Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Structures in Achitecture
Excerpts
G G Schierle, PhD, FAIA
Professor of Architecture
University of Southern California
ISBN 0181965097
To My Family
Units Prefixes
SI * units (metric) Conversion US units Prefix Factor
Remark factor ** Remark
Micro- 0.000001
Length
Millimeter mm 25.4 Inch in MIli-, m 0.00001
Centimeter cm 10 mm 30.48 Foot ft 12 in Centi- 0.01
Meter m 1000 mm 0.9144 Yard yd 3 ft Deci- 0.1
Kilometer km 1000 m 1.609 Mile mi 5280 ft Semi-, hemi-, demi- 0.5
Area Uni- 1
Square millimeter mm2 645.16 Square in in2 Bi-, di- 2
Sq. centimeter cm2 100 mm2 929 Square foot ft2 144 in2 Tri-, ter- 3
Square meter m2 1 Mil 0.835 Sq. yard yd2 9 ft2 Tetra-, tetr-, quadr- 4
Hectar ha 10000 m2 2.472 Acre Acre = 4840 yd2
Pent-, penta-, quintu- 5
Volume
Cubic millimeter mm3 16387 Cubic inch in3 Sex-, sexi-, hexi-, hexa-, 6
Cubic centimeter cm3 1 k mm3 28317 Cubic foot ft3 Hep-, septi-, 7
Cubic meter m3 1 Mil cm3 0.7646 Cubic yard yd3 Oct-, oct-, octa-, octo- 8
Liter l 0.001 m3 0.264 Gallon US gal = 3.785 liter Non-, nona- 9
Mass Dec-, deca-, deci, deka- 10
Gram g 28.35 Ounce oz Hect-, hector- 100
Kilogram kg 1000 g 0.4536 Pound Lb, # 16 oz Kilo-, k 1,000
Tonn t 1000 kg 0.4536 Kip k 1000 # Mega-, M 1,000,000
Force / load
Giga-, G 1,000,000,000
Newton N 4.448 Pound Lb, #
Kilo Newton kN 1000 N 4.448 Kip k 1000 #
Tera- 1,000,000,000,000
Newton/ meter N/m 14.59 Pound/ ft plf
Kilo Newton/ m kN/m 14.59 Kip/ ft klf 1000 plf
Stress
Pascal= N/m2 Pa 6895 Pound/ in2 psi
Kilo Pascal kPa 1000 Pa 6895 Kip / in2 ksi 1000
Fabric stress
Newton / m N/m 175 Pound/ in Lb/in Fabric
Load / soil pressure
Pascal Pa 1000 Pa 47.88 Pound/ ft2 psf
Moment
Newton-meter N-m 1.356 Pound-foot Lb-ft, #’
Kilo Newton-m kN-m 1000 N- 1.356 Kip-foot k-ft, k’ 1000#’
Temperature
Celcius °C .55(F-32) Fahrenheit °F
Water freezing 0°C = 32°F
Water boiling 100°C = 212°F
* SI = System International (French - designation for metric system)
** Multiplying US units with conversion factor = SI units
Dividing SI units by conversion factor = US units
5 Strength Stiffness Stability
Contents 5-2 Force types
PART I: BACKGROUND 5-3 Force vs. stress
1 Historic Evolution 5-4 Allowable stress
1-2 Walls 5-5 Axial stress
1-6 Post-and-beam 5-6 Shear stress
1-10 Arch, Vault, Dome 5-8 Torsion
1-21 Suspended 5-9 Principal stress
1-24 Truss 5-10 Strain
1-26 Skyscraper 5-10 Hook’s law
5-11 Elastic Modulus
2 Loads 5-14 Thermal strain
2-2 Introduction 5-14 Thermal stress
6
2-2 Dead load 5-17 Stability
2-4
2-5
Live load
Seismic load 6
6-4
Bending
Bending and shear
0 - 2 0 0
9
2-6 Wind load
9
6-8 Equilibrium method
1
2-8 Tributary load and load path
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6-10 Area method
3 Basic Concepts 6-13 Indeterminate beams
3-2 Synergy, Strength, Stiffness, Stability
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6-14 Flexure formula
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3-3 Rupture length 6-15 Section modulus
3-4 Horizontal structures 6-16 Moment of inertia
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Slab, plate, deck (one & two-way) 6-18 Shear stress
Beam, arch and cable
Truss
r i g h t 6-22 Deflection
3-9
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Wall
Cantilever
Moment frame
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Vertical/lateral structures 7
7-3
7-3
7-4
7-5
Buckling
Euler formula
Slenderness ratio
Combined stress
Kern
Braced frame
7-6 Arch and vault
PART II: MECHANICS 7-7 Wood buckling
4 Statics 7-12 Steel buckling
4-2 Force and moment
4-3 Static equilibrium PART III: DESIGN METHODS
4-4 Supports 8 ASD, LRFD, Masonry and Concrete Design
4-5 Reactions 8-2 ASD (Allowable Stress Design)
4-10 Static determinacy 8-3 LRFD (Load Resistance Factor Design)
4-13 Vector analysis 8-4 Masonry design (ASD)
4-15 Truss analysis 8-10 Concrete strength design (LRFD)
4-17 Funicular
4-21 Vector reactions
9 Lateral Force Design 13 Form-Resistant
9-2 Design for wind 13-2 Funicular concepts
9-8 Seismic design 13-4 Arch
9-13 SD-graphs 13-10 Vault
9-15 Analysis steps 13-17 Dome
9-18 Vertical distribution 13-23 Grid shell
9-19 Horizontal diaphragms 13-29 HP shell
9-22 Eccentricity 13-37 Freeform shell
9-23 Hazard configurations
9-24 Stability issues 14 Tensile Resistant
9-27 Seismic safety items 14-1 Tension members
14-2 Prestress
10 Conceptual Design 14-3 Stayed structures
6
10-1 System selection 14-8 Propped structures
10-3
10-4
10-5
Global moment and shear
Radial pressure
Examples
14-10
14-17
14-21
Suspended structures
Cable truss
Anticlastic structures
0 - 2 0 0
10-7 Case studies 14-42
9
Pneumatic structures
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10-15 Portal method
10-17 Moment frame PART V: VERTICAL STRUCTURES
10-19 Braced frame
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10-21 Test models 15 General Background
10-23 Sample projects 15-2 Tall structures
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10-29 Computer aided design 15-3 Gravity load
r i g h t 15-4
15-7
Lateral load
Structure systems
11
11-1
11-3
11-5 Cop
Bending Resistant
Bending concepts
Beam optimization
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Joist, beam, girder
15-11
15-12
16
16-2
Floor framing
Beam-column interaction
Shear Resistant
Classic walls
11-11 Vierendeel 16-3 Seismic failures
11-17 Folded plate 16-4 Shear walls
11-22 Cylindrical shell 16-6 Shear wall stability
16-7 Wood shear walls
12 Axial Resistant 16-10 Shear wall reinforcing
12-2 Truss
Truss configurations 17 Bending Resistant
Prismatic truss 17-2 Cantilever
Folded truss 17-6 Moment frame
12-13 Space truss 17-13 Framed tube
12-22 Tree structures 17-16 Bundled tube
18 Axial Resistant 24 Cable and Fabric
18-2 Braced frame 24-1 Material
18-8 Belt truss and outrigger 24-2 Fabric
18-12 Braced tube 24-4 Cables
18-16 Eccentric braced frame 24-10 Projects
6
B-6 Parallel Axis Theorem
20
20-1
20-5
Wood
Material
Heavy timber
B-7
B-8
Radius of Gyration
Geometric properties
0 - 2 0 0
20-13 Grid structures
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Appendix C: Lateral Design Data
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Balloon framing C-2 Wind design data
Platform framing C-7 Seismic design data
20-29 Projects
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Appendix D: Material and Buckling Data
21 Steel D-2 Wood
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21-1 Material D-8 Steel
21-7
21-29
Heavy steel
Light gauge steel
22
22-1
22-7 C o p y
Projects
Masonry
Material
Brick masonry
E-2
E-3
Index
Span Ranges for Structure Elements
Span Ranges for Structure Systems
23 Concrete
23-1 Material
23-4 Reinforced concrete
23-17 Prestressed concrete
23-20 Precast concrete
23-24 Tilt-up concrete
23-26 Projects
Understanding loads on buildings is essential for structural design and a major factor to
2 define structural requirements. Load may be static, like furniture, dynamic like
earthquakes, or impact load like a car hitting a building. Load may also be man-made,
like equipment, or natural like snow or wind load. Although actual load is unpredictable,
design loads are usually based on statistical probability. Tributary load is the load
imposed on a structural element, like a beam or column, used to design the element. All
of these aspects are described in this chapter.
Loa d
- 2 0 0 6
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10 Dynamic load (cyclic loads, like earthquakes, wind gusts, etc.)
-
•
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Classification as DL and LL is due to the following considerations:
Seismic load is primarily defined by dead load
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• Dead load can be used to resist overturning under lateral load
•
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Long term DL can cause material fatigue
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•
DL deflection may be compensated by a camper (reversed deflection)
For some elements, such as beams that span more than two supports
partial load may be more critical than full load; thus DL is assumed on the
rig
Lateral load (load that acts horizontally) includes:
- 2 0 0
20
6 958
Metals
Aluminum 165 2.64
Built-up roof
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Clay / concrete tiles
9 0 7
13-20
335
622-959
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Cast iron 450 7.21 Metal 1-3 48-144
Steel 485
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Stainless steel 492-510 7.88-8.17 Single ply roof / fabric roof 1-2 48-06
Copper
rig
Lead 710 11.38 Steel floor constructions
Stone
C o p y
Granite / slate
Lime stone / marble
175
165
2.81
2.64
Steel deck / concrete slab, 6” (15 mm)
Suspended ceiling
Floor finish
40-60
2
2
1915-2873
96
96
Sandstone 150 2.40 Steel framing (varies with height) 10-40 479-1915
Wood Partitions (required by code) 20 958
Cedar 22 0.35 Total 94 - 124 3543-5458
Douglas fir 34 0.55 Wood platform framing
Oak 47 0.75 Wood platform framing + floor / ceiling 14 670
Pine, white 25 0.40 Light-weight concrete option 14 670
Redwood 28 0.45 Total (with and without concrete) 14 - 28 1341
Hospitals
Private
Wards and rooms
50
40
2.39
1.92
A = tributary area in square foot (m2)
D = dead load
- 2 0 0 6
0
L = Unreduced live load per square foot (m2)
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Reading room 60 2.87
Libraries
Stack room 125 5.99 Roof Load
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Light 75 3.59 Roof loads are defined by IBC
Manufacturing
Heavy 125
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5.99
• Wind load per IBC 1609
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• Snow load per IBC 1608
Offices 50 2.39 • Minimum roof loads:
Printing plants
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Press room 150 7.18 Roof type
Awnings and canopies
psf
5
Pa
240
rig
Composing, etc. 100 4.79
Green houses 10 479
o p
Residential
C y
Reviewing stands, etc..
Basic floor area
Exterior balconies
40
60
100
1.92
2.87
4.79
Landscaped roofs (soil + landscaping as DL)
General flat, pitched, and curved roofs
Lr = 20R1 / R2
where
20
Lr
958
Lr
- 2 0 0 6
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Base shear is dampened by ductility, a structure’s capacity to absorb energy through
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elastic deformation. Ductile structures deform much like flowers in the wind, yet brittle
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(non-ductile) structures sustain greater inertia forces. Steel moment resisting frames are
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ductile, though some shear walls are brittle. In earthquake prone areas seismic base
i g h t G •
•
~ 10 % for low-rise ductile moment frames
~ 15 % for plywood shear walls
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Seismic design objectives:
• Minimize mass
• Maximize ductility
1. Fault rupture / wave propagation
(predominant vertical above rupture, lateral at distance)
2 Lateral slip fault
3 Thrust fault
4 Building overturning
5 Base shear
6 Bending deformation (first mode)
7 Bending deformation (higher mode)
E Epicenter (earthquake source above ground)
H Hyper center (actual earthquake source under ground)
- 2 0 0 6
[1 ft = 0.305 m]
The actual wind pressure P is the velocity pressure q multiplied by adjustment factors
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based on empirical data from wind tunnel tests, tabulated in code tables. The factors
account for type of exposure, orientation, and peak pressure along edges, roof ridge, and
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method of analysis. IBC defines three exposures and two methods:
c h
•
•
i Exposure B
Exposure C
(sites protected by buildings or a forest)
(open sites outside cities)
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• Exposure D (sites near an ocean or large lake)
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• Method 1: Normal force method
y
Depending on location, height, and exposure, method 2 pressures range from 10-110 psf
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(0.5 to 5 kPa). This is further described in Lateral Force Design
Design objectives for wind load:
• Maximize mass to resist uplift
• Maximize stiffness to reduce drift
1 Wind load on gabled building (left pressure, right suction)
2 Wind load on dome or vault (left pressure, right suction)
3 Buildings within cities are protected by other buildings
4 Tall building exposed to full wind pressure
5 Wind on wide façade is more critical than on narrow facade
6 Building forms increase wind speed
6
1 Simple beam / 2 columns
Assume
Uniform beam load w = 200 plf
0 - 2 0 0
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Beam span L = 30’
Find
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Load path: beam / column
Tributary load: Reactions at columns A and B
c h i Ra = Rb = R = w L/2
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R = 200x30/2 = 3000#
Convert pounds to kip
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R = 3000#/1000 R = 3.0 k
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Rc = 150 (30/2+0.5) (25) Rc = 58,125 #
2
Rd = 150 (30/2+0.5) (25/2+0.5)
Three-story concrete structure
0 - 2 0 0 Rd = 30,225 #
Assume
1
Roof DL
9 130 psf
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Roof LL 20 psf
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Roof Σ 150 psf
GS c h Floor DL
Floor LL
150 psf
50 psf
(includes columns, etc.)
(Office)
r
Columns, 2’x2’ (t =2’, t/2 =1’)
6
Tributary loads:
Uniform joist load
wj = w e = 80 psf x 2’
0-2 0 0
Beam load (assume uniform load due to narrow joist spacing)
wj = 160 plf
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wb = 80 psf L1/2 = 80 psf x 12’ /2
1
wb = 480 plf
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Column reaction
Ra = wb L2 / 2 = 480 plf x 10 /2 Ra = 2,400 #
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Rb = wb (L2+L3)/2 = 480 (10+20) / 2 Rb = 7,200 #
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Rc = wb L3 / 2 = 480 x 20 / 2 Rc = 4,800 #
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LL = 40 psf (apartment LL)
Σ = 140 psf
8” CMU wall, 10’ high at 80 psf
0 - 2 0 0
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(CMU = Concrete Masonry Units)
1
(8” nominal = 7 5/8” = 7.625” actual)
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Concrete footing 2’ x 1’at 150 pcf
i
nalyze a 1 ft wide strip (1 meter in SI units)
GS c hSlab load
w = 140psf x 20 / 2 w = 1400 #
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CMU wall load
P = 2500 #
6
w = 50 psf x 18’/2 w = 450 plf
3 Concrete slab / beam / wall
0 - 2 0 0
Concrete slab t = 5”, span L =10’, beam span L = 30’
LL =
DL =
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20 psf
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70 psf (assume beam DL lumped with slab DL)
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Σ = 90 psf
i
Beam load w = 90 psf x10’ / 1000 w = 0.9 klf
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Wall reaction R = 0.9 klf x 30’ / 2
Concrete slab on metal deck / joist/ beam
Spans: deck L = 8’, joist L = 20’, beam L=40’
R = 13.5 k
i g h t G LL =
DL =
40 psf
60 psf (assume joist and beam DL lumped with slab DL)
y r Σ = 100 psf
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Joist load w = 100 psf x 8’ / 1000 w = 0.8 klf
Beam point loads P = 0.8 klf x 20’ P = 16 k
Wall reaction R = 4 P /2 = 4 x 16 k / 2 R = 32 k
Note: wall requires pilaster to support beams
5 Concrete slab on metal deck / joist/ beam / girder
Spans: deck L = 5’, joist L = 20’, beam L=40’, girder L = 60’
LL = 50 psf
DL = 50 psf (assume joist/beam/girder DL lumped with slab DL)
Σ =100 psf
Uniform joist load w = 100 psf x 5’/1000 w = 0.5 klf
Beam point loads P = 0.5 klf x 20’ P = 10 k
Girder point loads P = 7 x 10 k/2 P = 35 k
Column reaction R = (100 psf/1000) x 40’ x 60’/4 R = 60 k
6
Load path
Wind wall > diaphragms > shear walls > footings
0 - 2 0 0
9
Note:
9
Floor and roof diaphragms act like beams to transfer load from wind wall to shear wall
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Tributary loads
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Roof diaphragm
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V3 = 20 psf x 100’ x 5’/1000 V3 = 10 k
Level 2 diaphragm
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V2 = 20 psf x 100’ x 10’/1000 V2 = 20 k
C o p y Shear walls
Level 2 shear walls
V2 = 10 k / 2
Level 1 shear wall
V2 = 5 k
V = (10 k + 20) k / 2 V1 = 15 k
Level 0 shear walls
V0 = (10 k + 20 k + 20) k / 2 V0 = 25 k
Note:
• Floor and roof diaphragms resist half the load from above and below
• Floor and roof diaphragms transfer load from wind wall to shear walls
• The 2 shear walls resist each half of the diaphragm load from above
- 2 0 0 6
0
o Lateral load
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Comparing beams of wooden boards, b = 12” wide and d = 1”deep, each. Stiffness is
1 board, I = 12x13/12
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10 boards I = 10 (12x13/12)
9 0 I=1
I = 10
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10 boards glued, I = 12x103/12 I = 1000
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Strength is defined by the Section modulus, S = I / (d/2)
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1 board, S = 1/o.5 S=2
G
10 boards, S = 10/0.5 S = 20
Copy Note:
The same amount of material is 100 times stiffer and 10 times stronger when glued
together to transfer shear and thereby engage top and bottom fibers in compression and
tension (a system, greater than the sum of its parts). On a philosophical level, structures
can strengthen architectural design as shown on the example of an auditorium:
• Architecturally, columns define the circulation
• Structurally, column location reduces bending in roof beams over 500% !
R=F/λ
R = rupture length
F = breaking strength
λ = specific gravity (self weight)
0 0 6
Rupture length, is of particular importance for long-span structures. The depth of
- 2
horizontal span members increases with span. Consequently the weight also increases
1 9 9 0
with span. Therefore the capacity of material to span depends on both its strength and
weight. This is why lightweight material, such as glass fiber fabrics are good for long-
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span structures. For some material, a thin line extends the rupture length to account for
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different material grades.
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The graph data is partly based on a study of the Light weight Structures Institute,
University Stuttgart, Germany
6
9 Two way beams
10
11
Two way waffle slab
Deflection Δ for span length L1
0 - 2 0 0
9
12 Deflection Δ=16 due to double span L2 = 2 L1
Note:
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Deflection increases with the fourth power of span. Hence for double span deflection
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increase 16 times. Therefore two way systems over rectangular plan are ineffective
because elements that span the short way control deflection and consequently have to
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resist most load and elements that span the long way are very ineffective.
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11 12
2 0 6
Bottom chords elongate in tension under gravity load
0
Gable truss with top compression and bottom tension
-
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Prismatic trusses
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IBM Sport Center by Michael Hopkins
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(Prismatic trusses of triangular cross section provide rotational resistance)
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Space trusses
Square and triangular plan
Note:
Two way space trusses are most effective if the spans in the principle directions are
about equal, as described for two-way slabs above. The base modules of trusses should
be compatible with plan configuration (square, triangular, etc.)
2
Funicular tension polygon under point loads
- 0 0
Funicular compression trapezoid under twin loads
6
0
6 Funicular compression polygon under point load
7
8
9 9
Funicular tension parabola under uniform load
1
Funicular compression parabola under uniform load
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Exhibit hall Hanover by Thomas Herzog
- 2 0 0 6
0
7 Braced frame under gravity load
9
9
Braced frame under lateral load
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B Steel moment resistant joint
0 - 2 0 0
(stiffener plates between column flanges resist beam flange stress)
1 9 9
Vertical / lateral element selection criteria
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Element Advantages Challenges
Shear wall Good for Inflexible for future changes
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Stiffness increases seismic
Structural criteria Very stiff, good for forces
i g h t G Cantilever
wind resistance
Flexible planning Must remain in future
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Architectural criteria Around cantilever changes
Moment frame
Ductile, much like a tree
trunk
Most flexible, good for
Too flexible for tall
structures
Expensive, drift may cause
Architectural criteria office buildings problems
0 6
Two-wythe brick shear wall with steel reinforcing
- 2 0
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Portal with pin joints collapses under lateral load
Portal with moment joints at base under lateral load
-
0
3 Portal with moment beam/column joints under gravity load
4
5
9 9
Portal with moment beam/column joints under lateral load
1
Portal with all moment joints under gravity load
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6 Portal with all moment joints under lateral load
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7
8
i High-rise moment frame under gravity load
Moment frame building under lateral load
h t G GS I
Note:
Inflection points (zero bending between negative and positive bending
Co
2 0
A-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
- 0 6
Single diagonal portal under gravity and lateral loads
0
3 V-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
4
5
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X-braced portal under gravity and lateral load
1
Braced frame building without and with lateral load
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Note:
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Deformations and forces reverse under reversed load
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2 0 0 6
bodies in equilibrium. Since buildings are typically designed to be at rest (in equilibrium),
the subject of this book is primarily focused on statics. Even though loads like
-
0
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of a system of material earthquakes are dynamic they are usually treated as equivalent static forces.
particles under the influence of forces. Dynamic equilibrium, also known as kinetic
equilibrium, is the condition of a mechanical system when the kinetic reaction of all forces
1 9 9
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acting on it is in dynamic equilibrium.
c h i
Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with forces and force systems that act on
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bodies in equilibrium as described in the following.
