community nurse, (3) health
post / physician.
Number of
Accessibility (a) Social services available (b)
informants
N° Comunity
Community Ethnic
(Population) Group
Healthcare
Type access
Electricity
Education
Nearest town
(Distance in
(Population)
hr.) 483
PERU
Iquitos Fluvial / Road

1 San Martín (500) Cocama 3 2 3 87
(450000) (19)
Iquitos
2 El Chino (550) Mestizo Fluvial (10) 1 1 2 79
(450000)
Iquitos
3 Santa Ana (450) Mestizo Fluvial (5) 2 2 1 89
(450000)
Yamayakat Fluvial / Road

4 Aguaruna Bagua (74000) 3 1 3 36
(1000) (3)
Fluvial / Road
5 Cusu Chico (150) Aguaruna Bagua (74000) 3 1 3 13
(3.5)
Nueva Samaria Fluvial / Road

6 Aguaruna Bagua (74000) 1 1 1 20
(80) (3.25)
BOLIVIA
Riberalta Loose surface

7 Santa María (250) Mestizo 3 1 3 41
(90000) road (1)
26 de Octubre Riberalta
8 Mestizo Road (1) 1 1 2 38
(180) (90000)
Riberalta
9 Alto Ivón (500) Chacobo Road (4) 1 2 3 56
(90000)
Riberalta
10 Motacuzal (30) Chacobo Road (3.5) 1 1 2 24
(90000)
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CAPÍTULO 7
Conclusiones generales
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CONCLUSIONES GENERALES
Los esfuerzos para documentar y evaluar el conocimiento tradicional han crecido

exponencialmente en las últimas décadas, estimulados por el incremento en su valor
percibido (Berkes et al. 2000; Berkes 2007), pero también por la creciente percepción
de que está sufriendo significativos procesos de erosión (Benz et al. 2000; Voeks &
Leony 2004; Brosi et al. 2007; Reyes-García et al. 2013). Sin embargo, la falta de
métodos estandarizados de investigación dificulta la comparabilidad entre patrones de
uso que podrían ser similares entre diferentes culturas y a escalas geográficas más
amplias (Albuquerque & Medeiros 2012).
No existen apenas estudios que utilizando una misma metodología de investigación
hayan realizado comparaciones a escalas amplias, ya sean regionales, biogeográficas
o a nivel de país en las regiones tropicales y por ello entendemos que nuestro trabajo
supone un avance en esa dirección. Para nuestro estudio, se recopiló información de
2201 informantes, en 68 comunidades, 41 etnias indígenas, tres grupos humanos
(indígenas, mestizos y afroamericanos), cuatro países (Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y
Bolivia) y tres ecorregiones (Amazonía, Andes y Chocó). En concreto, este trabajo
proporciona a la disciplina de la etnobotánica nuevos aportes científicos en función
del uso de las palmeras por distintos grupos humanos, incluyendo: 1) información a
múltiples escalas sobre las palmeras de uso medicinal más importantes, que podrían
servir como base para estudios farmacológicos futuros, 2) analiza la significancia de
factores socioeconómicos de los informantes y sus comunidades de residencia para
evaluar su poder predictivo sobre el conocimiento tradicional a escala regional, 3)
evalúa los procesos de transmisión del conocimiento etnobotánico, valorando sus
posibles pérdidas y ganancias intergeneracionales y 4) compara la influencia de los
distintos factores socioeconómicos que determinan el conocimiento y uso de dos
especies de palmeras comercialmente importantes en función del acceso que tienen
las poblaciones a distinto tipo de economía de mercado.
En el Capítulo 2 de la Tesis Doctoral se presenta el protocolo estándar utilizado para

la documentación de los datos etnobotánicos de las palmeras y de 22 factores
socioeconómicos de los informantes y sus comunidades (Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2010).

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Para el Capítulo 3, en una primera instancia se realizó una amplia revisión

bibliográfica de trabajos de etnobotánica de palmeras publicados en los últimos 60
años, incluyendo el uso medicinal a nivel de subcategoría de uso (Macía et al. 2011),
y las enfermedades en detalle. Nuestra aportación fue la de completar esta
información junto con los datos obtenidos en las entrevistas de campo para identificar
patrones de uso medicinal entre tres ecorregiones (Amazonía, Andes, Chocó), cuatro
países (Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia), tres grupos humanos (indígenas,
mestizos y afroamericanos) y 55 grupos indígenas en el noroeste sudamericano
(Paniagua et al. 2015). El uso medicinal de las plantas es uno de los servicios
ecosistémicos mas ampliamente conocidos, no solo por su contribución a las
estrategias de vida locales si no por su potencial como fuente de nuevos
medicamentos (Macía et al. 2005; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005;
Bussmann & Sharon 2006; 2007), entre las que también se incluyen varias especies
de palmeras (Plotkin & Balick 1984; Sosnowska & Balslev 2009). Sin embargo, a
pesar de su importancia, pocos estudios han comparado el uso medicinal de las
plantas entre diferentes culturas y regiones (Moerman et al. 1999; Ghimere et al.
2004; Albuquerque et al. 2007; Molares & Ladio 2009). La identificación de patrones
comunes de uso podría facilitar la aplicación de usos farmacológicamente probados y
promover el uso terapéutico de la medicinal tradicional a mayores escalas, incluso
incorporándose en los programas públicos de salud de las áreas rurales más
necesitadas y desfavorecidas (World Health Organization, 1978; Holveck et al. 2007).
Las conclusiones más importantes de este trabajo son:

1. El uso medicinal de las palmeras no es al azar, ya que muchos de los usos
medicinales y las especies más importantes se comparten a escala regional
(ecorregiones y países), resaltando la importancia de las palmeras para cubrir
necesidades básicas de salud en comunidades rurales.
2. El contexto cultural, ecológico y socioeconómico local ejercen una gran
influencia en el uso y selección de las palmeras medicinales. Los indígenas
tuvieron mayor conocimiento y uso en comparación con los mestizos y los
afroamericanos. Por ecorregiones, en la Amazonía se encontró claramente
mayor proliferación del uso medicinal, mientras que en los Andes y el Chocó

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se observaron patrones similares.

3. A pesar del esfuerzo realizado, todavía existen grandes vacíos de información
sobre el conocimiento medicinal de palmeras en el noroeste sudamericano,
especialmente en los Andes y el Chocó. Sería deseable formular estrategias
regionales para documentar sistemáticamente este conocimiento tradicional
antes de que desaparezca.
El conocimiento tradicional adquirido por las comunidades locales a través de

experiencias de adaptación a su ambiente, es dinámico y continuamente se está
modificando y/o adaptando a las nuevas condiciones ambientales, culturales, sociales
y económicas que engloban tanto a los individuos como a las comunidades (Berkes et
al. 2000; Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García 2013). Aunque numerosos estudios han
tratado de entender cómo todos estos factores influyen en el conocimiento tradicional
actual, la mayoría de ellos solo han sido estudiados a escalas pequeñas (intracultural)
(Byg & Balslev 2004; 2006; Reyes-García et al. 2005; Byg et al. 2007; Paniagua
Zambrana et al. 2007). Analizar los patrones a escalas geográficas y biogeográficas
mayores puede servir para generar estrategias para la conservación del conocimiento
tradicional a distintos niveles. Si el grado de conocimiento etnobotánico se pueden
predecir desde los datos socioeconómicos, las acciones de conservación podrían
enfocarse mejor sobre los sectores de la población que afrontan riesgos de pérdida de
su conocimiento tradicional (Alburquerque & Medeiros 2012).
En el Capítulo 4 se evalúa por primera vez a escala regional en el noroeste

sudamericano, el poder predictivo de 14 factores socioeconómicos, previamente
identificados como importantes en la determinación de diferencias en el conocimiento
tradicional, tanto a nivel personal y a nivel de hogar.
Las conclusiones más importantes de este trabajo son:

4. El conocimiento tradicional en función del uso de las palmeras es muy
variable a distintas escalas geográficas y biogeográficas, y por ello no se
identificaron patrones regionales en el poder predictivo a partir de los 14
factores socioeconómicos evaluados.
5. Las ecorregiones de tierras bajas, Amazonía y Chocó, presentaron una mayor