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#’ (pound-feet), k’ (kip-feet), #” (pound-inch), k” (kip-inch)
N-m (Newton-meter), kN-m (kilo-Newton-meter)
9
Gravity force (compresses the pyramid)
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2 Pulling force (moves the boulder)
3 Moment = force times lever arm (M = P L)
c hA
i Point about which the force rotates
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L Lever arm
M Moment
i g h t G P Force
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- 2 0 6
Vertical equilibrium: pushing up with a force equal to a weight,
0
3
9 0
Moment equilibrium: balancing both sides of a balance board,
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mathematically defined as:
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Σ M = 0 = – 50# (8’) + 200# (2’) = - 400 + 400 = 0
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Much of this book is based on the three equilibrium equations.
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6
reactions, one horizontal and two vertical. In bridge structures such supports are quite
- 2 0 0
common. To simplify analysis, in building structures this type of support may be
assumed, since supporting walls or columns usually are flexible enough to simulate the
0
9
same behavior as one pin and one roller support. The diagrams at left show for each
1 9
support on top the physical conditions and below the symbolic abstraction.
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1 Beam with fixed supports at both ends subject to bending and tension
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2
3
i Simple beam with one pin and one roller support subject to bending only
Beam with flexible supports, behaves like a simple beam
h t G GS Simple beams, supported by one pin and one roller, are very common and easy to
analyze. Designations of roller- and pin supports are used to describe the structural
g
behavior assumed for analysis, but do not always reflect the actual physical support. For
y r i example, a pin support is not an actual pin but a support that resists horizontal and
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vertical movement but allows rotation. Roller supports may consist of Teflon or similar
material of low friction that allows horizontal movement like a roller.
Support types
Degrees of freedom
Support type Horizontal Vertical Rotation
movement movement
1 Roller Free Fixed Free
2 Pin Fixed Fixed Free
3 Rigid Fixed Fixed Fixed
- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
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2.
M = P L = 400 x 6
Flag pole
- 2 0 0 6 M =2,400 #’
Assume:
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H = 80# (wind load on flag)
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L = 20’
ΣH=0→+
c h i W–H=0
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H=W H = 80 #
ΣM=0+
i g h t G WL+M=0
M = - W L = - 80 x 20 M = -1,600 #’
y r Note:
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The negative moment implies, the positive moment arrow must be reversed
3 Tow truck
Assume:
P = 2k, C = 7’, L = 10’
Σ Ma = 0 +
Rb L - P C = 0
Rb = P C / L = 2 x 7 / 10 Rb = 1.4k
Σ Mb = 0 +
Ra L - P (C+L) = 0
Ra = P (C+L) /L = 2 (7+10) / 10 Ra = +3.4k
a b Check Σ V = 0
Σ V = 0 = +3.4 –1.4 –2 ΣV = 0
Note:
The lever arm is always perpendicular to load
Ra Rb Rb pointing downward is provided by the truck weight
1 Floor framing
2 Abstract beam diagram
Assume:
DL = 10 psf
LL = 20 psf
Σ = 30 psf
- 2 0 0 6 w = 60 plf
0
For convenience, substitute total beam load W for uniform load w at its centroid
9
Total beam load
1 9
W = w L = 60 (12+4) W = 960 #
i erle
Support reactions:
GS c hΣ M b = 0 +
12 Ra – 4 W = 0
Ra = 4 x 960 / 12 Ra = 320 #
i g h t G Σ Ma = 0 +
8 W – 12 Rb= 0
y r 12 Rb = 8 x 960
Cop
Rb = 8 x 960 / 12 Rb = 640 #
Check Σ V = 0 ↑+
W=960
- 2 0 0 6
Assume: P = 2k
1
ΣMb=0+
9 9 0
erle
12 Ra - 2x16 - 2x12 - 2x8 - 2x4 = 0
i
Ra = (32 + 24 + 16 + 8) / 12 Ra = 6.67 k
GS c h Σ Ma = 0 +
-12 Rb - 2x4 + 2x4 + 2x8 + 2x12 = 0
Rb = (2 x 8 + 2 x 12) / 12 Rb = 3.33 k
h t G Check Σ V = 0 ↑+
rig
6.67 + 3.33 – 5 x 2 ΣV=0
6
Rb = 200 x 20 x 7 / 12 Rb = 2333 #
Σ M b = 0+
200 x 20 x 5 - 12Rc –0
0 - 2 0 0
9
Rc = 200 x 20 x 5 / 12 Rc = 1667 #
rle 1 9
Check Σ V = 0 ↑+
2333 + 1667 – 200 x 20 ΣV=0
S c h3
i e Twin beams (treat as 2 beams, due to separation pin joint at b)
Simple left beam: w1 = 100 plf, L1 = 10’
h t G G Ra = Rb = 100 x 10 /2
Right beam: w2 = 150 plf, C1 = 8’, L2 = 20’
Ra = Rb = 500 #
g
X1 = 6’, X2 = 14’, Pb = Rb = 500 #
y r i Σ M d = 0+
Cop
20 Rc – 150 x 28 x 14 –500 x 28 = 0
Rc = (150 x 28x 14 + 500 x 28) / 20 Rc = 3640 #
Σ M c = 0+
150 x 28 x 6 – 500 x 8 – 20 Rd = 0
Rd = (150 x 28 x 6 – 500 x 8) / 20 Rd = 1060 #
Check Σ V = 0 ↑+
3640 + 1060 – 150 x 28 - 500 ΣV=0
6
Beam determinacy
0 - 2 0 0
Given the three equations of statics, ΣH = 0, ΣV = 0, and ΣM = 0, static determinacy for
1 9
Unstable R<E
9
erle
• Determinate: R=E
• Indeterminate: R>E
ht G G A Unstable beams
i g
B Determinate beams
opy r C
D
Indeterminate beams
Roller support
C E
F
G
Note:
Alternate roller support
Pin support
Rigid support (moment resisting)
External determinacy is defined as for beams described above. For internal determinacy
- 2 0 0 6
the moment equation, ΣM=0, cannot be used since trusses have pin joints to be
statically determinate. Internal determinacy is defined as follows:
9 9 0
Each bar represents one unknown reaction and each joint has two equations for analysis,
ΣH=0, ΣV=0. The moment equation ΣM=0 cannot be used since determinate trusses
1
erle
have pin joints. Thus internal determinacy is defined as:
i
• Unstable: B+R<2J
GS c h•
•
Determinate:
Indeterminate:
B+R=2J
B+R>2J
i g h t G B = number bars
J = number of joints
Cop Note:
The degree of indeterminacy is computed as:
B + R – 2 J = degree of indeterminacy
0 6
Additional rigid joints makes a determinate frame indeterminate
- 2 0
0
A Unstable frames
B
9
Determinate frames
1 9
erle
C Indeterminate frames
D Roller support
c h
E
GS
F Pin support
G Fixed support (moment resistant)
G
H Pin joint
Copy
- 2 0 0 6
Two force vectors P1 and P2 acting on a body pull in a certain direction. The
resultant R is a force with the same results as P1 and P2 combined, pulling in the
9 0
same general direction. The resultant is found by drawing a force parallelogram [A]
9
or a force triangle [B]. Lines in the vector triangle must be parallel to corresponding
1
erle
lines in the vector plan [A]. The line of action of the resultant is at the intersection
of P1 / P2 in the vector plan [A]. Since most structures must be at rest it is more
c h i useful to find the equilibriant E that puts a set of forces in equilibrium [C]. The
GS
equilibriant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant. The
equilibriant closes a force triangle with all vectors connected head-to-tail. The line
G
of action of the equilibriant is also at the intersection of P1/P2 in the vector plan [A].
r i g h t 2 The equilibriant of three forces [D] is found, combining interim resultant R1-2 of
forces P1 and P2 with P3 [E]. This process may be repeated for any number of
Copy forces. The interim resultants help to clarify the process but are not required [F].
The line of action of the equilibriant is located at the intersection of all forces in the
vector plan [D]. Finding the equilibriant for any number of forces may be stated as
follows:
The equilibriant closes a force polygon with all forces connected head-to-tail,
and puts them in equilibrium in the force plan.
3 The equilibriant of forces without a common cross-point [G] is found in stages:
First the interim resultant R1-2 of P1 and P2 is found [H] and located at the
intersection of P1/P2 in the vector plan [G]. P3 is then combined with R1-2 to find
the equilibriant for all three forces, located at the intersection of R1-2 with P3 in the
vector plan. The process is repeated for any number of forces.
1 The component forces C1 and C2 in two cables supporting a load P are found by
drawing a force triangle [B] with corresponding lines parallel to the those in the
vector plan [A].
2 Forces in more than two cables supporting a load P are indeterminate [C] and
cannot be found by graphic vector method since there is infinite number of
solutions [D]. A problem with more than two unknown force components requires
consideration of relative cable stiffness (cross-section area, length, and stiffness).
6
Hence we can state:
0 - 0 0
Only two components can be found by graphic vector method
2
This example demonstrates graphic vector analysis: Forces are drawn on a vector
9 9
plan with line of action and direction [E]. The magnitude may be written on each
1
vector or the vector may be drawn at a force scale. A force polygon [F] is drawn
erle
next at a force scale, such as 1” = 1k. For good accuracy, the force scale should
i
be as large as space permits. The line of action of the equilibriant (or resultant) is
GS c h then transposed into the vector plan at the intersection of all force vectors [E].
i g h t G
y r
Cop
2 0 0 6
Draw polygons for each joint to find forces in connected bars. Closed polygons
with head-to-tail arrows are in equilibrium. Start with left joint ABHG. Draw a
-
0
vector parallel to bar BH through B in the polygon. H is along BH. Draw a vector
9 9
parallel to bar HG through G to find H at intersection BH-HG.
1
erle
E Measure the bar forces as vector length in the polygon.
c h
F
i Find bar tension and compression. Start with direction of load AB and follow
polygon ABHGA with head-to-tail arrows. Transpose arrows to respective bars in
GS
the truss next to the joint. Arrows pushing toward the joint are in compression;
G
arrows pulling away are in tension. Since the arrows reverse for adjacent joints,
r i g h t G
draw them only on the truss but not on the polygon.
Draw equilibrium arrows on opposite bar ends; then proceed to the next joint with
Copy 1
two unknown bar forces or less (3). Draw polygons for all joints (4), starting with
known loads or bars (for symmetrical trusses half analysis is needed).
Truss diagram
2 Force polygon for loads, reactions, and the first joint polygon
3 Truss with completed tension and compression arrows
4 Completed force polygon for left half of truss
5 Tabulated bar forces (- implies compression)
1 Truss diagram
- 2 0 0 6
0
2 Force polygon
3
9 9
Tabulated bar forces (+ implies tension, - compression)
1
erle
4 Deformed truss to visualize tension and compression bars
i
A Bar elongation causes tension
i g h t G
y r
Cop
Arch
Assume:
Arch span L = 150, arch spacing e = 20’
DL = 14 psf
LL = 16 psf
Σ = 30 psf
Uniform load
w = 30 psf x 20’ / 1000 w = 0.6 klf
Vertical reactions
R = w L /2 = 0.6 x 150 / 2
-2 0 0 6 R = 45 k
0
Draw vector polygon, starting with vertical reaction R
Horizontal reaction
e 1 9 9
Maximum arch force (diagonal vector parallel to arch tangent)
H = 56 k
F = 72 k
h
1
i e r l
Arch structure
c
2 Parabolic arch by graphic method
G G S Process:
Draw AB and AC (tangents of arch at supports)
t
Divide tangents AB and AC into equal segments
y r i g h 3
Lines connecting AB to AC define parabolic arch envelope
Arch profile
Cop
Process:
Define desired arch rise D (usually D = L/5)
Define point A at 2D above supports
AB and AC are tangents of parabolic arch at supports
Compute vertical reactions R = w L /2
4 Equilibrium vector polygon at supports (force scale: 1” = 50 k)
Process:
Draw vertical vector (reaction R)
Complete vector polygon (diagonal vector parallel to tangent)
Measure vectors (H = horizontal reaction, F = max. arch force)
Note:
The arch force varies from minimum at crown (equal to horizontal reaction), gradually
increasing with arch slope, to maximum at the supports.
Uniform load
w = 30 psf x 10’ / 1000 w = 0.3 klf
Total load
W = w L = 0.3 x 300 R = 90 k
Draw vector polygon, starting with total load W
Horizontal reaction H = 113 k
6
Vertical reactions
Left reactions
Right reaction
0 - 2 0 0 Rl = 26 k
Rr = 64 k
9
Cable tension
1 9
At left support Tl =115 k
erle
At right support (maximum) Tr = 129 k
c h1
i Cable roof structure
GS
2 Parabolic cable by graphic method
Process:
r
Lines connecting AB to AC define parabolic cable envelop
6
4 Arbitrary trial polygon with real pole at intersection of a and b
5
6
Corrected vector plan
Corrected vector polygon
0 - 2 0 0
9
Process:
1 9
Draw vectors AB, BC, etc. for all loads in trial polygon
erle
Select an arbitrary pole F’ in polygon
Draw polar vectors AF’, BF’, etc. for all loads in polygon
GS
Transpose trial closing line a’ from [plan to polygon to find q1
Transpose trial closing line b’ from plan to polygon to find q2
r
Transpose closing line a between supports from plan to q1 in polygon
Note:
The process is based on equilibrium at both supports and intersections of all loads with
the cable.
6
Transpose trial closing line b’ from plan to polygon to find q2
Define desired locations of right support
- 2 0 0
Define desired locations of arch rise at intersection of any load
0
9
Transpose closing line a between supports from plan to q1 in polygon
1 9
Transpose closing line b of arch rise from plan to q2 in polygon
erle
Intersection of closing lines a and b in polygon define correct pole G
Draw correct polar vectors AG, BG, etc. for all loads in polygon
GS
The corrected vectors will intersect with closing lines a and b in plan
Complete support equilibrium in polygon:
r
Measure vector lengths in force scale to complete the process
Copy Note:
The process is based on equilibrium at both supports and at all intersections of loads with
the arch.
2 0 0
Draw and measure equilibriant E to close polygon
- 6
Draw parallel polar vectors at intersection of respective load in plan
0
Draw equilibriant E at intersection of A-O and D-O in plan
Note:
1 9 9
erle
The equilibriant E puts vectors in equilibrium
S c h
3
i Vector plan for two reactions
G
4 Vector polygon for two reactions
G
Process:
y
Draw polar vectors A-O, B-O, etc. for all loads in polygon
St iffne ss
St a bilit y
- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
Type of forces
Force type Action Symbol Notation
Internal reaction
Tension Elongates +
arrows
Internal reaction
Compression Shortens -
arrows
Shear Sliding force Arrow couple Clockwise couple +
Bending
Elongates one side
shortens other side
Concave and
2 0
convex arcs
- 0 6 Concave arc +
Convex arc -
0
Torsion Twists Bar with arrows Right-hand-rule +
1 9 9
erle
1 Axial force (tension and compression)
2 Shear
c h
3
i Bending
GS
4 Torsion
5 Force actions
G
6 Symbols and notations
rig h t A Tension
C o p y B
C
D
E
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion
2 0 0 6
Stress can be compared to allowable stress for any material, expressed as:
-
0
F≥f (Allowable stress must be equal or greater than actual stress)
where
1 9 9
erle
F = allowable stress
f = actual stress
c h i
The type of stress is usually defined by subscript:
GS
Fa, fa (axial stress, capital F = allowable stress)
Fb, fb (bending stress, capital F = allowable stress)
rig
The following examples of axial stress demonstrate force and stress relations:
6
compression (Fc), tension (Ft), shear (Fv); and elastic modulus (E)
0
deformation. Elastic deformation allows the material to return to its unstressed length
0
Steel grade Fy Fu Fb Fc Ft Fv E ksi
2
after the load is removed; by contrast plastic deformation is permanent.
-
ASTM A36 36 58-80 22 22 14.5 29,000 ksi
Factor of safety accounts for uncertainty regarding consistency of material quality, type
of stress (tension, compression, shear, bending) and actual load conditions. The factor
ASTM A572
1 9
248
50
400-550
65
9
150
30
0 150
30
100
20
200,000
29,000
MPa
ksi
erle
345 450 210 210 140 200,000 MPa
of safety is defined differently for different materials. For example, for steel the factor of Masonry
i
safety is based on yield strength, for concrete on the specified compressive strength
h
Allowable compressive stress Fa, for masonry with special inspection is 25% of
c
(breaking strength). The tables at left give some typical allowable stresses.
GS
specified strength ƒ’m by the working stress method; reduced for slenderness. Specified
Compressive strength ƒ’m is based on compressive strength of masonry units and
G
mortars type M, S, N.
r i g h t Type
Unit strength 1.9
Concrete masonry (ksi)
2.8 3.75 4.8
Clay brick masonry
4 6 8 10 12 14
(ksi)
Cop y ƒ’m (M or S)
ƒ’m (N)
Type
Unit strength
1.5 2
1.35 1.85 2.35
2.5 3
2.8 1.6
2
41
2.7
55
4
3.3
69
4.7 5.3
3.8 4.4
(MPa)
83 97
ƒ’m (M or S) 10 14 17 21 14 19 23 28 32 37
ƒ’m (N) 9 13 16 19 11 15 19 23 26 30
Concrete
By working stress method, allowable stresses are based on compressive strength ƒ‘c.
Typical compressive strengths range from 2 to 6 ksi (14 to 41 MPa)
Allowable compressive stress 0.40 ƒ‘c
Allowable compressive bending stress 0.45 ƒ‘c
Allowable shear stress without reinforcing: beam 1.1 ƒ‘c1/2
joist 1.2 ƒ‘c1/2
footing & slab on grade 2.0 ƒ‘c1/2
Note: For concrete strength design method see chapter 8.
- 2 0 0 6 use φ = 5/8”
0
2 Suspension hanger analysis (Hong Kong-Shanghai bank)
9 9
Assume: load per floor P=227 k, Fa=30 ksi, level 1 A = 12 in2. level 6 A = 75 in2
1
erle
Hanger stress
Level 1: fa = P / A = 227 / 12 fa = 19 ksi < 30
GS
3 Post/footing analysis
Assume: P = 12,000 #, 3’x3’x2’ footing at 150 pcf, 4x4 post (3.5”x3.5” actual)
G
Allowable post stress Fa = 1000 psi, allowable soil pressure Fs = 2000 psf
r i g h t Post stress
P/A = 12,000 # / (3.5”x 3.5”) fa = 980 psi < 1000
Copy 4
Soil pressure
fs = P/A = (12,000 # + 3’x3’x2’x150 pcf)/ (3’x3’)
Slab/wall/footing, analyze a 1’ wide strip
fs = 1633 psf < 2000
Assume: allowable wall stress Fa = 360 psi; allowable soil pressure Fs=1500 psf
Concrete slab, t =8” thick, L = 20’ span
CMU wall, h =10’, DL = 80 psf, t = 8” nominal (7 5/8” = 7.625” actual)
Slab load
100 psf DL+ 40 psf LL DL+LL =140 psf
Load at wall base
P = 140psf (20’/2) + 80 psf (10’) P = 2,200 #
Wall stress
fa = P / A = 2200 # / (12”x7.625”) fa = 24 psi < 360
Load on soil
P = 2200 + 150 pcf x 2’ x 1’ P = 2,500 #
Soil pressure
fs = 2,500 # / (1’ x2’) fs = 1250 psf < 1500
1 Single shear
Assume: P = 3 k = 3000 #, 2”x4” wood bars with ½” bolt of Fv = 20 ksi
Shear area (bolt cross section)
A = π r2 = π (0.5/2)2 A = 0.2 in2
Shear stress fv = P / A = 3/ 0.2
- 2 0 0 6 fv = 15 ksi < 20
0
2 Check end block (A)
1 9
End block shear area A = 2x 2” x 6”
9
Assume: Block length 6”, wood Fv = 95 psi, all other as above
A =24 in2
erle
Shear stress fv = P / A = 3000# / 24 fv =125 psi > 95
i
NOT ok
G
3 Double shear
t
Assume: P = 22 k, 2 5/8” bolts of Fv = 20 ksi
6 Shear wall
Assume: P = 20 k, 8” CMU wall, t = 7.625”, L = 8’, Fv = 30 psi
Shear area A = 7.625” x 12” x 8 ‘ A =732 in2
Shear stress fv = P / A = 20,000 # / 732 fv = 27 psi < 30
6
4 Combined shear vectors at each corner yield diagonal vectors
- 2 0 0
The diagonal vectors yield compression in one direction
The diagonal vectors yield tension in the opposite direction
0
9
The tension generates cracks
1 9
erle
5 Reversed earthquake shaking generates cracks in opposite direction
c h6
i Typical X-cracks caused by earthquakes
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
1 Door handle
Assume: P = 10 #, e = 3”
Torsion moment M
M = P e = 10 x 3 M = 30 #’
- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
h t G GS
rig
2 Tuck-under parking
y
Assume: Shear e =10’, base shear V = 12 k
C o p Torsion moment M
M = V e = 12 k x 10’ M = 120 k’
Note:
The torsion moment is the product of base shear v and lever arm e, the distance from
center of mass to center of resistance (rear shear wall).
In the past, torsion of tuck-under parking was assumed to be resisted by cross shear
walls. However, since the Northridge Earthquake of 1994 where several buildings with
tuck-under parking collapsed, such buildings are designed with moment resistant
beam/column joints at the open rear side.
Isostatic lines
Isostatic lines define the directions of principal stress to visualize the stress trajectories in
6
beams and other elements. Isostatic lines can be defined by experimentally by photo-
0 - 2 0
elastic model simulation or graphically by Mohr’s circle.
0
9
1 Simple beam with a square marked for investigation
9
2 Free-body of square marked on beam with shear stress arrows
3
4
erle 1
Free-body square with shear arrows divided into pairs of equal effect
Free-body square with principal stress arrows (resultant shear stress vectors)
c h
5
GS
6 Beam with isostatic lines (thick compression lines and thin tension lines)
G
Note:
r i g h t Under gravity load beam shear increases from zero at mid-span to maximum at supports.
Beam compression and tension, caused by bending stress, increase from zero at both
Copy supports to maximum at mid-span. The isostatic lines reflect this stress pattern; vertical
orientation dominated by shear at both supports and horizontal orientation dominated by
normal stress at mid-span. Isostaic lines appear as approximate tension “cables” and
compression “arches”.
Hooke’s law
Material expands and contracts under tension and compression, respectively. The
stress/strain relationship, called Hooke’s law after the English scientist Robert Hooke,
who discovered it in the 17th century, has since been confirmed by many empirical tests.
The Hooke’s law assumes isotropic material (equal properties in any direction). The
stress/strain relation is visualized here by a spring, as substitute for rods as used in
testing machines, to amplify the deformation.
1 Elongation due to tension
6
2 Shortening due to compression
3
L
Stress / strain graph
Unstressed length
0 - 2 0 0
9
ΔL Strain (elongation or shortening under load)
P
1 9
Applied load
erle
ε Unit strain Epsilon (ε = ΔL/L)
Elastic modulus E = f / εf
i
E Stress f = P / A
i g h t G
y r
Cop
6
also called yield point. Materials which deform much and absorb energy before breaking
- 2 0 0
are considered ductile; materials which break abruptly are considered brittle. Mild steel is
considered a ductile material; concrete is usually brittle.
0
1
2
9
Test loads 1 to 5 kip
1 9
Stress-strain graph (horizontal axis = strain, vertical axis = stress)
erle
3 Linear material (linear stress/strain relation
c h
4
5
i Non-linear material (non-linear stress /strain relation)
Elastic material (returns to original size if unloaded, like rubber)
GS
6 Plastic material (remains permanently deformed like clay)
G
7 Brittle material (breaks abruptly)
Elastic modulus
Copy E
f
ε
S
E = f / ε = Elastic Modulus (defines material stiffness)
Stress
Unit strain (ε = ΔL/L)
Permanent set (remaining strain after stress is removed)
Creep
Creep is a time dependent strain, most critical in concrete where it is caused by moisture
squeezed from pores under stress. Creep tends to diminish with time. Concrete creep
may exceed elastic strain several times, as demonstrated by Case Study 9 of Northridge
Earthquake failures (Schierle, 2002). Yet much research is needed to provide design
data and guidelines regarding creep.
- 2 0 0 6
Elastic modulus
9 9 0
The elastic modulus E, also called modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus Y, after
1
erle
English scientist Young, who defined it 1807. The term elastic modulus is actually a
misnomer since it defines stiffness, the opposite of elasticity.
c h i
Note:
GS
Since E=f/ε and ε is a ratio without units, the elastic modulus has the same units as
stress
r
2 Creep deformation (C = creep, T = time)
Co p y 3
4
5
Elastic / plastic stress / strain curve (E = elastic range, P = plastic range)
Abstract steel graph (A = proportional limit, B = elastic limit, C = yield point,
CD = yield plateau, E = ultimate strength, F = breaking point)
Mild steel stress / strain curve
6 High strength steel stress / strain curve
7 Concrete stress / strain curve (compressive strengths: A=9 ksi, B=4 ksi, C=3 ksi)
8 Stress / strain of linearly elastic wood
Allowable stress vs. elastic modulus (typically about 1:1000 ratio)
Material Allowable stress (psi) Elastic modulus (psi)
Wood 1,400 1,400,000
Steel 30,000 30,000,000
Masonry 1,500 1,500,000
Concrete 3,000 3,000,000
6
Elongation under load
ΔL = PL / AE
ΔL = 8k x 800” x 12” / (0.47x16000)
0 - 2 0 0 ΔL = 10”
1 9
Suspended building
9
erle
3 Differential strain
i
Assume
Cop
Column strain
ΔL = 18ksi x 1680” / 29000 ΔL = 1”
Strand strain
ΔL = 60ksi x 1680” / 22000 ΔL = 4.6”
Differential settlement ΔL = 5.6”
Thermal stress
- 2 0 0 6
Thermal stress is caused when thermal strain is prevented by restrains.
3
4
Bar of initial length L
1 9
Elongation ΔL due to heat
9 0
erle
5 Heated bar reduced to initial length by load P
6 Restrained bar under stress
c h i
Thermal stress derivation:
GS
Since ΔL = PL / AE and f = P/A
ΔL = f L / E → f = E ΔL/L
i g h t G ΔL = α Δt L → f = E α Δt L/L
f = α Δt E
y r
Cop
where
f = thermal stress
E = elastic modulus
- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
2 0 0
Note: 106 and 10-6 cancel out and can be ignored
- 6 f = 13,000 psi
1 9 9 0
13,000 psi is too much stress for aluminum
High-rise building, differential expansion
erle
Assume:
i
Steel columns exposed to outside temperature
ig h t G Differential expansion
r
ΔL = α Δt L = 6.5 x 10-6 x 50 o x 840’ x 12” ΔL = 3.3”
Co p y 3
Note: the differential expansion would cause bending stress
Masonry expansion joints
(masonry expansion joints should be at maximum L = 100’)
Assume
Temperature variation Δt = 70o F
Joint spacing L=100’ x 12” L = 1200”
Thermal coefficient α = 4x10-6/oF
E-modulus E = 1.5x106 psi
Required joint width
L ΔL = α Δt L = (4 x 10-6) 70o (1200”) ΔL = 0.34”
Use 3/8” expansion joint 0.375 > 0.34
Check thermal stress without expansion joint
f = α Δt E
f = 4x10-6 x 70o x 1.5x106 f = 280psi
Diagrams 1-3 give a theoretical definition; all the other diagrams illustrate stability of
conceptual structures.
1
2
Unstable
Neutral
- 2 0 0 6
0
3 Stable
4
9 9
Weak stability: high center of gravity, narrow base
1
erle
5 Strong stability: low center of gravity, broad base
6 Unstable post and beam portal
c h
7
GS
8 Unstable T-frame with pin joint at base
9 Stable twin T-frames
i g h t G
y r
Cop
6
Stabilizing moment Ms = P B/2 = 8100 x90/2 Ms = 364,500 k’
Check stability (MS > Mo ?)
9
1 Building with cantilever core
rle 1 9
Assume: 20 stories, 90’x90’, B = 300’, h = 300
Wind force F = 70 psf x 90 x 300/1000 F = 1,890 k
e
Overturning moment Mo = F h/2 = 1890x300/2 Mo = 283,500 k’
G
Check stability (MS > Mo ?) 121,500 < 283,500
r
3 Pyramid
4 Inverted Pyramid
Assume: 9 stories, h = 108’, B = 12’ F = 750 k
P Dead load P = 4800 k
Overturn moment Mo = F 2/3 h = 750 x 2/3 x 108 54,000 k’
Stabilizing moment Ms = P B / 2 = 4800 x 12 / 2 Ms = 28,800 k’
Check stability (MS > Mo) 28,800 < 54,000
Inverted pyramid is unstable without tension piles or large footing
6
column slenderness.
- 2 0 0
Slender column buckles in direction of least dimension
0
9
2 Square column resist buckling equally in both directions
3
9
Blocking resists buckling about least dimension
1
erle
4 Long and slender wood joist subject to buckling
5 blocking resists buckling of wood joist
c h
6
GS
7 Stiffener plates resist web buckling
G
A Blocking of wood stud
r i g h t B
C
Blocking of wood joist
Stiffener plate welded to web
Copy P Load
2 0 0 6
tension. Most beams are also subject to shear, a sliding force, that acts both horizontally
and vertically. Because beams and other bending elements are very common, the beam
-
0
theory is important in structural design and analysis.
1 9 9
As for other structural elements, beam investigation may involve analysis or design;
erle
analysis, if a given beam is defined by architectural or other factors; design, if beam
dimensions must be determined to support applied loads within allowable stress and
c h i
deflection. Both, analysis and design require finding the tributary load, reactions, shear,
GS
and bending moment. In addition, analysis requires to find deflections, shear- and
bending stress, and verify if they meet allowable limits; by contrast design requires sizing
G
the beam, usually starting with an estimated size.
rig h t The following notations are commonly used for bending and shear stress:
y
fb= actual bending stress Fb= allowable bending stress
The more complex design and analysis of concrete and masonry will be introduces-later.
2 0 0 6
Moment frame resists gravity and lateral load in bending
Vierendeel girder (named after the Belgian inventor of it)
-
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
6
continuous beams are statically indeterminate, since they have more than three unknown
reactions.
0 - 2 0 0
The simple beam has single concave curvature that results in compression on top and
9 9
tension at the bottom of the beam. The cantilever beam has single convex curvature,
1
with tension on top and compression at the bottom of the beam. All the other beams
erle
change from concave to convex curvatures. Because the cantilever beam has only one
c h i
support, it must have fixed (moment resistant) support to be stable.
GS
Given equal loads and spans, the cantilever beam has the largest bending moment,
followed by the simple beam with half that of the cantilever. Beams with overhang have
i g h t G negative overhang moments that reduces positive field moments. Their reduced bending
moment is less than the moment of a simple beam of equal span. Two overhangs yield
r
smaller field moments than a single overhang. Designing a beam with one or two
Copy overhangs is a good strategy to greatly reduce bending for better efficiency without extra
cost. Given the double curvature of restrained and continuous beams, they, too, have
reduced bending moments. In restrained beams this advantage may be in part offset by
the fact that the negative end moments must be resisted by supports. The interaction of
beam and column provides lateral resistance for moment frames.
Bending moment
Gravity load on a simple beam shortens the top and elongates the bottom, causing
compressive and tensile stresses at top and bottom, respectively; with zero stress at the
neutral axis (N. A.). In beams of symmetrical cross-section, the neutral axis is at the
center. The compressive and tensile stress blocks generate an internal force couple that
resists the external bending moment caused by load.
- 2 0 0 6
0
2 Deformed beam under uniform gravity load
3
9 9
Free-body diagram with bending stress block that generates an internal force
1
couple to resist the external bending moment caused by load
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
- 2 0 0 6
at mid-span and increases toward the supports. This is visualized, assuming a beam
0
4 Shear diagram reflects shear distribution over beam length
9 9
5 Unloaded beam marked with squares to visualize shear
1
erle
6 Loaded beam with squares deformed into rhomboids due to shear
7 Horizontal and vertical shear couples on a square beam part are equal to balance
c h irotational tendencies (ΣM = 0). Therefore, horizontal and vertical shear stresses are
GS
equal at any point on the beam.
8 Shear vectors generate compression and tension diagonal to the shear. This tends
G
to generate diagonal tension cracks in concrete beams
r i g h t
Copy
6
and bending stresses are zero
2 0 0
The shear force varies linearly from maximum positive shear at the left support to
0 -
maximum negative shear at the right support. The left reaction pushing upward and the
9 9
beam load downward cause a maximum positive (clockwise) shear couple at the left
1
support. Shear reduces to zero at mid-span where it is balanced by gravity load. At the
erle
right support shear reaches a negative maximum.
c h i
The bending moment varies in parabolic form over the beam’s length. It is zero at both
GS
supports and maximum at mid-span. Over the depth of the beam, bending stress varies
from maximum compression on the top to maximum tension at the bottom.
i g h t G The variation of bending over the beam length creates differential bending stress that is
unbalanced. Thus, the compressive and tensile bending stresses push in opposite
y r directions which causes horizontal shear stress. Shear stress varies from zero on top
Cop
and bottom to maximum at the neutral axis. The rare case of uniform bending over the
beam length, i.e., no differential bending stress, causes zero shear stress. This is called
pure bending.
6
2 at a: -12 Rc+3(4)=0; Rc=3(4)/12 Rc = 1 k
0
V= 0+2
- 0 0
Shear V, found by vertical equilibrium, ΣV=0 (upward +).
2 V=2k
1 9
right of b and left of c
9
V= 2-3
Bending moment M, found by equilibrium ΣM=0 (clockwise +)
V = -1 k
erle
at a: M = +2(0) M = 0 k’
c h i at b: M = +2(4) M = 8 k’
GS
at c: M = +2(12)-3(8) M = 0 k’
3
Bending stress fb is derived, referring to 4. Bending is resisted by the force couple C-T,
G
with lever arm 2/3 d = distance between centroids of triangular stress blocks. C=T= fb
6
V Shear diagram (shear force at any point along beam)
M
Δ
- 2
Deflection diagram (exaggerated for clarity)
0 0 0
Bending moment diagram (bending moment at any point along beam)
9 9
Reactions, found by equilibrium, ΣV=0 (up +) and ΣM=0 (clockwise +)
1
rle
at b ΣV= 0 = R–2= 0 R=2k
e
at b ΣM= 0 =
i
M–2(10)= 0 M = 20 k’
i g h t G Left of a and right of b, shear is zero because there is no beam to resist it (reaction at b
reduces shear to zero). Shear may be checked, considering it starts and stops with zero.
y r Concentrated loads or reactions change shear from left to right of them. Without load
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between a and b (beam DL assumed negligible) shear is constant.
Bending moment M, found by moment equilibrium, ΣM=0 (clockwise +)
at a M = -2(0) = 0 k’
at mid-span M = -2(5) = -10 k’
at b M = -2(10) = -20 k’
The mid-span moment being half the moment at b implies linear distribution. The support
reaction moment is equal and opposite to the beam moment.
Deflection Δ is described later. Diagrams visualize positive and negative bending by
concave and convex curvature, respectively. They are drawn, visualizing a highly flexible
beam, and may be used to verify bending.
6
Vx = R - w x
at x = 0’
at x = 5’
V = 0 + Ra = 0 +1000
V = + 1000 - 100 (5)
0 - 2 0 0 V = +1000 lbs
V = +500 lbs
9
at x = 10’ V = + 1000 - 100 (10) V = 0 lbs
at x = 15’
erle
at x = 20’ V = + 1000 - 100 (20) V = -1000 lbs
i
Bending moment Mx at any distance x from left is found by ∑ M = 0.
GS c h∑ M = 0; R x – w x (x/2) - Mx = 0;
Mx = R x - w x2/2
solving for Mx
i g h t G at x = 0
at x = 5’
M = 1000 (0) - 100 (0)2/2
M = 1000 (5) - 100 (5)2/2
M = 0 lb-ft
M = 3750 lb-ft
Cop
at x = 15’ M = 1000 (15)-100 (15)2/2 M = 3750 lb-ft
at x = 20’ M = 1000 (20)-100 (20)2/2 M = 0 lb-ft
Bending is zero at both supports since pins and rollers have no moment resistance.
Since the bending formula Mx= Rx-wx2/2 is quadratic, bending increase is quadratic
(parabolic curve) toward maximum at center, and decreases to zero at the right support.
For simple beams with uniform load the maximum shear force is at the supports and the
maximum bending moment at mid-span (x= L/2) are:
Vmax = R = w L / 2
Mmax = (wL/2)L/2 – (wL/2)L/4 = 2wL2/8 - wL2/8, or
Mmax = wL2 / 8
This formula is only for simple beams with uniform load. Verifying example:
Mmax= wL2/8 = 100(20)2/8 Mmax= +5000 lbs-ft (same as above)
6
of the shear diagram between m and n.
2 0 0
The shear force is derived using vertical equilibrium:
0 -
9
∑ V = 0; Vm - w x - Vn = 0; solving for Vn
1 9
erle
Vn = Vm-wx
i
where w x is the load area between m and n (downward load w = negative).
G
solving for M n
rig h t Mn = Mm+Vmx-wx2/2
C o p y where Vmx – wx2/2 is the shear area between m and n, namely, the rectangle Vm x less
the triangle w x2/2. This relationship may also be stated as
Mn = Mm + Vx, where V is the average shear between m and n.
By the area method moments are usually equal to the area of one or more rectangles
and/or triangles. It is best to first compute and draw the shear diagram and then
compute the moments as the area of the shear diagram.
From the diagrams and derivation we may conclude:
• Positive shear implies increasing bending moment.
• Zero shear (change from + to -) implies peak bending moment
(useful to locate maximum bending moment).
• Negative shear implies decreasing bending moment.
Even though the forgoing is for uniform load, it applies to concentrated load and non-
uniform load as well. The derivation for such loads is similar.
- 2 0 0 6 Va = 0 lbs
Vbl = -2000 lbs
0
Vbr = -2000 + 4800 Vbr = +2800 lbs
1 9
Vcl = +2800 - 400(14)
Vcr = -2800 + 4800
9 Vc l= -2800 lbs
Vcr = +2000 lbs
erle
Vd = +2000 - 400(5) Vd = 0 lbs, ok
c h i
Moment
GS
Ma = 0
Mb = 0 -2000 (5)/2 Mb = -5000 lb-ft
r
Md = - 5000+ 2000 (5)/2 Md = 0, ok
0
Vcr = -1200 + 1200 Vcr= 0 lbs
1 9 9
Find x, where shear = 0 and bending = maximum:
erle
Vbr-w2 x = 0; x = Vbr/w2 = 2000/200 x = 10 ft
c h i
Moment
GS
Ma = 0
Mb = 0 + 4 (-1000 -2200)/2 Mb = -6400 lb-ft
G
Mx = -6400 + 10 (2000)/2 Mx = +3600 lb-ft
r i g h t Mc = +3600 + (16-10)(-1200)/2 Mc = 0
y
Section modulus
Cop
S = bd2/6 = (3.5)11.252/6 S = 74 in3
Bending stress
f b = M/S= 6400(12)/74 f b = 1038 psi
1038 < 1450, ok
Shear stress
fv = 1.5V/(bd) = 1.5(2200)/[3.5(11.25)] f v = 84 psi
84 < 95 = ok
Note: stress is figured, using absolute maximum bending and shear, regardless if positive
or negative. Lumber sizes are nominal, yet actual sizes are used for computation.
Actual sizes are ½ in. less for lumber up to 6 in. nominal and ¾ in. less for larger sizes:
4x8 nominal is 3½x7¼ in. actual.
Note: in the above two beams shear stress is more critical (closer to the allowable stress)
than bending stress, because negative cantilever moments partly reduces positive
moments.
6
M=CLW
M = bending moment
C = bending coefficient
0 - 2 0 0
9
L = span between supports
1 9
erle
W = w L (total load per bay)
w = uniform load in plf (pounds / linear foot
S c h
1
i Simple beam
G
2 Fixed-end beam
G
(combined positive plus negative moments equal the simple-beam moment)
ht
3 Two-span beam
r i g 4 Three-span beam
Copy
2 0 0 6
depth of the beam and is zero at the neutral axis (NA). The bending stress fy at any
distance y from the neutral axis is found, considering similar triangles, namely fy relates
-
0
to y as f relates to c; f is the maximum bending stress at top or bottom and c the distance
9 9
from the Neutral Axis, namely fy / y = f / c. Solving for fy yields
1
erle
fy = y f / c
i
To satisfy equilibrium, the beam requires an internal resisting moment that is equal and
GS c hopposite to the external bending moment. The internal resisting moment is the sum of all
partial forces F rotating around the neutral axis with a lever arm of length y to balance the
external moment. Each partial force F is the product of stress fy and the partial area a on
y r neutral axis, M = F y = (f/c) Σ y y a = (f/c) Σ y2a, or M = I f/c, where the term Σy2a is
Cop
defined as moment of inertia (I = Σy2a) for convenience. In formal calculus the
summation of area a is replaced by integration of the differential area da, an infinitely
small area:
6
C = T = (f/2) (bd/2) = f b d/4.
2 0 0
The internal resisting moment is the sum of C and T times their respective lever arm, d/3,
to the neutral axis. Hence
0 -
1 9 9
M = C d/3 + T d/3. Substituting C = T = f bd/4 yields
erle
M = 2 (f bd/4) d/3 = f bd2/6, or M = f S,
c h i
where S = bd2/6, defined as the section modulus for rectangular beams of homogeneous
GS
material.
G
S = bd2/6
rig h t Solving M = f S for f yields the maximum bending stress as defined before:
C o p y f = M/S
This formula is valid for homogeneous beams of any shape; but the formula S = bd2/6 is
valid for rectangular beams only. For other shapes S can be computed as S = I /c as
defined before for the flexure formula. The moment of inertia I for various common
shapes is given in Appendix A.