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similitud en los factores socioeconómicos que influyen en el conocimiento

tradicional, a diferencia de los Andes por lo que no se pueden hacer
generalizaciones y extrapolaciones a partir de los mismos factores a diferentes
escalas.
6. La asociación del conocimiento tradicional y los factores socioeconómicos se
debe contrastar para el resto de familias de plantas en la región y con ello
validar su probabilidad de predicción.
Diferentes estudios han examinado las causas de la pérdida del conocimiento

tradicional. Factores como la asimilación de nuevas culturas, la pérdida de territorios
tradicionales, la destrucción de los hábitats, la educación reglada, los procesos de
migración, la urbanización, la construcción de nuevas vías de comunicación, la
tecnología y la integración en la economía de mercado, han afectado a los procesos
tradicionales que permiten a las sociedades tradicionales aprender, regenerar,
transmitir y aplicar los conocimientos adquiridos oralmente (Benz et al. 2000; Godoy
et al. 2005; Reyes-García et al. 2005). Sin embargo, pocos estudios consideran el
contexto intercultural de estos procesos a escala (bio)geográfica regional. En
consecuencia nuestra comprensión de cómo estos procesos afectan a la resiliencia de
los conocimientos tradicionales y su capacidad para evolucionar y adaptarse es muy
limitada.
En el Capítulo 5, evaluamos al existencia de patrones regionales en los procesos de

transmisión del conocimiento tradicional del uso de las palmeras dividiendo la edad
de la población en cinco generaciones diferentes. Asimismo, identificamos las
categorías de uso en las cuales el conocimiento es ampliamente compartido o aquellos
casos en los que es único.
Las conclusiones mas importantes de este trabajo son:

7. El conocimiento tradicional sobre el uso de las palmeras en Alimentación
humana y Construcción se encuentran mayoritariamente compartidos a escala
regional entre distintos grupos humanos. Por otra parte, el uso Medicinal y
veterinario, para Utensilios y herramientas y con fines Culturales tuvieron una
mayor proporción como usos únicos a escala local, y en la mayoría de los

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casos solamente son conocidos por las personas de mayor edad.

8. Los mecanismos por los que se mantiene el conocimiento tradicional están
relacionados con múltiples factores, principalmente locales, incluyendo las
diversidad florística, la identidad cultural, el grado e interés de conservación
de las tradiciones y conocimientos, así como los aspectos económicos de
acceso a servicios e infraestructura. Por lo que las estrategias enfocadas a su
conservación deberían ser principalmente desarrolladas a escala local.
Tanto las comunidades como los individuos que habitan en los bosques tropicales han
usado diferentes estrategias de subsistencia, que cuando es posible combinan con
actividades que les generen ingresos económicos (Blecher et al. 2005). Sin embargo,
este contexto local está siendo dramáticamente afectado por cambios relacionados con
la globalización y la modernización de las sociedades rurales. La vinculación a la
economía de mercado y a la occidentalización ha sido considerado como el factor de
cambio más significativo para estas sociedades en desarrollo (Ruiz-Perez et al. 2004;
Vadez et al. 2004; Godoy et al. 2005; Reyes-García et al. 2005).
En el Capítulo 6 identificamos los factores socioeconómicos que están relacionados

con el uso de dos especies de palmeras de importancia económica en comunidades
amazónicas de Perú y Bolivia. Euterpe precatoria Mart. es nativa de la región y E.
oleracea Mart. es introducida. Ambas especies se conocen por el nombre local de
“asaí” y forman parte de programas de desarrollo y aprovechamiento sostenible en
muchas comunidades rurales.
Las conclusiones mas importantes de este trabajo son:

9. Si se analiza comparativamente el uso de las dos especies del género Euterpe,
la población mestiza es la que tiene un mayor conocimiento sobre la
utilización de la especie nativa (E. precatoria) debido a su gran importancia
comercial. El uso de la especie introducida (E. oleracea), aún es reducido pero
está ampliamente distribuido entre los diferentes grupos humanos y sectores
de la sociedad.
10. La incorporación de las comunidades y las personas a diferentes economías de
mercado determina la importancia que tienen los recursos naturales dentro sus

284

estrategias de vida. Por tanto, los esfuerzos de desarrollo en comunidades

rurales deberían considerar la diversificación de las estrategias de subsistencia
que tienen los hogares y la importancia que tienen las distintas especies
vegetales dentro de éstas.
Esta Tesis Doctoral resalta las prioridades para la conservación de las especies de
palmeras útiles y del conocimiento tradicional asociado, que podrían ser utilizadas en
estrategias de desarrollo sostenible tanto a nivel de las mismas comunidades, como a
nivel nacional y regional por distintas organizaciones e instituciones. Estos estudios
nos han permitido mostrar la compleja red de interacciones asociadas a la distribución
del conocimiento tradicional, remarcando la importancia de considerar la fuerte
influencia local y la dificultad a la hora de hacer extrapolaciones en el entendimiento
etnobotánico. Finalmente, destacamos la importancia de aplicar metodologías
estandarizadas que permitan obtener información comparable y representativa de
todos los grupos de la sociedad, principalmente cuando la información que se va a
generar implica estudios a gran escala.
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Natural Resources. Annual Review of Anthropology 34:121–138.
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rurales. Ecología en Bolivia 45(3): 44-68.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N., R. Cámara-Leret & M.J. Macía. In Press, 2015. Patterns of
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Tsimane ‘ of the Bolivian Amazon. Current Anthropology 46(4):651–656.
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J. Pino & X. Rubio–Campillo. 2013. Evidence of traditional knowledge loss among
a contemporary indigenous society. Evolution and Human Behavior 34:249–257.
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Campbell, C. Clement, T. Cunningham, A. Fantini, H. de Foresta, C. García
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2004. Markets drive the specialization strategies of forest peoples. Ecology and
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of Ethnobiology & Ethnomedicine 5:43.
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287

288
APÉNDICE
Devolución de la información etnobotánica a las

comunidades
289
Devolución de la información etnobotánica a las comunidades
Uno de los compromisos adquiridos con las comunidades locales donde se ha

desarrollado el trabajo de campo documentando el conocimiento y uso de las
palmeras, fue la devolución de esta información a las propias comunidades locales,
contribuyendo de esta manera a la documentación, conservación y difusión de su
conocimiento tradicional. Con el fin de cumplir con este compromiso, se elaboraron
seis libros que incluyeron toda la información etnobotánica acerca del uso de las
palmeras obtenida durante las entrevistas realizadas, incluyendo los nombres locales y
fotografías tanto de la palmeras como de sus usos.
Todos los libros tienen como autores a cada una de las personas que entrevistamos en
las comunidades correspondientes, y han sido co-editados por Narel Paniagua-
Zambrana, Manuel J. Macía, Erika Blacutt, Rainer Bussmann, Carolina Téllez y
Carlos Vega que colaboraron en la realización de las entrevistas en campo.
Cada una de las personas que entrevistamos en las comunidades ha recibido un

ejemplar del libro, de esta manera aseguramos que al menos cada familia en la
comunidad tiene un libro. Las escuelas de las comunidades que visitamos, también
recibieron un grupo de libros, para que los puedan incorporar como material de
enseñanza. Muchas de las comunidades en las que trabajamos forman parte de
organizaciones regionales, que agrupan a otras comunidades, y también se ha
entregado un grupo de libros a estas organizaciones para que sean distribuidos en las
escuelas de las comunidades con las que no llegamos a trabajar.
Con el fin de difundir esta información hacia un ámbito más amplio, cada uno de
estos libros ha sido publicado como un articulo científico en un número especial de la
revista Ethnobotany Research and Applications, reconociendo la autoría de las
comunidades locales en cada uno de ellos.
290
Esta publicación describe el
conocimiento de 21 especies de
palmeras y 85 usos diferentes, que
fueron reportados por las 169
personas (adultos y niños) que
entrevistamos en las cuatro
comunidades de la TCO Chácobo-
Pacahuara (Beni, Bolivia): Alto Ivón,
Tokio, Puerto Tujuré y Motacuzal,
visitadas en Octubre del 2010.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, E. Blacutt, M.J. Macía, editores. 2011.
Los Chácobo y las Palmeras. Graficart, Trujillo, Perú.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, E. Blacutt, M.J. Macía, Comunidades