Comparing a joist of 2”x12” in upright and flat position as illustrated in 2 and 3 yields an
interesting observation:
S = 2x122/6 = 48 in3 for the upright joist
S= 12x22/6 = 8 in3 for the flat joist.
The upright joist is six times stronger than the flat joist of equal cross-section. This
demonstrates the importance of correct orientation of bending members, such as beams
or moment frames.
2 0
asymmetrical cross-section, such as T- and L-shapes.
- 0 6
from the neutral axis as f= Mc/I. This is useful, for example, for bending elements of
1
2
9 9 0
Bending stress distribution over beam cross-section
1
Moment of inertia visualized as volume under parabolic surface
erle
3 T-bar with asymmetrical stress: max. stress at c2 from the neutral axis
i
4 Angle bar with asymmetrical stress distribution about x, y, and z-axes: maximum
i g h t G
y r
Cop
6
3 Efficient wide-flange beam
4 Inefficient cross-shaped beam
0 - 2 0 0
9
Given the same cross-section area, the upright joist has a 36 times greater moment of
1 9
inertia to resist deformation than the flat one. This represents the square of the joist’s
erle
width-to-depth ratio. A similar contrast can be observed between wide-flange and cross-
shaped beams.
c h i
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
6
causing shear stress. At any shear plane y1 from the neutral axis of the beam the sum of
- 2 0 0
shear stress above this plane yields a force F that equals average stress fy times the
cross section area A above the shear plane, F = A fy. The average stress fy is found from
0
9
similar triangles; fy relates to y as f relates to c, i.e., fy/y = f/c; thus fy = f y/c. Since f= V x
1 9
c/I, substituting V x c/I for f yields fy = (V x c/I) y/c = V x y/I. Since F = A fy, it follows that
erle
F = A V x y/I. The horizontal shear stress v equals the force F divided by the area of the
i
shear plane;
i g h t G times the lever arm from its centroid to the neutral axis of the entire cross-section.
Substituting Q for A y yields the working formula
y r
Cop
v = V Q / (I b) (shear stress)
v = horizontal shear stress.
Q = static moment (area above shear plane times distance from centroid of that area to
the neutral axis of the entire cross-section
I = moment of Inertia of entire cross section
b = width of shear plane
The formula for shear stress can also be stated as shear flow q, measured in force per
unit length (pound per linear inch, kip per linear inch, or similar metric units); hence
q=VQ/I (shear flow)
q = force per unit length
- 2 0 6
Note: this is the same formula derived for maximum shear stress before
0
Shear stress at the bottom of rectangular beam. Note that y= 0 since the centroid
1 9 9 0
of the area above the shear plane (bottom) coincides with the neutral axis of the
entire section. Thus Q= Ay = (bd/2) 0 = 0, hence
erle
v = V 0/(I b) = 0 = fv, thus
i
fv = 0
GS c hNote: this confirms an intuitive interpretation that suggests zero stress since no fibers
below the beam could resist shear
i g h t G 3 Shear stress at top of rectangular beam. Note A = 0b = 0 since the depth of the
shear area above the top of the beam is zero. Thus
r
Q = Ay = 0 d/2 = 0, hence v = V 0/(I b) = 0 = fv, thus
Copy fv = 0
Note: this, too, confirms an intuitive interpretation that suggests zero stress since no
fibers above the beam top could resist shear.
4 Shear stress distribution over a rectangular section is parabolic as implied by the
formula Q=bd2/8 derived above.
5 Shear stress in a steel beam is minimal in the flanges and parabolic over the web.
The formula v = VQ/(I b) results in a small stress in the flanges since the width b of
flanges is much greater than the web thickness. However, for convenience, shear
stress in steel beams is computed as “average” by the simplified formula:
fv = V / Av
fv = shear stress in steel beam
V = shear force at section investigated
Av = shear area, defined as web thickness times beam depth
6
We could use the parallel axis theorem of Appendix A. However, due to symmetry, a
- 2 0 0
simplified formula is possible, finding the moment of inertia for the overall dimensions as
rectangular beam minus that for two rectangles on both sides of the web.
0
9
I = (BD3– bd3)/12 = [6(10)3– 2(2)63]/12
1 9 I = 428 in4
rle
Bending stress fb= Mc/I = 3500(12)5/428 fb = 491 psi
i e
491 < 1450, ok
i g h t G Q = Ay = 6(2)4
Shear stress at flange/web intersection:
Q = 48 in3
Cop
Static moment Q of flange plus upper half of web about the neutral axis
Q = ΣAy = 6(2)4 + 2(3)1.5 Q = 57 in3
Maximum shear stress at neutral axis:
v = VQ/(Ib) = 1400(57)/[428(2)] v = 93 psi <95, ok
Note: Maximum shear stress reaches almost the allowable stress limit, but bending
stress is well below allowable bending stress because the beam is very short. We can
try at what span the beam approaches allowable stress, assuming L= 30 ft, using the
same total load W = 2800 lbs to keep shear stress constant:
M= WL/8 = 2800(30)/8 M = 10500 lb-ft
fb = Mc/I = 10500(12)5/428 fb = 1472 psi
1472 >1450, not ok
At 30 ft span bending stress is just over the allowable stress of 1450 psi. This shows that
in short beams shear governs, but in long beams bending or deflection governs.
6
Wide-flange beam
Shear area of web Av = web thickness x beam depth
Av = 0.34(10)
1 9 9
Shear stress fv = V/Av = 48/3.4 fv = 14 ksi
14 < 14.5, ok
erle
Bending stress fb = Mc/I = 144(12)5.5/272 fb = 35 ksi
c h i 35 >22, not ok
GS
Since the beam would fail in bending, a composite beam is used.
G
Composite beam
Since the shear force remains unchanged, the web shear stress is still ok.
fb = 19 ksi
19 < 22, ok
6
5 Shear deflection of cantilever beam under point load
0 - 2 0 0
Referring to 4, elastic bending deflection of a cantilever beam under point load is derived
9
Δ = PL3 / (3EI)
1 9
erle
E = modulus of elasticity, I = moment of inertia
c h i
Referring to 5, shear deflection is defined by the formula:
GS
Δ = 6PL/(5AG)
y r above formulas show bending deflection increases with the third power of L, but shear
Cop
deflection increases linearly with L. Shear deflection is equal to shear stress (V/A = P/A)
divided by the shear modulus G, modified by 6/5 since shear stress is non-linear over the
beam depth.
Referring to 4 and 5, the following highlights the correlation of beam length with shear-
and bending deflection. Assuming a 4x6 in (102x152 mm) cantilever steel beam with
P=8 k (36 kN), E=30,000 ksi (206,850 MPa), G=12,000 ksi (82,740 MPa), I=4x63/12=72
in4 (29969x10-3 mm4), A = 24 in2 (16 cm2)
If the beam length is L=60in (152 cm), bending deflection is Δ=(8)603/[3(30000)72]=.27in
(7mm), but shear deflection is only Δ=6(8)60/[5(12000)24]=.002 in (.05 mm). Thus shear
deflection is less than one percent of bending deflection. However, if the beam length
equals the beam depth, L=6 in (152 mm), then the bending deflection is reduced to
Δ=.00027 in (.007 mm) and shear deflection to Δ=.0002 in (.005 mm); which is about
equal to the bending deflection. This confirms, shear deflection is insignificant and may
be ignored for beams of typical length, but approaches bending deflection when the
beam length is reduced to the beam depth.
6
at m and n and between the tangents to those radii. The length dx=r dφ and dφ/dx=1/r =
θ=∑dφ = ∑Mdx/(EI), or
0 - 2 0 0
M(EI) (as derived above), or dφ=M dx /(EI). The sum of dφ between A to B is
θ= Am/(EI)
1 9 9
erle
Am = ∑Mdx, the area of the bending moment diagram between A and B. Hence, the
i
theorem for the beam slope may be stated as follows:
GS c h The angle θ between the tangents of points A and B on the elastic curve of a
beam is the moment diagram area between A and B, divided by EI.
i g h t G This theorem can be used to find the elastic slope at any point of a beam. The theorem
for deflection (usually of greater interest) is derived next.
y r
Cop
The angle between the tangents at m and n on the elastic curve is dφ and the vertical
displacement between these tangents at A is xdφ. Therefore, the displacement between
A and the tangent at B is Δ=∑xdφ=∑xMdx/(EI), or
Δ= x Am/(EI)
where Am = ∑Mdx, area of the bending moment diagram between A and B and times the
lever arm from A to the centroid of the bending moment diagram between A and B.
Hence, the deflection theorem may be stated as follows:
The vertical displacement Δ of the tangent at B on the elastic curve equals the
moment of the area of the bending diagram between A and B times the lever-arm
x from its centroid to A, divided by EI.
This theorem can be applied to compute beam deflection as shown on the following
pages. The above derivation considers only bending deformation, and ignores shear
deformation, which is insignificant as shown before, and can be ignored for most beams.
6
1 Cantilever beam with point load;
θ= 1/2 PL2/(EI)
0 - 2 0 0
9
Δ= 1/3 PL3/(EI)
2
rle 1 9
Cantilever beam with uniform load; θ = (WL/2)(L/3)/(EI), Δ= θ 3/4 L
e
θ= 1/6
i
WL2/(EI)
G Sc h3
Δ= 1/8 WL3/(EI)
Simple beam with point load; θ = (PL/4)(L/4)/(EI), Δ= θ 1/3 L
py r Δ= 1/48 PL3/(EI)
Co
4 Simple beam with uniform load; θ = (WL/8)(2/3 L/2)/(EI), Δ= θ 5/16 L
θ= 1/24 WL2/(EI)
Δ= 5/384 WL3/(EI)
- 2 0 0 6
Va = Vbl = R = 2(8)/2
1 9
Vbr = Vcl = 8-8
9 0 Va = Vbl = 8 k
Vbr = Vcl = 0 k
erle
Vbr = Vc = R = 0-8 Vdr = Vc =-8 k
i
Bending moment:
G S c h
Mmax= 8 (10)
Section modulus S and moment of inertia I (from Appendix D):
Mmax = 80 k’
r
I =248 in4
- 2 0 0 6
Va = R= [2(8)+0.4(30)]/2
1 9
Vbl = 14-0.4(10)
9 0 Va = 14 k
Vbl = 10 k
erle
Vbr = 10-8 Vbr = 2 k
Vcl = 2-0.4(10) Vcl= -2 k
c h i
Vcr = -2-8 Vcr= -10 k
GS
Vd = -10-0.4(10) Vdr= -14 k
Bending moment:
r
Section modulus S and moment of inertia I (from Appendix D):
6
to that point. Both, shear and bending must be zero to the right of the right beam end. To
- 2 0 0
satisfy this, requires a certain amount of forward thinking and, in complex cases, even
working backward from right to left as well as left to right.
0
1
2
9
Cantilever beam with point load
1
Cantilever beam with uniform load
9
erle
3 Cantilever beam with mixed load
i
4 Simple beam with point loads
GS c h5
6
7
Simple beam with uniform load
Simple beam with mixed load
Beam with one overhang and point load
i g h t G 8
9
Beam with one overhang and uniform load
Beam with one overhang and mixed load
Cop
11 Beam with two overhangs and uniform load
12 Beam with two overhangs and mixed load
8 design and analysis methods currently used for structural design. ASD is the classic
method used since the inception of structural design and sometimes referred to as
working stress design. LRFD is a new method, increasingly promoted by codes. The
difference of the two methods is essentially in the way they consider the issue of safety:
ASD uses actual loads to design members for allowable stress that is reduced from
ultimate strength or yield stress by a safety factor. By contrast LRFD assigns safety to
the load, increasing actual service load by a load factor to design members for stress that
is close to the ultimate strength. The load factors provide a more rational safety because
ASD, LRFD, M a sonry, dead load is more predictable than live load and therefore has a smaller load factor
LRFD is similar to the Strength Method or Ultimate Strength Method that has been used
a nd Conc re t e De sign
6
for concrete design since about 1960. The two methods are briefly introduced below and
0 - 2 0 0
demonstrated for masonry design (ASD) and concrete design (LRFD). At present, for
1 9 9
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
6
L = span
0
compression (Fc), tension (Ft), and shear (Fv), elastic modulus (E)
The lateral drift of vertical structures shall not exceed a fraction of the height (Maximum
drift is typically 0.5 % of height).
Steel grade
ASTM A36
Fy
36
Fu
58-80
Fb
22
9 0 - 2 0
Fc Ft
22
Fv
14.5 29,000
E ksi
ksi
9
248 400-550 150 150 100 200,000 MPa
ASD Load combinations
ASTM A572
erle 1 50
345
65
450
30
210
30
210
20
140
29,000
200,000
ksi
MPa
i
Based on the 1997 UBC structures and all portions thereof shall resist the most critical
h
Masonry
c
effects resulting from the following combinations of loads:
GS
Allowable compressive stress Fa, for masonry with special inspection is 25% of
D specified strength ƒ’m by the ASD method; reduced for slenderness. Specified
G
Compressive strength ƒ’m is based on compressive strength of masonry units and
t
D +L + (Lr or S)
h
mortars type M, S, N.
g
D + (W or E/1.4)
0.9D ± E/1.4
Cop
D + 0.75[L + (Lr or S) + (W or E/1.4)] Unit strength 1.9 2.8 3.75 4.8 4 6 8 10 12 14
ƒ’m (M or S) 1.5 2 2.5 3 2 2.7 3.35 4 4.7 5.3
D = Dead load ƒ’m (N) 1.35 1.85 2.35 2.8 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.4
E = Earthquake load
Type Concrete masonry (MPa) Clay brick masonry (MPa)
L = Live load
Unit strength 13 19 26 33 28 41 55 69 83 97
Lr = Roof live load
ƒ’m (M or S) 10 14 17 21 14 19 23 28 32 37
S = Snow load
ƒ’m (N) 9 13 16 19 11 15 19 23 26 30
W = Wind load
Concrete
Most of this book is based on ASD By working stress method, allowable stresses are based on compressive strength ƒ’c.
Typical compressive strengths range from 2 to 6 ksi (14 to 41 MPa)
Allowable stress is defined by a material’s ultimate strength or yield strength and a
factor of safety. Building codes and trade associations provide allowable stress for Allowable compressive stress 0.40 ƒ‘c
various materials and grades of materials, which may also depend on duration of load. Allowable compressive bending stress 0.45 ƒ‘c
Allowable wood stress also depends on temperature, moisture content, size, and if a Allowable shear stress without reinforcing: beam 1.1 ƒ‘c1/2
member is single or repetitive, like closely spaced joists. Relevant factors regarding joist 1.2 ƒ‘c1/2
allowable stress are briefly introduced here and further described later in this chapter. footing & slab on grade 2.0 ƒ‘c1/2
6
Material Steel
Stress types
Bending
Concrete *
0.9
Masonry *
0.8
Wood
0.85
Limit states
Yielding
φ
0.9
Find the maximum load effect per liner foot
0 - 2 0 0
9
Shear 0.85 0.6 0.75 D = 40 psf (10’) D = 400 plf
Tension Rupture 0.75
1 9
L = 30 psf (10’) L = 300 plf
erle
Compression 0.75 spiral 0.65 0.9 Compression 0.85 w = 15 psf (10’) w = 150 plf
i
0.70 tied and buckling
h
1.4D
c
Stability 0.85
GS
1.4(400 plf) 560 plf
* Strength design (similar to LRFD)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S)
G
LRFD load combinations 1.2(400 plf) + 0.5(300 plf) 630 plf
rig h t
Based on the 1997 UBC structures and all portions thereof shall resist the most critical
effects resulting from the following combinations of factored loads:
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) + (f1 L or 0.8W)
1.2(400) + 1.6(300 plf) + 0.8(150 plf) 1080 plf
1.4D
C o p y
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) + (f1 L or 0.8W)
1.2D + 1.3W + f1 L + 0.5(Lr or S)
1.2D + 1.3W + f1 L + 0.5(Lr or S)
1.2(4000 plf) + 1.3(150 plf) + 0.5(300 plf)
1.2D + 1.0E + (f1 L + f2 S)
1.2 (400 plf) + ( 0.7(300 plf)
1905 plf
690 plf
0.9D ± (1.0E or 1.3W)
1.2D + 1.0E + (f1 L + f2 S)
0.9(400 plf) +1.3(150 plf) 555 plf
0.9D ± (1.0E or 1.3W)
D = Dead load Governing load effect wu = 1905 plf
E = Earthquake load
L = Live load
Lr = Roof live load
S = Snow load
W = Wind load
f1 = 1.0 for floors of public assembly, live load >100 psf and garage live load
0.5 for all other live loads
f2 = 0.7 for roofs that don’t shed snow
0.2 for all other roofs
2 0
Fv = Allowable shear stress if masonry resist all shear
0
Fv = Allowable shear stress if steel resist all shear Fv =3(f’m)1/2, max.150 psi *
*
9 9
Allowable stresses are one half without special inspection
1
(Sample tests at start of construction and for every 5000 ft2 of masonry)
erle
b = Beam width
i
d = Effective depth (top of beam to centroid of reinforcing steel)
Cop
p = Ratio of steel area / beam cross section, p = As/bd (0.02% to 2.88%)
Referring to diagram 2 the following equations are derived:
For Balanced beams (with enough reinforcing so that steel and masonry reach their
respective limits simultaneously), kd is defined by similar triangles:
kd / d = fb / ( fb+ fs /n)
k = 1 / [1+ fs / (n fb)]
Based on the k-factor other factors are deirved:
Resiting lever arm jd = d - kd/3
j-factor j = 1 - k/3
Resisting moment M = ½ fb b kd jd = ½ fb kj bd2
M = R bd2
Resistance factor R = ½ fb kj
Max. masonry stress fb = 2M / (kj bd2)
Required steel area As = M / (Fs jd)
Steel stress fs = M / (As jd)
6
k = 1/[1+ fs / (n fb)] = 1/[1+24,000/(25.8 x 500]) k = 0.35
j = 1 – k/3 = 1 – 0.35/3
Resistance factor
0 - 2 0 0 j = 0.88
1 9
Effective depth required, M = R bd2)
9 R = 77
erle
d = M/bR = 25,600x12"/(10x77) d = 20”
c h i Beam depth h = d+4” = 20+4 (4” for rebar + cover (adjist for modules) h = 24”
GS
Required steel area
Cop
Assume:
Simple beam, L=10’, b=8”, d=32”, specified compressive strenght f’m = 1500 psi, without
special inspection, Fb =1/2x1500/3 = 250 psi, grade 40 steel, Fs = 20 ksi. 1 # 6 rebar.
Rebar diameters Cross-section areas Dead load estimate DL = 600 plf
Size in in mm in2 mm2 Live koad estimate LL = 900 plf
#3 3/8 0.375 9.5 0.11 71 w = 1500 plf
#4 4/8 0.500 12.7 0.20 129 Bending moment M = w L2/8 = 1500(10)2/8 M = 18,750 #’
#5 5/8 0.625 15.9 0.31 200 k-factor
#6 6/8 0.750 19.1 0.44 284 k = 1/[1+ fs / (n fb)] = 1/[1+20,000/(25.8 x 250]) k = 0.24
#7 7/8 0.875 22.2 0.60 387 j = 1 – k/3 = 1 – 0.24/3 j = 0.92
#8 8/8 1.000 25.4 0.79 510 Max. masonry stress
#9 1.128 28.7 1.00 645 fb = 2M / (kj bd2) = 2x187503x12” / (0.24x0.92x8x322) fb = 248 psi < 250, OK
#10 1.270 32.3 1.27 819
#11 1.410 35.81 1.56 1006 Steel cross section ares
#14 1.693 43.00 2.25 1452 Steel stress
#18 2.257 57.33 4.00 2581 fs = M / (As jd) =18750 x 12” / (0.44x0.92x32) fs = 17,370 psi < 20,000, OK
6
Allowable shear stress if masonry resists all shear Fv = f , max.50 psi *
'
0
m
9
* Allowable stresses are one half without special inspection
1 9
Shear resisted by stirrups (Vm ignored) V = Av Fs d / s
erle
Shear resisted by masonry V = Fv bjd
Fv = Allowable masonry shear stress
c h i
Computed shear stress (estimate j = 0.9) fv = V / bjd
GS
Stirrup spacing s = Av Fs / bfv, max. s = d/2
1 Masonry beam with uniform load
G
2 Shear diagram
Seismic areas require horizontal and vertical rebars of at least 0.2% of the wall cross
section area. Bars in either direction may be 0.1% but shall be at least 0.07% with the
remaining 0.13% in perpendicular direction. The greater percentage of bars should run
in direction of primary span, normally vertical from floor to floor or roof. Bars shall be
arranged as shown in 1: vertical and horizontal bars spaced maximum 4 ft (1.2 m); bars
around all openings, the top bar extending at least 24 in (60 cm) or 40 bar diameters
beyond openings; on top and bottom of walls; and at structurally connected floors and
6
roofs. Graph 2 gives bar spacing for 0.1 % reinforcing of various wall sizes.