Chácobo de Alto Yvón, Tokio y Motacuzal, y Comunidad Pacahuara de Puerto
Tujure. 2014. Los Chácobo y las Palmeras. Ethnobotany Research and
Applications 13(7): 1-96.
291
palmeras y 134 usos diferentes que
fueron reportados por las 176
personas que entrevistamos en tres
comunidades campesinas de la
provincia Vaca Diez (Beni, Bolivia):
El Hondo, Santa Ana y 26 de
Octubre, visitadas en Mayo y
Septiembre del 2010.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, E. Blacutt, M.J. Macía, editores. 2012.
Conservando nuestros bosques: conocimiento y uso de las palmeras en las
comunidades campesinas del norte de Bolivia. Plural Editores, La Paz, Bolivia.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, E. Blacutt, M.J. Macía, Comunidades

de El Hondo, Santa María y 26 de Octubre. 2014. Conservando nuestros bosques:
conocimiento y uso de las palmeras en las comunidades campesinas del norte de
Bolivia. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13(6): 1-97.
292
fueron reportadas por las 89 personas
que entrevistamos en las comunidades
de San Juan, Santa Rosa, Santo
Domingo, Unión Progreso y Villa
Santiago, localizadas en la región de
Inambarí (Madre de Dios, Perú), sobre
la carretera Cuzco-Puerto Maldonado
que visitamos en Marzo del 2011.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N., R.W. Bussmann, M.J. Macía, editores. 2012. El bosque SI
tiene valor - el uso de palmeras en las comunidades campesinas e indígenas de la
región de Inambarí, Madre de Dios, Perú. Graficart, Trujillo, Perú.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, M.J. Macía, Comunidades de San

Juan, Santa Rosa, Santo Domingo, Unión Progreso y Villa Santiago. 2014. El
bosque SI tiene valor - el uso de palmeras en las comunidades campesinas e
indígenas de la región de Inambari, Madre de Dios, Perú. Ethnobotany Research
and Applications 13(3): 1-81.
293
fueron reportados por las 89 personas
que entrevistamos en la comunidad
Ese Eja de Palma Real (Madre de
Dios, Perú), visitada en Marzo del
2011.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N., R.W. Bussmann, M.J. Macía, editores. 2012. El
conocimiento de nuestros ancestros - los Ese Eja y su uso de palmeras, Madre de
Dios, Perú. Graficart, Trujillo, Perú.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, M.J. Macía, Comunidad Ese Eja de

Palma Real. 2014. El conocimientos de nuestros ancestros - los Ese Eja y su uso de
palmeras, Madre de Dios, Peru. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13(5): 1-
94.
294
palmeras y 294 usos diferentes, que
que entrevistamos en tres
comunidades de la Organización
Central de las Comunidades
Aguaruna del río Alto Marañón -
OCCAAM (Amazonas, Perú):
Yamayakat, Cuso Chico y Nueva
Samaria, visitadas en Octubre del
2011.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N., R.W. Bussmann, C. Vega, C. Téllez, M.J. Macía, editores.
2012. Kampanak se usa para el techo pero ya no hay - Uso y conservación de
palmeras entre los Awajun, Amazonas, Perú. Graficart, Trujillo, Perú.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, C. Vega, C. Téllez, M.J. Macía,

Comunidades Awajun de Cusu Chico, Nuevo Samaria y Yamayakat. 2014.
Kampanak se usa para el techo pero ya no hay - Uso y conservación de palmeras
entre los Awajun, Amazonas, Perú. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13(4):
1-100.
295
que entrevistamos en las comunidades
Llacuash de Wayku Lamas y
Aviación (San Martín, Perú), visitadas
en Octubre del 2011.
Publicado como:
Paniagua Zambrana, N., R.W. Bussmann, C. Vega, C. Téllez, M.J. Macía, editores.
2012. Nuestro conocimiento y uso de las palmeras - una herencia para nuestros
hijos. Comunidades Llaquash, San Martín, Perú. William L. Brown Center, MBG,
St. Louis Graficart, Trujillo, Perú.
Paniagua-Zambrana, N.Y., R.W. Bussmann, C. Vega, C. Téllez, M.J. Macía,

Comunidades de Aviación y Lamas Wayku. 2014. Nuestro conocimiento y uso de
las palmeras - una herencia para nuestros hijos. Comunidades Llaquash, San
Martín, Perú. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13(2): 1-105.
296
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Tesis Doctoral: Diversidad, patrones de uso y valoración socioeconómica de las

Thesis · February 2016

Narel Paniagua Zambrana

The ﬂora of the warriors of the clouds View project

Ethnobotany of Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded ﬁle.

Diversidad, patrones de uso y

Madrid, Noviembre 2015

Palabras clave: Arecaceae, biodiversidad cultural, bosques tropicales, conocimiento

Resumen y palabras clave 40

Abstract and keywords 70

Abstract and keywords 176

Abstract and keywords 214

Abstract and keywords 250

Conclusiones generales 280

Devolución de la información etnobotánica a las comunidades 289

Durante las últimas décadas, múltiples trabajos realizados en diferentes campos

La importancia y el valor del conocimiento tradicional

El conocimiento tradicional se ha definido como “el conocimiento, las innovaciones y

Patrones y tendencias observadas en relación al conocimiento tradicional y la

comunidades (Cámara-Leret et al. 2014a; 2014c; Paniagua et al. 2014).

estudios basados en revisiones sistemáticas y meta-análisis han sido utilizados para

Etnobotánica y los factores socioeconómicos que explican la variación y el

Género - Las diferencias en el conocimiento de hombres y mujeres han sido

Etnicidad / Contexto cultural - Numerosos estudios han documentado la diferencia

Educación formal - La adquisición de educación escolarizada ha sido relacionada con

Idioma – El uso de la lengua local tiene una importancia crucial en la preservación

ya sea intergeneracional o intercultural, permitiéndoles de esta manera la adquisición

Migración / Lugar de nacimiento - A menudo se ha considerado que las poblaciones

Integración en las economías de mercado - El grado de acceso a los mercados, las

externos conduce solamente a una extracción de recursos especializada en ciertos

Accesibilidad a los mercados / Riqueza material - La mayor distancia a los mercados

productos forestales maderables y no maderables, se ha observado que el mercado

Procesos de cambios ecológicos y degradación del hábitat - La pérdida de los

ÁREA DE ESTUDIO: LA REGIÓN NOROESTE DE SUDAMÉRICA

Estos ecosistemas han proporcionado a los habitantes locales, indígenas, mestizos y

LAS PALMERAS COMO GRUPO MODELO DE ESTUDIO

La importancia etnobotánica de las palmeras (Arecaceae) en comparación con otras

DATOS EMPLEADOS EN LA TESIS DOCTORAL

País Ecorregión Comunidad Grupo humano / Etnia No.

Tabla 1.1: continuación

País Ecorregión Comunidad Grupo humano / Etnia No.

ESTRUCTURA Y OBJETIVOS DE LA TESIS DOCTORAL

Esta Tesis Doctoral es un compendio de manuscritos, escritos en formato de artículos,

Capítulo 1: Introducción general a la Tesis Doctoral

Capítulo 2: Protocolo para la toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables

Todos Total 140 2262 87.886 2201 68

Figura 1.2: Algunas de las comunidades donde se realizaron las entrevistas

Capítulo 3: Patterns of medicinal use of palms across northwestern South America.

Capítulo 4: The influence of socioeconomic factors on traditional knowledge: a cross

Capítulo 5: Understanding transmission of traditional knowledge across

cuál es único (exclusivo de un rango de edad). Este capítulo se encuentra en revisión

Capítulo 7: Conclusiones generales de la memoria de Tesis Doctoral.

Albuquerque, U.P. 2009. Quantitative Ethnobotany or Quantification in Ethnobotany?

comparison of known palm uses among indigenous and folk communities of

Folia Amazonica 1(1):99–112.

ethnobotanical quantification of potential rain forest use by Mirañas in NW

C.V. Castilho, W.E. Magnusson, J.–F. Molino, A. Monteagudo, P. Nuñez–Vargas,

Toma de datos etnobotánicos de palmeras y variables

Este capítulo ha sido publicado como:

En este artículo se presenta el protocolo para la obtención de información

PALABRAS CLAVES: Arecaceae, etnobotánica cuantitativa, metodología,

N° familias: N° hombres () N° niños ()