- 2 0 0
Moderate seismic areas requires rebars with cross-section of min. 0.2 in2 (129 mm2), #
0
9
4 bars, arranged as follows: vertical bars at 4 ft (1.2 m); horizontal bars spaced 10 ft (3
1 9
m); bars around all openings extending at least 24 in (60 cm) or 40 bar diameters beyond
erle
openings; bars on top and bottom of walls; and at structurally connected floors and roofs.
i
1 Wall elevation with reinforcing bar layout for seismic zones 2 to 4
GS c h2 Bar size and spacing for 0.1% reinforcing of wall cross-section area
i g h t G B
C
Horizontal bars spaced max. 4 ft in high seismic areas; 10 ft in moderate areas
Bars at openings, extending min. 2’ or 40 bar diameters beyond opening
Cop
E Bars at structurally connected floors and roof
s Spacing of reinforcing bars, sizes #3 to #7 (max. 6 times bar diameter)
t Wall thickness
6
For h/d =>1
*
3
Fv = 1.5 (ƒ’m)1/2
0 - 2 0 0
Allowable stresses are one half without special inspection
Cantilever wall, free to bend in single curvature
Fv (max) = 75 psi *
9 9
Wall with fixed support bends with inflection point at mid-height
1
erle
d Width of wall or wall element
h Height of wall or wall element
c h i
ƒ’m Specified masonry compressive strength (ksi)
GS
Fv Allowable shear stress (psi and MPa)
M Bending moment M = Vh or M = Vh/2
G
V Shear force
6
h’= effective height of wall
- 2 0
thickness t, where r = (I / A)1/2 = 0.289 t
0 0
r = radius of gyration; for convenience, graph 1 substitutes radius of gyration r by
9
* Allowable stresses and loads are one half without special inspection
1 9
** For non-square columns the smaller dimension governs slenderness
erle
1 Slenderness reduction for allowable compressive stress
i
2 Masonry wall or column with pin support at both ends
Cop
h’ Effective height, adjusted for support type
t Wall thickness
Example: CMU wall
Assume: h=15’, both ends fixed, h’=0.6x15=9’, 8” CMU, t = 7.625”, f’m = 2000 psi
Find allowable stress Fa
Slenderness h’/t = 9’x12”/7.625 = 9.4
Slenderness reduction (from graph 1) A = 0.94
Fa = 0.25 f’m A = 0.25 x 2000 x 0.94 Fa = 470 psi
Example: brick column
Assume: brick column, 20”x24”, h = 30’, pin supports, f’m = 2,5 ksi, with 6 #8 steel bars,
grade 60, Fa = 60x0.4 = 24 ksi. Find allowable load P
Slenderness h’/t = 30’x12”/20” = 18, slenderness reduction (from graph 1), A = 0.81
P = (0.25ƒ’mA e+0.65A sFsc)(0.81)
P = (0.25x2.5x20x24+0.65x6x0.44x24)(0.81) P = 276 k
6
f’c = specified concrete compressive strength
0
Solving for balanced ρb 0.85f' c β 1 ⎛ 87 ⎞
0
As = cross section area of steel As = bdρ ρb = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
- 2
fy ⎝ 87 + fy ⎠
0
fy = steel yield strength
a = depth of concrete stress block
β1 = 0.85 for f’c ≤ 4 ksi, reduced 0.5 per 1 ksi > 4 ksi, min β1 = 0.65
a = c β1
Thus
1 9
For equilibrium (ΣH = 0, C = T)
9
0.85 f’c ab = As fy
a = As fy / (0.85 f’c b)
erle
Z = resistant moment lever arm Z = d - a/2 For moment equilibrium (ΣM = 0) M = (C or T ) (d-a/2) = As fy (d-a/2)
i
C = concrete compression C = 0.85 f’c ab Substituting a and As = ρbd and (0.59 = (1/0.85)/2) and rearranging yields
T = steel tension
ρ = Percentage of reinforcement
G S c h
T = As fy
ρ = As / bd
⎛ f ⎞
M = bd2ρfy ⎜ 1- 0.59ρ y' ⎟
⎜
⎝ fc ⎟⎠
r
⎟⎟
opy
⎝ fc ⎠
The nominal design moment is adjusted by a reduction factor φ = 0.9 φMn = M
C Reduction factors
Bending
Shear and torsion
Compression (spiral reinforcing)
φ = 0.90
φ = 0.85
φ = 0.75
Compression (tied reinforcing) and bearing φ = 0.70
Reinforcing ratio limits ρ
Minimum ρ = 0.2 ksi / fy
Recommended ρ = 0.18 f’c / fy
Maximum (75% of balanced reinforcing) ρ = 0.75 ρb
Minimum Resistance factor (at min. ρ = 0.2 ksi / fy) R = 0.192
Note: Balancd reinforcing implies steel and concrete provide equal (balanced) strenght
Less steel provides ductile steel behavior, rathter than britttle concrete failure.
6
Recommended depth (from table below) h = 16’(12”)/16 h = 12”
Effective depth (d = h-3” for bar+cover) d = 12-3
Recommended R-factor (from graph)
Beam width b = Mn/(Rd2) = 853/(0.483x92)
0 - 2 0 0 d = 9”
R = 0.483 ksi
b = 22”
9 9
Recommended reinforcement ratio (from graph)
1
ρ = 0.009
erle
Bar cross section
As = ρbd = (0.009)(22)(9) = 1.78 in2 Use 6 # 5 bars, As = 6x0.31 =1.86 in2
c h i
Example: alternate beam design
GS
Assume: the same beam to fit an 8” CMU wall, R = 0.483, ρ = 0.009
Effective depth
Cop
Check width: 3 bars+2 spaces+stirrups+cover = 3x6/8+2+1+3 = 8.25 > 8 not OK
Use 2 # 7 bars, As = 2x0.6 As =1.2 in2
Check width = 2x7/8+1+1+3 = 6.75 6.75 < 8, OK
Minimum depths h of beams and slabs unless deflections are computed (L = span)
Support type Beams & ribs One-way slabs
1 Simply supported L/16 L/20
2 One end continues L/18 L/24
3 Both ends continues L/21 L/28
4 Cantilever L/8 L/10
Bar diameters Cross-section areas
Size in in mm in2 mm2
#5 5/8 0.625 15.9 0.31 200
#6 6/8 0.750 19.1 0.44 284
#7 7/8 0.875 22.2 0.60 387
6
Fy = yield stress of stirrups
0 - 2 0
d = effective depth (top of beam to steel rebars)
0
9
Maximum spacing s = d/2
rle 1 9
Shear resisted by steel Vs = Vu/φ-Vc
i e
The maximum shear may be taken a distance d from supports
G
b Beam width
ri g h t C
d
Shear reinforcing
Effective beam depth
Co p y E
s
Example
Distance from support requiring stirrups (at Vc/2)
Stirrup spacing
Design a simply supported beam, assume: f’c = 3 ksi, Fy = 60 ksi, L = 20’, b = 10”, d = 12”
Factored DL+LL w = 4 klf
Concrete shear capacity Vc = φ fc' bd = 0.85 4x10x12 Vc = 18 k
Maximum factored shear Vu = 4 klf x20’/2 Vu = 40 k
Shear at d from support Vu = 40-(4x12/12) Vu = 36 k
Shear resisted by steel Vs = Vu/φ-VC = 36 / 0.85-22 Vs = 20k
Try # 4 srirrups (As = 2x0,2 As = 0.4 in2
Spacing s=Avfvd / Vs = 0.4x60x12/20 s = 14”
Check max s = d/2 = 12/2 = 6” Use s = 6”
Distance stirrups needed E = (L/2/Vu)(Vu-Vc/2) = (10/40)(40-9) E =7.75’
- 2 0 0 6
A
B
9 9 0
Inflection points of zero bending moment, change from negative to positive bending
Top bars at negative bending and convex deflection
1
erle
C Hook at bar end of maximum stress anchors bar to concrete
D Bottom bars at positive bending and concave deflection
c h
E
i Stirrups resist shear stress, with increased spacing toward mid-span of zero shear
GS
Minimum depths h of beams and slabs unless deflections are computed (L = span)
Support type Beams & ribs One-way slabs
i g h t G 1 Simply supported
2 One end continues
L/16
L/18
L/20
L/24
Cop
4 Cantilever L/8 L/10
Reinforcement of continuous and fixed end beams follows shear and bending diagrams.
Shear is similar to simply supported beams. Moment distribution varies from positive at
mid-span to negative at supports and fixed-ends; causing convex deflections at supports
and concave at mid-span with change at inflection points. Reinforcing correlates with the
bending diagram: bottom bars at positive bending and top bars at negative bending; both
extending somewhat beyond the inflection points to account for variable live loads.
Note:
The reader is referred to books on reinforced concrete design (Spiegel, 1992) for issues
beyond the scope of this book, such as design of T-beams, beams with compression
reinforcement, bond length of bars, combined axial and compressive stress, etc.
6
For schematic design the resisting lever-arm may be estimated as the distance between
center of the slab and center of the reinforcement.
0 - 2 0 0
9
1 T-beam with compression zone depth a > slab thickness t
2
9
T-beam with compression zone depth a = slab thickness t
1
erle
3 T-beam with compression zone depth a < slab thickness t
4 T-beam with compression web due to negative bending
c ha
i Depth of compression zone
GS
b Width of compression flange, limited by ACI code to the lesser of:
● 1/4 beam span
y r
Cop
d Effective depth (distance from reinforcement to compression zone edge)
Z Lever arm of internal resisting moment
(Distance from reinforcement to compression zone center)
NA Neutral Axis
t Slab thickness
- 2 0 0 6 Cross-section areas
in2 mm2
0
#4 4/8 0.500 12.7 0.20 129
#5
#6
5/8
1
6/8
9
0.625
0.750
9
15.9
19.1
0.31
0.44
200
284
erle
Example: One-way slab design
c h i
Assume: simply supported slab, L = 16’; f’c = 3 ksi; Fy = 40 ks, Design a 1’ wide strip
GS
Slab depth h = L / 20 = 16’x12”/20 h = 9.6”
Dead load = 150pcf x9.6”/12” = 120 psf+20 psf partitions+14 psf misc. DL = 154 psf
G
Factored loads: (1.4x154 psf DL+1.7x50 psf LL)/1000 w = 0.3 klf
d = 8.5
R = 0.148 < 0.192
For min. R = 0.192 min. steel ratio ρ = 0.2 ksi / fy ρ = 0.005
Bar area As = ρbd = 0.005x12x8.5 As = 0.51 in2
Use # 6 bars, As = 0.44 in2 per bar
Bar spacing s = 12”x 0.44 / 0.51 s = 10.3”
Temperature reinforcing
As = 0.002bd = 0.002x12x8.5 As = 0.204 in2
Try #6 bars
Bar spacing: s = 12”x 0.44 / 0.204 s = 25.9”
Check s vs. ACI spacing limits: 4” < s < 18” < 5h 25.9 > 18, not OK
Use # 4bars
Bar spacing: s = 12”x0.20 / 0.204 s = 11.8”
6
A Column strip (slab/column moment distribution is not considered)
B
C
Middle strip
End support (negative moment)
0 - 2 0 0
9
D End span (positive moment)
E
9
First interior support (negative moment)
1
erle
F Interior span (positive moment)
G Interior support (negative moment)
c h
H
GS
I Middle strip moment coefficients
Minimum depths h of two-way slabs unless deflections are computed (L = span)
i g h t G Support type
Plate without edge beams
ƒy = 40 ksi (276 MPa)
L/33
ƒy = 60 ksi (414 MPa)
L/30
Cop
Slab with drop panels without edge beams L/36 L/33
Slab with drop panels and edge beams L/40 L/36
Example: Bending moment for slab 2 with simple end span
Assume: Span L = 20’, factored dead + live load w = 0.3 klf
Column strip moments M0 = wL2/8 = 0.3x202/8 Mo = 15 k’
End span M = +0.38x15 M = +5.7 k’
First interior post M = -0.56x15 M = -8.8 k’
Interior span M = +0.21x15 M = +3.15 k’
2nd interior post M = -0.49x15 M = -7.35 k’
Middle strip
End span M = +0.25x15 M = +3.75 k’
First interior post M = -0.19x15 M = -2.85 k’
Interior span M = +0.14x15 M = +2.10 k’
2nd interior post M = -0.16x15 M = -2.40 k’
Reinforcing is similar to one-way slabs, but two ways, without temperature reinforcing.
2 0 0 6
16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least column dimension, whichever is less. For
seismic design maximum tie spacing shall be 1/2 the least column dimension near beam
-
0
intersections.
1 9 9
Spiral columns must have at least five or more vertical compression bars in circular
erle
configuration held in place by a continuous circular spiral of about 1/4 in diameter. Spiral
columns are usually cylindrical, but spiral reinforcing may also be used for square
c h i
columns. Spiral columns are about 14% stronger than tied columns of equal cross
GS
section area because spirals confine the concrete and rebars better under high stress.
Spiral spacing ranges from min. 1 in (25 mm) to max. 3 in (76 mm).
i g h t G 1
2
Square column with tied reinforcement of minimum 4 bars
Round column with spiral reinforcement of minimum 5 bars
Cop
4 Rectangular column with tied reinforcement
5 Square column with tied reinforcement of 8 bars
6 Round column with 2-ring spiral reinforcement
7 Square column with tied reinforcement of 16 bars
8 Cross-shaped column with tied reinforcement
9 L-shaped column with tied reinforcement
6
Tied columns
0 - 2 0 0
For convenient schematic design formulas for stress used in the graphs are:
F = 0.75x0.85 [0.85f’c (1 - ρ) + fy ρ]
F = 0.70x0.80 [0.85f’c (1 - ρ) + fy ρ]
9
For tied columns
1
Design graphs
9
erle
The design graphs for tied columns at left and spiral columns on the next page are based
on the above equations. Their use is described by examples.
c h i
Example: Tied columns, 3-story
GS
Assume: Lateral load resisted by shear walls, design for gravity load only
Tributary area 30’x30’, DL = 175 psf, LL 50 psf, fy = 60 ksi
G
Factored load w = 1.4x175+ 1.7x50 w = 330 psf
P = 2x30’x30’x330/2000 P = 594 k
F = P/A = 594/162 = 2.32 ksi Use 2.8% steel
Steel area As = 0.028x162 = 7.2 in2 Use 12 # 7 bars, As = 7.2 in2
Second floor (use same column with fy = 40 ksi)
P =1x30x30x330/1000 P = 297 k
F = P/A = 297/162 =1.16 ksi Use 1% steel
Steel area As = 0.01x162 = 2.56 in2 Use 6 # 7 bars, As = 3.6 in2
Rebar diameters Cross-section areas
Size in in mm in2 mm2
#7 7/8 0.875 22.2 0.60 387
#8 8/8 1.000 25.4 0.79 510
6
Steel area As = 0.038x198 = 7.52 in2 Use 10 # 8 bars, As = 7.9 in2
Second floor (use the same column with fy = 40 ksi)
P =1x30x30x330/1000
0 - 2 0 0 P = 297 k
9
F = P/A = 297/198 = 1.5 ksi Use 1% steel
1 9
Steel area As = 0.01x198 = 1.98 in2 Use 4 # 7 bars, As = 2.4 in2
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
9 •
•
•
Wind load
Seismic load
Earth pressure on retaining walls (not included in this book)
Wind and earthquakes are the most devastating forces of nature:
Hurricane Andrew 1992, with gusts of 170 mph, devastated 300 square miles, left
300,000 homeless, caused about $ 25 billion damage, and damaged 100,000 homes
La t e ra l Forc e De sign The 1976 Tangshan Earthquake (magnitude 7.8), obliterating the city in northeast China
and killing over 240,000 people, was the most devastating earthquake of the 20th century.
6
Swiss Re reported 2003 world wide losses:
• 60,000 people killed
• Over two thirds earthquake victims
0 - 2 0 0
9
• $70 billion economic losses
1 9
c h i erle
IBC table 1604.5. Importance Classification excerpt
GS
importance
importance
importance
Use Group
Category
Seismic
Seismic
Nature of Occupancy
factor
factor
factor
Snow
Wind
r i g h t
y
I I Low hazard structures: 1 0.8 0.87
Cop
Agriculture, temporary, minor storage
2 0 0 6
This causes air infiltration on the windward side and outflow on the leeward side. In high-
rise buildings, warm air moving from lower to upper levels causes pressures at top levels
-
0
on the leeward face and negative suction on lower levels. Wind pressure is based on the
9 9
equation developed by Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782). For steady air flow of velocity V,
1
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the velocity pressure, q, on a rigid body is
q = pV2 / 2
c h i
p = air density (air weight divided by the acceleration of gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2)
GS
Air of 15°C at sea level weighs 0.0765 Ib/ft3, which yields:
i g h t G q = 0.00256V2 (q in psf)
r
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Minimum design loads for buildings
Copy and other structures (ANSI A58.1 - 1982), converted dynamic pressure to velocity
pressure qz (psf) at height z as
qz = 0.00256 Kz (I V)2
Kz = 2.58(z/zg)2/a (for buildings of 15 ft or higher)
a = Power coefficient (see exposures A – D below)
Z = Height above ground
Zg = Height at which ground friction no longer effects the wind speed
(see exposures A - D below)
I = Importance factor (see IBC table 1604.5)
ANSI A58.1 defined exposures A, B, C, D (IBC uses B, C, D only):
Exposure A Large city centers a = 3.0, Zg = 1500 ft
Exposure B Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas a = 4.5, Zg = 1200 ft
Exposure C Flat, open country with minimal obstructions a = 7.0, Zg = 900 ft
Exposure D Flat, unobstructed coastal areas a = 10.0, Zg = 700 ft
35.0 Importance factor I = 1, gust factor G = 0.85 (ASCE 7, 6.5.8 for rigid structures > 1 Hz)
30.0
For each level in width direction find: wind pressure P, force F, shear V, shear wall type
25.0
20.0
Interior pressure (from graph for h = 30’) p = 3.1 psf
15.0 Leeward suction (from graph for h = 30’ P= 7.3 psf
10.0
5.0
Level 3 (h = 29 – use 30’ pressure)
0.0 Wind pressure (windward + leeward + interior)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
p = 11.7+7.3 + 3.1 p = 22.1 psf
85 9.1 9.6 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.1 12.5 12.9 13.3 13.5
90 10.2 10.8 11.7 12.5 13.1 13.5 14.0 14.5 14.9 15.1 Force F = 22.1x120x10’/2 F = 13,260 #
100 12.6 13.3 14.5 15.4 16.1 16.7 17.3 17.9 18.3 18.6 Shear V = F V = 13,260 #
110 15.2 16.1 17.5 18.6 19.5 20.2 20.9 21.7 22.2 22.6
6
Required wall strength = 13,260 / 90’ = 147 plf; use 5/16”, 6d at 6” 200 > 147
0
120 18.1 19.2 20.9 22.2 23.2 24.1 24.9 25.8 26.4 26.8
0
130 21.3 22.5 24.5 26.0 27.3 28.3 29.3 30.3 31.0 31.5
2
Level 2 (h = 19’ – use 20’ pressure)
-
140 24.7 26.1 28.4 30.2 31.6 32.8 33.9 35.1 36.0 36.5
0
p = 10.8+7.3+3.1 p = 21.2 psf
9
150 28.3 30.0 32.6 34.6 36.3 37.6 39.0 40.3 41.3 41.9
9
Windward pressure (psf) Force F = 21.2 x 120 x 10’ F = 25,440 #
85 5.7 6.0 6.5 6.9 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.3 8.4
erle 1
Shear V = 13,260 + 25,440
Required wall strength = 38,700 / 90’ = 430 plf; use 15/32”, 8d at 4”
V = 38,700 #
430 = 430
i
90 6.4 6.7 7.3 7.8 8.2 8.5 8.8 9.1 9.3 9.4
c h
100 7.9 8.3 9.1 9.6 10.1 10.5 10.8 11.2 11.5 11.7
Level 1 (h = 9’ – use 10’ pressure’)
GS
110 9.5 10.1 11.0 11.6 12.2 12.6 13.1 13.5 13.9 14.1
120 11.3 12.0 13.1 13.8 14.5 15.0 15.6 16.1 16.5 16.8 p = 10.2+7.3+3.1 p = 20.6 psf
13.3 14.1 15.3 16.3 17.0 17.7 18.3 18.9 19.4 19.7
130
Force F = 23.7x120x10’ F = 24,720 #
140
150
15.4
17.7
16.3
18.7
17.8
20.4
i g h t
18.9
21.6
G 19.8
22.7
20.5
23.5
21.2
24.3
21.9
25.2
22.5
25.8
22.8
26.2 Shear V = 38,700 + 24,720
Required strength = 63,420 / 90’ = 705 plf; use 15/32”, 8d at 2”
V = 63.420 #
730 > 705
r
Leeward pressure (psf)
85
90
100
110
120 Cop
2.4
2.7
3.3
4.0
4.8
2.5
2.9
3.5
4.3
5.1
y
2.8
3.1
3.8
4.6
5.5
2.9
3.3
4.1
4.9
5.9
3.1
3.5
4.3
5.2
6.1
3.2
3.6
4.4
5.4
6.4
3.3
3.7
4.6
5.5
6.6
3.4
3.8
4.7
5.7
6.8
3.5
3.9
4.9
5.9
7.0
3.6
4.0
4.9
6.0
7.1
Note:
The results are very similar to 9.1 with less computation
See Appendix C for exposure B and D graphs
20.0
Shear walls resist all lateral load
15.0 Roof fabric canopy, 50’x50’x10’, gust factor G = 1.8
10.0 Wind speed V = 100 mph
5.0 Exposure D
0.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Importance factor I = 1
85 11.0 11.5 12.4 13.0 13.6 14.0 14.3 14.8 15.0 15.3
90 12.3 12.9 13.9 14.6 15.2 15.7 16.1 16.5 16.8 17.1
100 15.2 16.0 17.2 18.1 18.8 19.4 19.8 20.4 20.7 21.2
Interior pressure (assume conservative opening height h = 60’) p = 5.1 psf
6
18.4 19.3 20.8 21.8 22.7 23.5 24.0 24.7 25.1 25.6 Leeward pressure (for h = 60’)
0
110
P = 12.1 psf + 5.1 psf p = 17.2 psf
0
120 21.9 23.0 24.7 26.0 27.1 27.9 28.6 29.4 29.8 30.5
- 2
130 25.8 27.0 29.0 30.5 31.8 32.8 33.5 34.5 35.0 35.8
Average windward pressure (h = 10 to 60’)
0
140 29.9 31.3 33.6 35.4 36.8 38.0 38.9 40.0 40.6 41.5
9
150 34.3 36.0 38.6 40.6 42.3 43.6 44.6 45.9 46.6 47.6 P = (15.2+16.0+17.2+18.1+18.8+19.4) / 6 p = 17.5 psf
9
Average combined wind pressure
Winward pressure (psf)
e
9.6
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P = 17.5+17.2+5.1
1
Roof canopy pressure P canopy = (12.1)(1.8)
P = 39.8 psf
P canopy = 21.8 psf
h i
90 7.7 8.1 8.7 9.1 9.5 9.8 10.0 10.3 10.5 10.7
Base shear
c
100 9.5 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.7 12.1 12.4 12.8 12.9 13.2
S
110 11.5 12.1 13.0 13.7 14.2 14.7 15.0 15.4 15.7 16.0 V = A P = 90’ x (60’-5’) x 39.8 + (50’x10’/2)x21.8 V = 202,460 #
G
120 13.7 14.4 15.4 16.2 16.9 17.4 17.8 18.4 18.6 19.0
130 16.1 16.9 18.1 19.1 19.8 20.5 20.9 21.6 21.9 22.3
Core shear stress
G
v =V/A = 202,460 / (48’x12”x7.625”) v = 46 psi
t
140 18.7 19.6 21.0 22.1 23.0 23.7 24.3 25.0 25.4 25.9
h
150 21.4 22.5 24.1 25.4 26.4 27.3 27.9 28.7 29.1 29.8
rig
Leeward pressure (psf) Note:
85
90
100
110
120
130 C o
2.9
3.3
4.0
4.9
5.8
6.8
p y 3.1
3.4
4.2
5.1
6.1
7.1
3.3
3.7
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.7
3.5
3.9
4.8
5.8
6.9
8.1
3.6
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.2
8.4
3.7
4.2
5.1
6.2
7.4
8.7
3.8
4.3
5.2
6.4
7.6
8.9
3.9
4.4
5.4
6.5
7.8
9.1
4.0
4.4
5.5
6.6
7.9
9.3
4.0
4.5
5.6
6.8
8.1
9.5
Wind on lower half of first floor, resisted by footing, has no effect on shear walls
140 7.9 8.3 8.9 9.4 9.7 10.1 10.3 10.6 10.7 11.0
150 9.1 9.5 10.2 10.8 11.2 11.5 11.8 12.2 12.3 12.6
0 0 6
Occasionally earthquakes may occur within plates rather than at the edges. This was the
- 2
case with a series of strong earthquakes in New Madrid, along the Mississippi River in
1 9
explosions, or similar man-made events
9 0
Missouri in 1811-1812. Earthquakes are also caused by volcanic eruptions, underground
erle
Buildings are shaken by ground waves, but their inertia tends to resists the movement
i
which causes lateral forces. The building mass (dead weight) and acceleration affects
GS c hthese forces. In response, structure height and stiffness, as well as soil type affect the
response of buildings to the acceleration. For example, seismic forces for concrete shear
walls (which are very stiff) are considered twice that of more flexible moment frames. As
i g h t G an analogy, the resilience of grass blades will prevent them from breaking in an
earthquake; but when frozen in winter they would break because of increased stiffness.
y r
Cop
The cyclical nature of earthquakes causes dynamic forces that are best determined by
dynamic analysis. However, given the complexity of dynamic analysis, many buildings of
regular shape and height limits, as defined by codes, may be analyzed by a static force
method, adapted from Newton’s law F= ma (Force = mass x acceleration).
1 Seismic wave propagation and fault rupture
2 Lateral slip fault
3 Thrust fault
4 Building overturn
5 Building shear
6 Bending of building (first mode)
7 Bending of building (higher mode)
E Epicenter
H Hypocenter
Spectral acceleration
- 2 0 0 6
0
Based on the 1971 San Fernando and other Earthquakes Seed (1976) developed
9 9
Acceleration Spectra to correlate time period (X-axis) with acceleration for four soil types.
1
Other studies by Hall, Hayashi, Kuribayashi, and Mohraz demonstrated similar results.
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Equivalent Lateral Force Analysis is based on Acceleration Spectra, abstracted as
i
Design Response Spectrum
GS c h
i g h t G
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Cop
Acceleration spectra for four soil types (by Seed)
Enter latitude in the left box in decimal degrees (range: 24.6 to 50.0)
Enter negative longitude in the right box (range: -125.0 to -65.0)
Web output:
6
LOCATION 37.7795 Lat. -122.4195 Long.
0 - 2 0 0
Interpolated Probabilistic Ground Motion(Spectral Acceleration SA) in %g, at the site are:
9
1.0 sec SA 53.08
1 9
92.41 % → S1 = 0.92 (for high-rise)
erle
Low-rise: T<TS (structures < 5 stories)
High-rise: T>TS (structures > 10 stories)
GS
Define base shear V (lateral force at base of structure)
V = CS W
G
W = Dead load (+ 25% storage live load + 20% flat roof snow load > 30 psf)
r i g h t CS= seismic coefficient - see sample graph at left (SS at top line)
For other structures:
0.50 Cop y
Cs factors for light fram ing with wood panels (R=6, I=1)
CS = I SDS / R
Need not exceed
CS = I SD1 / (TR)
I = Importance factor
R = R-factor
(for T < TS)
6
Light framed walls with other panels 2 NL NL 35 NP NP Base Shear
Ordinary reinforced concrete walls
Special reinforced concrete walls
4
5
NL
NL
NL NP NP NP
NL 160 160 100
V = CS W = 0.15 x 36,000
0 - 2 0 0 V = 5,400 #
9
Ordinary reinforced masonry walls 2 NL 160 NP NP NP Example: Same residence in San Francisco on site class A
Special reinforced masonry walls 5 NL NL 160 160 100
1 9
CS factor (see graph)
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Building frame systems Interpolate CS at Ss = 1.85 (CS /1.85 = 0.13 / 2.0)
CS = 0.13x1.85/ 2.0 CS = 0.12
i
Ordinary steel concentric braced frames 5 NL NL 35 35 NP
h
Base shear V = CS W = 0.12 x 36,000 V = 4,320 #
c
Special steel concentric braced frames 6 NL NL 160 160 100
GS
Ordinary steel moment frames 3.5 NL NL NP NP NP
Special steel moment frames 8 NL NL NL NL NL Example: Same residence in Tucson
G
Site class D, SS = 0.329
Cop y
Cs factors for light fram ing with wood panels (R=6, I=1)
CS = 0.329x0.06 / 0.5
Base shear V = CS W = 0.04 x 36,000
- 2 0 0 6 V2 = 3 k
V1 = 5 k
0
V0 = 5 k + 1 k V0 = 6 k
9 9
Mx = overturn moment per level = sum of all forces above times level arm
1
Assuming 10’ story height:
erle
M2 = 3 k x10’ M2 = 30 k’
i
M1 = 3 k x20 + 2 k x 10’ M1 = 80 k’
h t G Fx =Cvx V
rig
n
C vx = w x hx / ∑ w i hik (vertical distribution factor)
C o p y i=1
W = total dead weight of level x
h = height of level x above ground
n = total number of stories
k = exponent related to structure period
k = 1 for T ≤ 0.5 seconds
k = 2 for T > 2.5 seconds
k = interpolated between T = 0.5 and 2.5
6 k Interpolation graph
7 Shear per level
n
Vx = ∑ Fi
i=x
8 Overturn moment per level
n
M x = ∑ F(h
i n - hi )
i=x
6
R3 = (150)14/2 = 1050 lbs q = 1050 / 8’ q = 131 plf
2 Rigid diaphragm
0 - 2 0 0
Concrete slabs and some steel decks are rigid; they transfer load in proportion to the
9 9
relative stiffness of each wall. Since rigid diaphragms experience only minor
1
deflections under load they impose equal drift on walls of equal length and stiffness.
erle
For unequal walls reactions are proportional to a resistance factor r.
c h ir = E I / h3 / ∑ (E I / h3)
h = wall height
GS
I = bL3 / 12 (moment of inertia of wall)
G
b = wall thickness
r i g h t L = wall length
For walls of equal height, thickness and material, the resistance factors are:
Copy r = L3 / Σ L3
L13 = L33 = 83 = 512
L23 = 123 = 1728
∑ L3 = 512 + 1728 + 512 Σ L3 = 2752
r1 = 512 / 2752 r1 = 0.186
r2 = 1728 / 2752 r2 = 0.628
r3 = 512 / 2752 r3 = 0.186
Check Σ r Σ r = 1.000
Total force F
F = 1000 plf x (16’+14’) / 1000 F = 30 k
Wall reactions
R1 = r1 F = 0.186 x 30 k R1 = 5.58 k
R2 = r2 F = 0.628 x 30 k R2 = 18.84 k
R3 = r3 F = 0.186 x 30 k R3 = 5.58 k
Check Σ R Σ R = 30,00 k
- 2 0 0
0.33
0.17
6 35 k
18 k
88 k
106 k
9
ΣwihI = 12,690 k’ V = 106 k
1 9
Area per level A = 68 (150)
9 A= 10200 ft2
erle
Shear per square foot v v =V/A v (psi)
GS
V2 = 53 k = 53000 lbs v2 = 53000/10200 v2 = 5.2 psf
rig
Wall A = 10.4 psf (15’)30’/12’ = 390 plf use 5/16, 6d @ 3” = 390 plf
Wall A = 8.6 psf (15’)30’/12’ = 323 plf use 15/32, 10d @ 6” = 340 plf
Wall B = 8.6 psf (19’)30’/24’ = 204 plf use 3/8, 8d @ 6” = 230 plf
Wall C = 8.6 psf (34’)15’/30’ = 146 plf use 5/16, 6d @ 6” = 200 plf
Wall D = 8.6 psf (34’)30’/30’ = 292 plf use 5/16, 6d @ 4” = 300 plf
6
Base shear V = Cs W = 0.26 x 6120 V = 1,591 k
Force distribution
Level Wx hx Wxhx
0-2 0
wxhx/Σwihi
0 Fx= V(wxhx/Σwihi) Vx = Σ Fx
9
2 2,040 k 27’ 55,080 k’ 1591x0.50 796 k 796 k
1
1 9
2,040 k 18’ 36,720 k’ 1591x0.33 525 k 1,321 k
erle
0 2,040 k 9’ 18,360 k’ 1591x0.17 270 k 1,591 k
ΣwihI = 110,169 k’ V = 1,591 k
c h i
Relative wall stiffness:
GS
R = L3 / Σ L3
Wall B: r = 123 / [123+243] r = 0.11
Cop
B walls = 14(12’)12”(7.625”) B = 15372 in2
C walls = 8(24’)12”(7.625”) C = 17568 in2
Level 0 (V0 = 1591 k)
Wall A = (1591) 1000 / 32940 48 psi < 85
Wall B = (1591) 1000 (0.11) / 15372 11 psi < 85
Wall C = (1591) 1000 (0.89) / 17568 81 psi < 85
Level 1 (V1 = 1321 k)
Wall A = (1321) 1000 / 32940 40 psi < 85
Wall B = (1321) 1000 (0.11) / 15372 10 psi < 85
Wall C = (1321) 1000 (0.89) / 17568 67 psi < 85
Level 2 (V2 = 796 k)
Wall A = (796) 1000 / 32940 24 psi < 85
Wall B = (796) 1000 (0.11) / 15372 6 psi < 85
Wall C = (796) 1000 (0.89) / 17568 40 psi < 85
- 2 0 0 6
3 X-direction
1 9
concentric
9 0
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Y-direction concentric
i
4 X-direction concentric
GS c h Y-direction concentric
i g h t G
y r
Cop 5 X-direction concentric
Y-direction concentric
6 X-direction concentric
Y-direction concentric
Note:
Plan 5 provides greater resistance against torsion than plan 6 due to wider wall spacing
Plan 6 provides greater bending resistance because walls act together as core and thus
provide a greater moment of inertia
- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
GS
………. adapt building to site rather than adapting site to building
i g h t G
y r
Cop
6" MAX
12" MAX D Wall-to-wall hold-down Resist shear wall overturning
6
6" MAX
C C DD
0 - 2 0 0
E
1 9
Framing anchor clips
9
Transfer shear from floor to floor
E
c h i erle
E
h t G GS
y r i g F Beam connection Resist beam slippage
Cop
PLWD. GYP/ FI BER BD. G Shear wall width/height ratio Minimum 1 : 3.5 for stability
3.5 1.5 Wood panels 1:3.5 (Los Angeles, 1:2)
Gypsum board 1:2
F GG
1.0 1.0
F
H Joist blocking Transfers shear at panel edges
H H
- 2 0 0 6
Left:
9
Base isolator make-up
1
• Top and bottom steel plate
9 0
erle
• Rubber sheets
c h i • Steel sheets
• Central lead core
y r i g
Cop
10
Structural design starts with the selection of a system and material; often informed by
similar past projects, even if not appropriate. For example, light wood structures are
common for residential building where hurricanes cause frequent destruction, though
heavy concrete or masonry would resist wind load much better. A rational method is
proposed with the objective to select more appropriate systems. However, since design
criteria may be conflicting in some cases, selection is both art and science, yet the
following criteria make the selection process more objective
• Capacity limit
Conc e pt ua l De sign • Code requirements
• Cost
• Load
• Location
• Resources
• Technology
- 2 0 0 6
• Synergy
9 9 0
Capacity limit is based on limits of systems and materials. For example, beams are
1
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economical for a given span range. To exceed that range would yield a bad ratio of dead
load to live load. A beam’s cross section increases with span, resulting in heavier dead
c h i load. Eventually, the beam’s dead load exceeds its capacity and it would break.
GS
Approaching that limit, the beam gets increasingly uneconomical because its dead weight
leaves little reserve capacity to carry live load. The span limit can be extended by
G
effective cross section shape. For example, steel beam cross sections are optimized in
y
Trusses have longer span capacity than beams, due to reduced self weight. They
Cop
replace the bulk of beams by top and bottom chords to resist global moments, and
vertical and diagonal web bars to transfer shear between compression and tension
chords. Compared to beams, the greater depth of trusses provides a greater lever arm
between compression and tension bars to resist global moments. Similarly, suspension
cables use the sag between support and mid-span as moment resisting lever arm. Since
cables have higher breaking strength and resist tension only, without buckling, they are
Introduction optimal for long spans; but the high cost of end fittings makes them expensive solutions
for short spans. These examples show, most systems have upper and lower span limits.
Conceptual design usually starts with approximate sizing principle elements of a structure
and possible alternatives, followed by thorough analysis during design development. Code requirements define structures by type of construction regarding materials and
Approximate methods are essential to quickly develop alternate designs. They are also systems; ranging form type I to type V for least and most restrictive, respectively, of the
useful to verify final designs and computer analysis. If based on good assumptions, Uniform Building Code (UBC) for example. Each type of construction has requirements
approximate methods can provide results of remarkable accuracy, usually within ten for fire resistance, maximum allowable floor area, building height, and occupancy group.
percent of precise results. The following conceptual design examples introduce Codes also have detailed requirements regarding seismic design; notable structures are
approximate methods, sometimes referred to as back-of-the-envelop design. They are categorized by ductility to absorb seismic energy and related height limits. Some code
not meant to replace accurate design but as precursor of accurate design and analysis. requirements are related to other criteria described in the respective section.
6
contrast, structures subject to wind load should be heavy and stiff to resist wind uplift and
minimize drift. Structures in areas of daily temperature variations should be designed for
thermal load as well, unless the structure is protected behind a thermal insulation skin
- 2 0 0
On a more detailed level, to incorporate mechanical systems within a long-span roof or
floor structure, a Vierendeel girder may be selected instead of a truss, since the
0
9
and subjected to constant indoor temperature only. rectangular panels of a Vierendeel better facilitate ducts to pass through than triangular
Location may effects structure selection by the type of soil, topography, and ground water
1 9
truss panels. A suspended cable roof may be selected for a sports arena if bleachers
erle
can be used to effectively resist the roof’s lateral thrust which is very substantial and may
level, natural hazards, such as fire, frost, or flood. Local soil conditions affect the
require costly foundations otherwise. Synergy is also a powerful concept regarding more
i
foundation and possibly the entire structure. Soft soil may require pile foundations; a mat
h
philosophical objectives, as demonstrated throughout history, from early post and beam
c
foundation may be chosen to balance the floating effect of high ground water. Locations
GS
structures; Roman arches, domes and vaults; Gothic cathedrals; to contemporary
with winter frost require deep foundations to prevent damage due to soil expansion in
suspension bridges or roofs. Columns can provide architectural expression as in post
frost (usually a depth of about one meter). Hillside locations may require caisson
G
and beam systems, or define and organize circulation, as in a Gothic cathedral. The
t
foundations to prevent sliding, but foundations are more common on flat sites. Locations
h
funicular surface of arches, domes and vaults can define a unique and spiritual space.
g
with fire hazards require non-combustible material. Raising the structure off the ground
y r
may be the answer to flooding.
i The buttresses to resist their lateral thrust provide the unique vocabulary of Gothic
Cop
cathedrals. Large retaining walls may use buttressing for rhythmic relieve, as in the great
Resources have a strong impact on the selection of structure materials. Availability of wall of Assisi, or lean backward to express increased stability as the wall of the Dalai
material was a deciding factor regarding the choice of material throughout history. The Lama palace in Tibet.
Viking build wood structures, a logical response to the vast forests of Scandinavia, yet
stone temples of Egypt and Greece reflect the availability of stone and scarcity of wood.
More recently, high-rise structures in the United States are usually steel structures, but
the scarcity of steel in some other countries makes concrete structures more common.
Technology available at an area also effects the selection of structures. For example,
light wood structures, known as platform framing, is most common for low rise residential
structures in the United States, where it is widely available and very well known; but in
Europe where this technology is less known, it is more expensive than more common
masonry structures. Similarly, in some areas concrete technology is more familiar and
available than steel technology. Concrete tends to be more common in areas of low
labor cost, because concrete form-wok is labor intensive. On the other hand, prefab
concrete technology is less dependent on low labor cost and more affected by market
V =wL/2
w = uniform gravity load
L = span
- 2 0 0 6
9 9 0
For other load or support conditions use appropriate formulas
Beam
1
erle
Beams resist the global moment by a force couple, with lever arm of 2/3 the beam depth
c h i
d; resisted by top compression C and bottom tension T.
GS
Truss
G
Trusses resist the global moment by a force couple and truss depth d as lever arm; with
r i g h t compression C in top chord and tension T in bottom chord. Global shear is resisted by
vertical and / or diagonal web bars. Maximum moment at mid-span causes maximum
y
chord forces. Maximum support shear causes maximum web bar forces.
Cop Cable
Suspension cables resist the global moment by horizontal reaction with sag f as lever
arm. The horizontal reaction H, vertical reaction R, and maximum cable tension T form
an equilibrium vector triangle; hence the maximum cable tension is:
T = (H2 + R2)1/2
Arch
Arches resist the global moment like a cable, but in compression instead of tension:
C = (H2+R2)1/2
However, unlike cables, arches don’t adjust their form for changing loads; hence, they
assume bending under non-uniform load as product of funicular force and lever arm
between funicular line and arch form (bending stress is substituted by conservative axial
stress for approximate schematic design).
Proof
- 2 0 0 6
0
Referring to ring segment B:
1 9
T acts perpendicular to ring radius R
9
erle
p acts perpendicular to ring segment of unit length
c h i
Referring to ring segment B and vector triangle C:
GS
p and T in C represent equilibrium at o in B
rig
T=Rp
C o p y
6
P= w e = 0.6 x 10’ P=6k
Vertical Reaction
R= w L / 2 = 0.6 x 100’ / 2
0 - 2 0 0 R = 30 k
9
END BAY CHORD
Chord shear
1 9
erle
Vc= (R – P/2) / 2 = (30 – 6/2) / 2 Vc = 13.5 k
i
Chord bending
G
I= Mc c/ Fa = 810x5”/27.6 ksi I = 147 in4
r i g h t Use ST 10x10x5/16
WEB BAR (2nd web resists bending of 2 adjacent chords)
I = 183 > 147, ok
Mc = 630 k”
Web bending
Mw = Mc end bay + Mc 2nd bay = 810 + 630 Mw = 1,440 k”
Moment of Inertia required
I = Mw c/Fa = 1,440x5/27.6 I = 261 in4
Use ST 10x10x1/2 web bar I =271 > 261, ok
MID-SPAN CHORD (small chord bending ignored)
Mid-span global bending
M= w L2/8= 0.6x1002/8 M = 750 k’
Mid-span chord force
P= M/d= 750/6 P= 125 k
Use ST 10 x 10 x5/16 297 > 125, ok
- 2 0 0 6 H = 30 k
R = w L /2 = 0.48 x 100’ / 2 =
1 9
Arch compression (max.)
9 0 R = 24 k
rle
C = (H2 + R2)1/2 = (30 2 + 24 2 )1/2 C = 38 k
e
Cross section area required
S c h i
A = C / Fc’ = 38 / 0.2 ksi
Glue-lam depth (try 5 1/8” wide glue-lam)
A = 190 in2
G
t = A / width = 190 / 5.125 = 37; use 50 lams of ¾” t = 37.5”
G
Check slenderness ratio
y
Note:
Co p Arch slenderness of L/t = 32 is ok (the 5 1/8” arch width is braced against buckling by the
roof diaphragm).
Wind bracing at end bays may consist of diagonal steel rods in combination with
compression struts. The lateral thrust of arches may be resisted by concrete piers that
may be tied together by grade beams to resist the lateral arch thrust.
Final design must consider non-uniform load (snow on half the arch) resulting in
combined axial and bending stress; the bending moment being axial force times lever
arm between funicular pressure line and arch center. The funicular line may be found
graphically.
Graphic method
• Draw a vector of the computed vertical reaction
• Draw equilibrium vectors parallel to arch support tangent
• Equilibrium vectors give arch force and horizontal reaction
2 0 0 6
Mid span point load (center truss, A transfers load of circular end units)
-
w = 0.55 klf
0
Tributary area of end units
A = π r2/3 = π(217’/2)2/3
1 9
Point load per truss
9 A = 12,278 sq. ft.
erle
P = 12,278 x 22.9 psf / 1000 / 16 trusses P = 18 k
c h i
Global moment
M = PL/4+wL2/8 = 18x217/4 + 0.55 x 2172/8 M = 4,214 k’
GS
Chord bar force
G
C = T = M/d = 4,214 / 19 C =T = 222 k
y
Try wide flange
Cop
Allowable force P from AISC table (use L = 0’ for tension, no buckling)
Pall = 222 222 = 222, ok
Top chord un-braced length L = 217’/12 L = 18’
Top chord bending (negative support bending
M = w L2/12 = 0.55 x 182 / 12 M = 15 k’
Try W12x50
A = 14.7in2, Ix= 394 in4, rx= 5.17” (y-axis is braced by roof deck)
Bending stress
fb = M c / I = 15k’x12”x 6”/394 fb = 2.74 ksi
Axial stress fa = C / A = 222 k /14.7 in2 fa = 15.1 ksi
Slenderness KL/rx = 1x18’x12” / 5.17” kL/r = 42
Allowable buckling stress (from AISC table) Fa =19 ksi
Check combined stress fa/Fa + fb/Fb <=1
fa/Fa + fb/Fb = 15.1/19 + 2.74 / 21.6 = 0.92 0.92 < 1, ok
Use W12x50
6
M = w L2 / 8 = 9.35 x 642 / 8 M = 4787 kN-m
Horizontal reaction
H = M / f = 4787 / 7
0 - 2 0 0 H = 684 kN
9
Vertical reaction R (max.)
1 9
erle
Reactions are unequal; use R/H ratio (similar triangles) to compute max. R
R/H = (2f+h/2) / (L/2), hence
c h i
R = H (2f+h/2) / (L/2) = 684 (2x7+13/2) / (64/2) 438 kN
GS
Suspender tension (max.)
T = (H2 + R2)1/2 = (684 2 + 438 2 )1/2 T = 812 kN
rig
f = T / A = 1000x812 / (30x400) f = 67.7 MPa
C o p y US unit equivalent
67.7 kPa x 0.145 f = 9.8 ksi
9.8 < 22 ksi, ok
Graphic method
• Draw a vector of the total vertical load
• Equilibrium vectors parallel to support tangents give cable forces
• Equilibrium vectors at supports give H and R reactions.
Note: The unequal support height is a structural disadvantage since the horizontal
reactions of adjacent bays don’t balance, but it provides lighting and ventilation, a major
objective for sustainability. The roof consists of prefab wood panels, filled with gravel to
resist wind uplift. Curtain wall mullions at the roof edge are prestressed between roof
and footing to prevent buckling under roof deflection. In width direction the roof is slightly
convex for drainage; which also gives the interior roof line a pleasing spatial form.
- 2 0 0 6 M = 5,513 k
0
H = M / f = 5,513 / 30 H = 184 k
Vertical reaction
1 9 9
rle
R = w L / 2 = (0.75/2) x 420’ / 2 R = 79 k
e
Cable tension (max.)
Sc h i
T = (H2 + R2)1/2 = (184 2 + 79 2 )1/2
Metallic cross section required
T = 200 k
h t G G Am = T / Fa = 200 / 70 ksi
Gross cross section (70% metallic)
Am= 2.86 in2
Co
ø = 2(Am / π)1/2 = 2(4.09 / 3.14)1/2 = 2.28” use ø 2 3/8”
Steel tension ring (inner ring radius r= 15’, cable spacing = 0.94’)
T= H r / 0.94 = 184 x 15 / 0.94 T = 2,972 k
Cross-section area (assume high-strength steel Fa = 30 ksi)
A= T/Fa = 2,936/30= 98 in2
Try W24x335, A= 98.2 in2 > 98 use W24x335
Concrete compression ring (r = 210’, e = 13’)
C = H r / e = 184 x 210 / 13 = C = 2,972 k
Cross-section area (assume allowable buckling stress Fc’= 1.2 ksi)
A = C / Fc’ = 2,972 / 1.2 = 2,477 in2 ~72”x34” Use 6x3’
6
M = w L2 / 8 = 62.5 x 1972 / 8 M = 303,195 #
Horizontal reaction
H = M / f = 303,195 #” / 39’
0 - 2 0 0 H = 7,774 #
9
Vertical reaction
1 9
erle
R = w L / 2 = 62.5 x 197’ / 2 R = 6,156 #
Gravity tension (add 10% residual prestress)
c h i
T = 1.1 (H2 + R2)1/2 = 1.1 (7,774 2 + 6,156 2 )1/2 Gravity T = 10,908 #
GS
Wind uplift tension (add 10% residual prestress)
Wind suction is normal to surface, hence T = p r [r = curvature radius)
r
10,907 > 9,944 gravity governs
Copy Metallic cross section area (assume twin ½” net cables, 70% metallic)
Am = 0.7 x 2 π r2 = 2 x 3.14 (0.5/2)2
Net cable stress
f = T/ Am = 10,908 / (0.28 x 1000)
Am= 0.28 in2
f = 39 ksi < 70 ok
Assume
Allowable rod stress (high strength steel) Fa = 207,000 kPa (30 ksi)
DL = 0.7 kPa (14.7 psf)
LL =
Σ =
0.5 kPa
1.2 kPa
(10.4 psf)
(25.1 psf)
- 2 0 0 6
Uniform load
1 9
w = 1.2 kPa x 13.2m
9 0 w = 15.8 kN/m
erle
Tributary load per rod P
i
P = w L’ = 15.8 kN/m x 12m P = 190 kN
GS c hRod tensions
TA-B (from vector triangle) TA-B = 370 kN
Cop
Rod diameter
∅ = 2 (A/π)1/2 = 2 (894/3.14)1/2 2 ∅ 34 mm
Convert to inches
34 mm/25.4 2 ∅ 1.33”
Rods A-C cross section (4 rods)
A = TA-C / (4 Fa) = 246 / (4 x 207,000) = 0.000297 m2 A = 297 mm2
Rod diameter ∅
∅ = 2 (A/π)1/2 = 2 (297/3.14)1/2 4 ∅ 20 mm
Covert to inches
20 mm/25.4 4 ∅ 0.79”
Note: design the truss for added compression, from vector triangles
Between B-C add 317 kN B-C = 317 kN
Between C-D add 317 + 159 kN C-D = 476 kN
- 2 0 0 6
w = 30 psf x 20’/1000
1 9
Global moment (fixed support)
9 0 w = 0.6 klf
erle
M = wL2/12 = 0.6 x 1202/12 M = 720 k’
c h i
Chord force (assume 10% residual prestress)
GS
T = 1.1 M/d = 1.1 x 720/10’ T = 79 k
Chord cross section area (70% metallic)
rig
Chord cable size
y
φ = 2(A/π)1/2 =2(1.61/π)1/2 =1.43” Use φ1.5”
T = 72 k
Diagonal cable cross section (twin cables, 70% metallic)
A = T’/(2 x 70 x 0.7) = 72/(2 x 70 x 0.7) A = 0,73 in2
Diagonal cable size
φ = 2(A/π)1/2 = 2(0.73/π)1/2 = 0.96 in Use φ1 in
- 2 0 0 6
4
9 9 0
Column moment = column shear x height to inflection point
1
erle
Ma = Va h / 2
Mb = Vb h / 2
c h i Mc = Vc h / 2
GS
Md = Vd h / 2
5 Exterior columns resist most overturn; the portal method assumes they resist all
i g h t G 6 Overturn moments per level are the sum of forces above the level times lever arm
r
of each force to the column inflection point at the respective level:
Copy M2 = F2 h2 / 2 (level 2)
M1 = F2 (h2+h1 / 2) + F1 h1 / 2 (level 1)
Column axial force = overturn moment divided by width B
N=M/B
Column axial force per level:
N2 = M2 / B (level 2)
N1 = M1 / B (level 1)
7 Beam shear = column axial force below beam minus column axial force above beam
Level 1 beam shear:
V = N1 - N2
Roof beam:
V = N2 - 0 = N2
Beam bending = beam shear times distance to inflection point at beam center
M=VL/2
Beam axial force is negligible and assumed 0
6
N1 = M1/B = 308/80 N1 = 3.9 k
Column axial load 2nd floor
N2 = M2/B = 84/80
0-2 0 0 N2 = 1.1 k
9
Beam shear
1 9
V1 = N1–N2 = 3.9-1.1 V1 = 2.8 k
erle
Beam bending
M1 = V1 L1/2 = 2.8x30/2 M1 = 42 k’
c h i
M2 = V1 L2/2 = 2.8x20/2 M2 = 28 k’
GS
2nd floor
2nd floor shear
G
V = F2 V = 12 k
C o p y Column b shear
Vb = (L1+L2)/2 (V/B) = (30+20)/2x12/80
Column a bending
Ma = Va h/2 = 2.25 x 14/2
Vb = 3.75 k
Ma = 15.75 k’
Column b bending
Mb = Vb h/2 = 3.75 x 14/2 Mb = 26.25 k’
Overturn moment
M2 = F2xh/2 = 12x14/2 M2 = 84 k’
Column axial load
N2 = M2/B = 84/80 N2 = 1.0 k
Beam shear
V2 = N2 V2 = 1.0 k
Beam 1 bending
M1 = V2 L1/2=1.0x30/2 M1 = 15 k’
Beam 2 bending
M2 = V2 L2/2=1.0x20/2 M2 = 10 k’
- 2 0 0 6 100 90
P = 33 psf
0
Design ground floor and 4th floor
1 9
Uniform beam load (shaded tributary are)
W = 100 psf x 30’/1000
9 w = 3 klf
erle
Uniform column load (distributed on beam)
i
w = 90 psf x 30’/1000 w = 2.7 klf
GS c hBase shear
V = 33 psf x 30’ x 7.5 x 12’/1000
Level 4 shear
V = 89 k
Cop
First floor M1 = 33 psf x 30’(6.5 x12)2 /2 / 1000 M1 =3,012 k’
Fourth floor M4 = 33 psf x 30’(3.5 x12)2 /2 / 1000 M4 = 873 k’
Beam design
Column a & d axial load
N0 = M0 / B = 4,010 / 90 N0 = 45 k
N1 = M1 / B = 3,012 / 90 N1 = 34 k
Beam design
Beam shear
V = N0 – N1 = 45-34 V = 11 k
Beam bending
M lateral = V L/2 = 11x30/2 M lateral = 165 k’
M gravity = wL2/12 = 3x302/12 M gravity = 225 k’
ΣM = 165 + 225 Σ M = 390 k’
Required Sx = M / Fb = 12”x390 k’/ 30 ksi Sx = 156 in3
Use W18x86 Sx = 166 > 156
Note: W18 beam has optimal ratio L/d = 20
6
Column axial force + bending (ΣP = P+M Bx, estimate Bx than verify)
Column
a&d
P
365 k
0 - 2 0 0 M Bx (convert M to k”)
12”x190 k’x0.185 = 422 k
ΣP
787 k
9
b&c 648 k 12”x178 k’x0.185 = 395 k 1043 k
erle
Column Use Check P allowable vs. P Check Bx estimate vs. Bx
a&d W14x109 803 > 785, OK 0.185 = 0.185, OK
c h i
b&c W14x145 1090 > 1043, OK 0.185 > 0.184, OK
GS
4th floor
G
Column shear
t
Column Vc = L tributary V / B Vc
y r i g h a&d
b&c
15x42/90
30x42/90
7k
14 k
Cop
Column bending
Column M lateral = Vc h/2 M gravity = wL2/24 ΣM
a&d 7 x12/2 = 42 k’ 2.7x302/24 = 101 k’ 143 k’
b&c 14x12/2 = 84 k’ 0 84 k’
Column axial force (n = # of stories)
Column P lateral = Mo/B P gravity = nwL tributary ΣP
a&d 873/90 = 10 k 4x2.7x15 = 162 k 172 k
b&c 0 4x2.7x30 = 324 k 324 k
Column axial force + bending (ΣP = P+M Bx, estimate Bx than verify)
Column P M Bx (convert M to k”) ΣP
a&d 172 k 12”x143 k’x0.196 = 336 k 508 k
b&c 324 k 12”x84 k’x0.196 = 198 k 522 k
Design column (assume KL = 1.2 x12 = 14’)
Column Use Check P allowable vs. P Check Bx estimate vs. Bx
a&d W14x82 515 > 508, OK 0.196 = 0.196, OK
b&c W14x90 664 > 522, OK 0.196 > 0.185, OK
0 0 6
0-2
V = 30 psf x 45 x 90’/1000 V = 122 k
Overturn moment
9 9
Lever arm (to floor level for braced frames)
1
rle
L = (8x12’-6’)/2+6’ L = 51’
M0 = V L = 122 k x51’ M0 = 6,222 k’
Sc h i e
Column
Column and brace axial forces
Plateral = M0/30’ Pgravity = n w Atributary ΣP
h t G G
Gravity tributary width = 30’
a&d
b&c
P=0
P = 6,222 k’/30’ = 207 k
P = 8x2.7x15 = 324 k
P = 8x2.7x30 = 648 k
324 k
855 k
i g
Brace See vectors (tension & compression, design for compression) 78 k
- 0 6
Column and brace design (K = 1 for pin joints)
0
a&d 162 k 12’ W8x31 189 > 162
b&c
Brace
1 9
380 k
9 12’
40 k L = (122+152)1/2 = 20’
W14x61
TS6x6x3/16
410 > 380
60 > 40
erle
Compare material
c h i
The amount of steel required per square foot (m2) is used to compare framing systems.
GS
The steel at mid height provides a quick average weight to compare, assuming all bays
of approximately the same size provides the following comparative results.
i g t G
Tributary width for gravity = 30’
h
Gravity tributary width = 30’ Member
Moment frame
Weight / ft Length each Total length Weight
Cop
8 columns W14x90 90 plf 12’ 96’ 8,640 #
24 beams W18x86 86 plf 30’ 720’ 61,920 #
18 joists W18x35 35 plf 30’ 540’ 18,900 #
Total 97,332 #
Total per square foot 97,332 / (90x90) 12 psf
Tributary width for wind = 45’
Wind tributary width = 45’
Braced frame
Member Weight / ft Length each Total length Weight
8 columns W8x31 31 plf 12’ 96’ 2,976 #
8 columns W14x61 61 plf 12’ 96’ 5,856 #
24 beams W18x76 76 plf 30’ 720’ 54,720 #
18 joists W18x35 35 plf 30’ 540’ 18,900 #
P = 40 k P = 40 K 4 braces TS6x6x3/16 14.53 plf 20’ 80’ 1,162 #
Total 83,614 #
Total per square foot 83,614 / (90x90) 10.3 psf
V = 62 k
Geometric Scale:
- 2 0 6
require a strain scale of 1:1 to avoid errors (see 2). Scales are defined as:
0
SG = Lm/Lo = model dimension / original dimension
Force Scale:
1 9 9 0
SF = Pm/Po = model force / original force
SS = εm/εm = model strain / original strain
erle
Strain Scale:
The derivation for axial and bending resistance models assumes:
c h i A = Cross-section area
GS
E = Modulus of elasticity
I = Moment of inertia
Cop
o = Subscript for original structure
Axial resistance
Unit Strain ε = ΔL/L ΔL = P L / (AE) hence
Force P = A E ΔL/L = A E ε hence
Force Scale = SF = Pm/Po = AmEm / (AoEo) εm/εo since εm/εo = SS
SF = AmEm/(AoEo) SS
SF = AmEm/(AoEo) if SS = 1
SF = Am/Ao = SG2 if = Em=Eo
1 Axial strain ΔL = P L/(AE); unit strain ε = ΔL/L
2 Structures with large deformations, such as membranes, yield errors if the strain
scale SS is not 1:1; as demonstrated in the force polygon
3 Structures like trusses, with small deformations, may require a strain scale SS >1 to
better visualize deformations.
- 2 0 0 6
assuming all model dimensions,
0
including details, relate to the original in the geometric scale
1 9 9
In the simplest form the force scale is equal to the geometric scale squared for both axial
erle
and bending resistant models. Thus a model with a geometric scale of 1:100 has a force
scale of 1:10,000 if it is made of the same material or modulus of elasticity as the original
c h i
structure.
GS
Combined axial and bending resistance
G
Models with both axial and bending resistance, such as moment frames, should be of the
r i g h t same material or elastic modulus as the original in order to avoid errors. Referring to
diagrams 3, if, for example, the elastic modulus of a model is half as much as in the
y
original structure and the cross-section area is doubled to compensate for it, then the
Cop
moment of inertia is four times greater, assuming area increase is perpendicular to the
bending axis. For small adjustments this can be avoided by increasing the area parallel
to the bending axis. Large differences in stiffness, such as wood simulating steel, with an
elastic modulus about 20 times greater, are not possible. In such a case the strain scale
could be 20:1 to amplify deflection rather than adjusting the cross-section area.
1 Model strain ε = Δ/L must be equal to the original strain.
Δ = k PL3/EI where k = 1/3
2 Original strain ε = Δ/L
Δ = k PL3/EI where k=1/3
Since k is the same in the model as in the original, for equal load and support
conditions, it may be eliminated from the force scale equation
3 Correlation between cross-section area A and moment of inertia I
demonstrates incompatibility between A and I since they increase at different rates,
unless the increase is only in width direction
- 2 0 0 6
Note
1 9 9 0
• Record deformations and stresses for all load conditions
erle
• Apply loads briefly to avoid creep deformation
i
• Apply loads gradually to avoid rupture
GS c h• Test all load conditions that may cause critical deformation or stress
• Adjust design if deformation or stress exceeds acceptable limits
i g h t G
y r
Cop
6
Use average E of several tests
0 - 2 0 0
1 9 9
erle
Master thesis by Madhu Thangavelu
i
Wood cantilever roof Wood grid shell
h
MALEO: Modular Assembly in Low Earth Orbit, to avoid assembly of lunar station by
GS c costly remote control robotics. Light-weight cable truss of stable triangular configuration
supports three fuel tank modules for habitation, research, power and control.
i g h t G
y r
Cop Arch / grid shell Folded truss
2 0 0 6
and degree of freedom, regarding X, Y Z-displacement and X, Y, Z-rotation (joints
attached to the ground are fixed with pin or moment joints). Members are defined by
-
0
properties, cross section area, moment of inertia, and modulus of elasticity. Some
9 9
members may have end release at one or both ends, to allow pin joints of braces to
1
connect to moment joints of beam to column, for example. End releases are simulated by
erle
a dummy pin adjacent to the moment joint. The geometry of a structure may be defined
i
in the analysis program or imported as DFX file from a CAD program. Loads are defined
GS
Load diagram (uniform beam load, lateral point load)
c has distributed or point load. Gravity load is usually assigned as uniform beam load, yet
lateral wind or seismic loads are usually assigned as point loads at each level.
i g h t G Output includes force, stress, and deformation for members, joint displacement and
rotation, as well as support reactions. Output may be in tables and / or graphic display.
r
Graphic display provides better intuitive understanding and is more convenient to use.
Cop y Some programs simulate non-linear material behavior and / or non-linear geometric
behavior. For example, non-linear material may include plastic design of steel with non-
linear stress/strain relation in the plastic range. Non-linear geometric analysis is for
structures with large displacements, such as cable or membrane structures. Non-linear
analysis usually involves an iterative algorithm that converges after several iterations to a
desired level of accuracy. Some programs include a prestress element to provide form-
finding for membranes structures. Some programs provide dynamic analysis, sometimes
referred too as 4-D analysis. Programs with advanced features provide greater versatility
and accuracy, but they are usually more complex to use.
Multiframe-4D used for the demonstrations features 2-d and 3-d static and 4-d dynamic
analysis. For static analysis Multiframe is very user friendly, intuitive, and thus good for
architecture students. The 4-d dynamic feature is beyond the scope of this book. The
examples presented demonstrate 2-d and 3-d design/analysis. A very convenient feature
are tables of steel sections with pre-defined properties for US sections and for several
Hexagonal grid shell dome other countries. The program features US and SI units.
6
Frame: Drift
Frame only
Top truss
Belt truss
15.1”
0 -
14.9”
14.2”
2 0 0
9
Top and belt truss
1 9
14.0”
c h i erle
h t G GS 20-story braced frame
Gravity load w = 3 klf
Cop
Frame Drift
Frame only 17.6”
Top truss 11.4”
Belt truss 11.1”
Top and belt truss 8.6”
Note:
Belt and top trusses are much more effective to reduce drift at the braced frame than at
the moment frame. The combined belt and top trusses reduce drift:
• 7 % at moment frame
• 49 % at braced frame
Interpreting the results clarifies the stark difference and fosters intuitive understanding of
different deformation modes of moment and braced frames.
- 2 0 0 6
0
As the name implies, vertical/lateral systems include walls, columns and various other Bending resistant systems include joist, beam, girder, as well as Vierendeel frame and
framing systems that resist gravity load as well as lateral wind- and seismic load.
1 9 9
girder, folded plate and cylindrical shell. They carry gravity load primarily in bending to a
support structure. Shear is typically concurrent with bending; yet bending usually
erle
In the interest of a structured presentation, both, horizontal and vertical/lateral systems controls the design. Though bending resistant elements and systems are very common,
i
are further classified by type of resistance controlling the design. This also helps to they tend to be less efficient than other systems, because bending varies from maximum
GS c h
structure the creative design process. Though many actual systems may include several
modes of resistance, the controlling resistance is assumed for the classification. For
example, cable stayed systems usually include bending elements like beams, in addition
compression to maximum tension on opposite faces, with zero stress at the neutral axis.
Hence only half the cross-section is actually used to full capacity. Yet, this disadvantage
G
is often compensated by the fact that most bending members are simple extrusions, but
t
to cables or other tension members. However, at least at the conceptual level, their trusses are assembled from many parts with costly connections. Like any structure
r g h
designed is controlled more by tension members than by bending. Therefore they are
i
classified as tensile structures. Horizontal systems are presented in four chapters for
y
system, bending elements are cost effective within a certain span range, usually up to a
maximum of 120ft (40m). For longer spans the extra cost of more complex systems is
Cop
structures controlled by bending, axial, form and tensile resistance. Vertical/lateral justified by greater efficiency.
systems are presented in three chapters for structures controlled by shear-, bending-,
and axial resistance.
Effect of span
The effect of the span L for bending members may be demonstrated in the formulas for
deflection, bending moment and shear for the example of a simple beam under uniform
load.
Δ= (5/384) wL4/ (EI)
M= wL2/8
6
V= wL/2
where
Δ= Maximum deflection
0 - 2 0 0
9
E= Elastic modulus
1
I = Moment of Inertia
9
erle
L= Length of span
GS
w= Uniform load per unit length
i g h t G The formulas demonstrate deflection increases with the 4th power of span, the bending
moment increases with the second power, and shear increases linearly. Although this
r
example is for a simple beam, the same principle applies to other bending members as
Copy well. For a beam of constant cross-section, if the span is doubled deflection increases 16
times, the bending four times, but shear would only double. Thus, for long bending
members deflection usually governs; for medium span bending governs, yet for very
short ones, shear governs
1 Beam with deflection Δ = 1
2 Beam of double span with deflection Δ = 16
3 Short beam: shear governs
4 Medium-span beam: bending governs
5 Long-span beam: deflection governs
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2 Cantilevers of about 1/3 the span equalize positive and negative bending
moments and reduces them to about one sixth, compared to a beam of equal length
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2 Single layer framing: joists supported directly by walls
3
4
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Double layer framing: joists supported by beams and beams by columns
Triple layer framing: joists supported by beams, beams by girders, and
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girders by columns
5
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Flush framing: top of joists and beams line up
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May require additional depth for mechanical ducts
6 Layered framing: joists rest on top of beams
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May have main ducts between beams, secondary ducts between joists
A Joists
i g h t G B Beam
C Girders
r
D Wall
Copy E Column
F Pilaster
G Concrete slab on corrugated steel deck
6
tectonic articulation.
1 Wall cross section
2 Structural diagram
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A Top flange of girder
B Column
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C Stiffener plate welded to girder web
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D Cant-strip at roof edge
E Roofing membrane
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F Suspension brackets
G
G Roof joist
r i g h t H Ceiling
I Glass wall
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J Concrete floor
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1 Steel roof framing concept
2 Steel roof framing detail
A Steel edge beam
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B Cross-shaped steel column
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classroom floors have an additional column at the center of each hexagon to support the
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cross point of three girders that span the six hexagon vertices. Those columns do not
interfere with the auxiliary spaces below classrooms. Three beams span between the
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girders to form four triangular panels. Floor joists rest on the beams and support a
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particle board sub-floor with acoustical and thermal insulation. To provide uninterrupted
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classrooms, the roof structure has no column support within each hexagon. The column-
free spaces required beams with moment connections. The roof deck consists of planks
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with tongue-and-groove. Diagonal steel rods, 24 mm (1 in) φ, with turnbuckles, brace
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some peripheral columns to resist lateral wind load.
1 Floor structure (roof is similar but without column at hexagon centers)
i g h t G 2
3
Column supporting center of floor hexagon
Moment resistant joint of roof beam at hexagon center without column
y r
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A Laminated girder, 12x60 cm (5x24")
B Steel insert bar with dowels ties beams to column
C Hexagonal laminated column, φ 21 cm (8")
D High-strength concrete core resists compression at top of roof beam
E Steel strap, 10x80 mm (3/8x3"), resists tension at bottom of roof beam
E Tension straps, 10x80mm, at bottom of beams
6
that taper from 2.4m at the top to 5.5m at the base in response to the increasing
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bending moment toward the base. The pylons are rounded at the top and cross-formed
at the base. Twenty tapered steel plate girders cantilever from the pylons in radial
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patterns; with increasing depth toward the support in response to greater bending.
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Triangular brackets strengthen the transition from girder to pylon. Stiffener plates welded
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to girder webs stabilizes them against buckling and provide a visual pattern in response
i
to the structural imperatives.
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and web, respectively. The load bearing of Vierendeel girders and frames can be
visualized by magnifying their deformation under load. A single-bay Vierendeel1 deforms
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under gravity load similar to a moment resisting portal frame2: top and bottom chords
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develop positive moments at mid span and negative moments at both ends, with two
1
inflection points at the transition. Chord rotation is transmitted to webs and deforms them
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into S-shapes. The resulting web moments are inverse on top and bottom, with inflection
i
points of zero moment at mid height. Under lateral load3 both chord and web struts are
GS c hdeformed with single inflection points in the middle. In multi-bay girders5, too, webs
deform under both gravity- and lateral loads similar to frames6-7, with inflection points that
G
may be hinged. However, the chords develop single inflection points for both lateral and
t
gravity loads, except the center bay which has two inflection points under gravity load. In
y r i g h girders with even number of bays and a center web strut, all chords have single inflection
points. Since all web struts, assume inflection points under both gravity and lateral load,
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they could have hinges at those points, provided those hinges can resist out-of-plane
deformation to avoid instability.
6
Bending of individual struts can be visualized too. In a structure where moment resistant
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strut/chord connections are replaced with hinges, chords would deflect as independent
beams6. Assuming flexible chords and stiff webs, vertical shear would deform chords to
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S-shapes with inflection point. Assuming flexible webs and stiff chords, horizontal shear,
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caused by a compressive force pushing outward on top and a tensile force pulling inward
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on the bottom, would deform webs to S-shapes with inflection point. The combined effect
of these two idealized cases imparts S-shaped deformation and inflection points in both
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chord and web struts. The deformation yields strut bending moments which vary from
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positive to negative along each strut. Top and bottom chords carry each about half the
total shear V. Assuming inflection points at midpoints of chords, the local chord moment
G
M is half the shear V multiplied by half the chord length.
rig h t M = (V / 2) (e / 2)
C o p y The moment M is maximum at supports where shear is greatest and equal to support
reactions. For equilibrium, webs have to balance chord moments at each joint. Their
moment equals the difference of adjacent chord moments.
1 Gravity load on a Vierendeel
2 Global shear (in overall system rather than individual members)
3 Global bending (in overall system rather than individual members)
4 Compression and tension in top and bottom chord, respectively
5 Free-body visualizes derivation of chord tension T and compression C
6 Global shear deformation
7 Chord bending, assuming flexible chords and stiff webs
8 Web bending, assuming flexible webs and stiff chords
9 Combined chord and web bending under actual condition
10 Free-bodies visualize derivation of chord bending moment M
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Moment resistant space frames for multi-story or high-rise buildings may be considered a
1
2
One-way planar Vierendeel girder
1 9 9 0
One-way prismatic Vierendeel girder of triangular cross-section
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3 One-way prismatic Vierendeel girder of square cross-section
4 Two-way Vierendeel space frame
c h
5
i Three-way Vierendeel space frame
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6 Multi-story Vierendeel space frame
i g h t G
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chord and web struts, where inflection points of zero bending occur.
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cover the folded plates over interior space for waterproofing. Over the central area
skylights, integrated in the roof, provide natural lighting.
1 Folded plate concrete roof layout
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2 Typical folded plate concrete unit
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A Cross-section through roof overhang with tapered folded plates and u-shape girder
i
B Length-section through folded plates
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axis. In contrast shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis and zero on top and bottom.
walls or ribs.
0 - 2 0 0
Compressive stress in cylindrical shells causes buckling which can be resisted by cross-
1
2
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Compressive stress on top, tensile stress at bottom, with some arch action
1
Horizontal shear generated by differential compressive and tensile stress
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3 Vertical shear visualized
c h
4
5
i Bending stress distribution
Shear stress distribution
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6 Buckling under gravity load
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7 Buckling under lateral load
r i g h t 8
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Wall panels to resist buckling
Ribs to resist buckling
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normal weight concrete) to minimize dead load. This is important in areas of seismic
activity, like Los Angeles, since seismic forces are proportional to mass, which
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corresponds to deadweight. The shell thickness increases toward the base where they
9
form beams between adjacent units.
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1 Isometric roof plan
2 Length section in east-west direction
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3 Typical shell cross-section
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A Post-tensioned prestress tendons, draped to offset deflection
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anchorage is an important design factor. For example, the use of self-stabilizing
0
compression rings or infrastructures, such as grandstands, to resist tensile forces can be
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an effective means of reducing support costs.
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Tension members
c h i1 Steel rod
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E = 30,000 ksi, Fa = 30 ksi, 100 % metallic
2 Strand consists of 7 or more wires (provides good stiffness, low flexibility)
ig h t G 3
E = 22,000 to 24,000 ksi; Fa = 70 ksi, 70% metallic
Wire rope consists of 7 strands (provides good flexibility, low stiffness)
r
E = 12,000 to 20,000 ksi, Fa = 70 ksi, 60% metallic
Co p y
1 2 3
6
load applied at mid-height will be carried half by the top link (through increase of
- 2 0 0
prestress) and half by the lower link (through decrease of prestress). Since both links are
active, each will absorb only half the load, reducing the deformation to half and avoiding
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the lower link from getting slack and unstable. Since half the load is absorbed by each
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link, when the applied load reaches twice the prestress or more, the lower link will get
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slack, just as the string with no prestress. Given similar conditions in a structure,
prestress should be at least half of the design load to prevent slack members and
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instability. Also, loss of prestress due to creep and temperature variation should be
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considered.
G
The correlation between prestress, load, and deformation, described above, is visualized
Copy 2
3
A
B
String with prestress
Stress/strain diagram of both strings
Stress/strain line of un-prestressed string
Stress/strain line of prestressed string
C Point where prestress is reduced to zero under load
D Stress/strain line of string after loss of prestress
F Force
f Stress
P applied load
PS Prestress
Δ Deformation
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is illustrated in the diagrams, showing various slopes and resulting forces for an assumed
gravity load as vertical vector. Optimal span/depth ratios depend on both, architectural
-
0
and structural factors. Architectural factors include appearance and spatial
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considerations. Structural factors include the impact on deflection, overall cost of stays,
1
beams, masts, and compression struts. As a rule of thumb, the optimal slope for stays is
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about 30 degrees. Optimum span/depth ratio for propped systems is about 10 to 15.
c h
1
i Steep stay slope causes small forces but high masts
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2 Stay slope of 25° to30° is usually optimal
3 Shallow stay slope causes high forces but low masts
i g h t G 4
5
Steep props cause small forces but great depth
Span/depth ratio of about 10 to 15 is optimal
r
6 Shallow props cause great forces but small depth
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without mechanical equipment exposed on the roof. The roof truss edges are tied to the
podium of the main hall to provide stability for unbalanced load. The podium is supported
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by steel columns, spaced to accommodate the rail tracks. Combined with the deep
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trusses, the stays have enough redundancy that they can be removed and replaced
1
without affecting the structure’s integrity. A glass band along the entire façade under the
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roof trusses and roof skylights, provide natural lighting.
c h1
i Isometric roof structure
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2 Cross-section of upper level with stayed roof
3 Mid-span stay support detail
rig
A Concrete pylons, shaped to accommodate mechanical ducts
C o p y B
C
D
E
Stays, 3.75in galvanized steel strands, PVC coated
Truss web bar
Stay connection bracket
Steel tie secures roof to [odium
2 0 0 6
circular steel plates to which the rods are attached by means of standard fittings. Steel
rods where chosen over stay cables for greater stiffness and to facilitate painting. The
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two inner stays are compression struts to resist wind uplift, with both outer stay secured
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to columns that are tied to foundations. Using graphic vector analysis, the engineers
1
studied the geometry of the inverted tree branches to determine branch forces and
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overall stability. The roof rests on joists, spaced at 4.5m, spanning 9m between beams
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which are suspended form the pylons by stay rods. The beams continue over the full
width of each wing. A platform for mechanical equipment is suspended by rods of
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triangular configuration to provide lateral stability for the pylons in length direction. In
G
width direction, lateral stability is provided by the triangular pylons and moment frames
Copy
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which made this giant overhang economically feasible. Steel joists, spaced 19ft span
between the radial girders to support the roof metal deck.
1
2
Roof plan
1
Section
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4 Mast top detail
S c h
A
B i Stays, 6 - 2.5 in φ strands at each
Stay saddle, rests on concrete columns
p y ri g
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6
1 Twin struts with concentric tie connection
2
3
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Single strut with eccentric tie connection to reduce beam bending
V-struts supporting two adjacent beams provide lateral bracing
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4 Vertical and V-struts supporting three adjacent beams provide lateral bracing
5
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Continuous propped beam
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6 Gable with propped rafters supported by buttress to resist lateral thrust
7 Gable with propped rafters and tie rod to resist lateral thrust
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1 Structure system
2
A Roof purlins; 20x20cm, spaced 1m
0 - 2 0 0
Half section of three-hinge twin girders with prop cable and strut
B
C
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Twin girders; 2-20x50cm, spaced 5m, span 20m
1
Steel rods support twin girders and resists outward thrust
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diagonal compression struts which are supported by tie-rods that are part of the lattice
truss. A compression strut links the rafters on top. Longitudinal joists support two layers
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of planks that make up the roof diaphragm.
1 Roof plan
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2 Cross-section
3 Tension rod joint
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A Diagonal compression struts, 9.5x11cm lumber
G
B Steel plates
r i g h t C
D
Tie-rods, 19mm diameter
Top compression strut, 9.5x23cm lumber
y
E Rafters, 2 – 4.5x23cm lumber
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Suspended roof with compression ring to absorb lateral thrust
2
9 9 0
Suspended roof with grandstands to resist lateral thrust
1
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3 Catenary funicular under cable self weight
i
4 Parabolic funicular under horizontally distributed load
GS c h5
6
Polygon funicular under point load
Deformed roof under point load
ig h t G 7 Deformed roof under uneven load (snow at one side, for example)
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9 Roof with convex stabilizing cables to resist uplift and uneven loads
10 Dead load to resist uplift and reduce deformation under uneven load
- 2
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T
Horizontal support reaction
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Maximum cable tension
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V Vertical support reaction
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Dulles roof is “a strong form between earth and sky that seems both to rise from the plain
and hover over it.” It presents functional integrity and synergy of form and structure.
-
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h t G GS 2 Lufthansa aircraft hanger, Frankfurt (1968-72)
g
Architect: Beckert & Beckert
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This aircraft maintenance hanger of 100x270m accommodates up to six 747 jets.
Large hanger doors required the roof to span the long way, with a concrete girder on
two columns supports at mid-span. Recessed columns create overhangs to reduce
the girder bending moment. The roof consists ten bands of pre-stressed, suspended
concrete slabs, separated by linear gable skylights. Given an overall height limit of
34m for air traffic safety, and an interior height of 24m, the roof structure was limited
to 10m depth for a span/depth ratio of 13.5 between supports. At both ends the
suspension roof rests on inclined supports with ballast weight to resist lateral trust.
Prismatic steel containers filled with concrete provide the ballast. Straight horizontal
tension strands resist outward support displacement under wind uplift, restrain the
ballast gravity load, and contribute to overall stability. Perpendicular struts tie the
suspended slabs together for rotational stability. The curvilinear roof, flooded with
natural light, creates a floating interior space, in contrast to the normally heavy
material of concrete.
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2 Cross-section
9
3 Isometric roof framing detail
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A Glue laminated tension girders, 16x150cm
i
B Glue laminate joists, 11x33cm
GS c hC
D
Diagonal wood bracing slats
Girder bracing, 5x15cm
i g h t G
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loads and to contribute to lateral wind load resistance. The peripheral pylons are
triangular concrete walls with metal brackets on top to secure the radial ribs.
1
2
Cross section
9
Roof plan
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3 Top of central support mast
4 Typical roof assembly
c hA
i Radial laminated wood tension rib, 7.8x31-43 (20x80-110cm)
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B Laminated wood ring beams, 5x15in (12x39cm)
C Laminated wood compression ring
i g h t G D
E
Steel tension ring
Steel anchor bracket
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1 Isometric of lintel trusses with bottom support- and top stabilizing cables separated
by vertical compression struts
- 2 0 0
2 Isometric of concave trusses with top supporting- and bottom stabilizing cables
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9
separated by vertical tension struts
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3 Lintel truss with diagonal compression braces
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4 Lintel truss with vertical compression struts
5 Concave truss with diagonal tension braces
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6 Concave truss with vertical tension struts
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7 Concave/lintel truss with diagonal compression braces
8 Concave/lintel truss with vertical compression struts
i g h t G 9 Concave gable truss with fan support and stabilizing cables and central
compression strut
r
10 Concave gable truss with tension struts and central compression strut
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and simply supported. In order to avoid slack cables, prestress must be at least half of
the design load stress as described at the beginning of this chapter. When prestress
0
approaches zero under load, the bar forces are about equal to those in a conventional
1
static methods.
9 9
truss under equal load and proportions and can be found by graphic vectors or other
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1 Externally prestressed cable truss with four bays
c h
2
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3 Load bearing polygons to resist three loads
4 Externally stabilized truss with six bays
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5 Internally stabilized truss with six bays
r i g h t
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0
The plan shows the area between side girders represents as square of 37x37 m
1 9 9
(121x121 feet). The radial convergence of cable trusses toward ground anchors
induces compressive stress in addition to bending stress in the girders. The girder
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bending moments could have been greatly reduced by recessing the columns to
i
provide overhangs of about 1/3 the span between columns. The column recess
i g h t G
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Cop 3 Factory at Lesjöers, Sweden
Architect: Lennart Bergström
Engineer: Jawerth
The factory features cable trusses, spaced 4 m (13 feet) with intermediate supports.
Five bays of 16 m (53 feet) and two end bays of 6 m (20 feet) provide a total length of
92 m (302 feet). Continued arrangement balances lateral trust of adjacent trusses.
Linear skylights over the supports and at truss mid-spans provide natural lighting.
The inclined end supports equalize forces in guy cables and truss cables. The angle
of inclination can be determined by graphic vectors: equal angles between mast and
cables causes imply equal cable forces.
- 2 0 0 6
The stabilizing top cables are 15/8in (41mm) strands with 135kip prestress. The roof was
erected in three weeks, with temporary support of the central tension ring only.
A
B
Circular concrete compression ring
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Top stabilizing cable, 15/8” (42mm) strands
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C Steel compression struts
i
D Bottom cable, 2” (50mm) strands
i g h t G
y r Convex alternate
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It is of interest to consider the implications of an alternate convex roof. Cable trusses of
convex profile require two outer compression rings but only one central tension ring. The
vertical compression struts can be replaced by tension rods. Two compression rings
would likely cost more than a single compression ring since compression rings have to
be designed to resist buckling under unbalanced load... The inward sloping roof would
require rain water to be removed by pumps, but the concave Utica roof is self-draining.
6
In addition to curvature, prestress is also required to stabilize anticlastic membranes.
- 2 0 0
This too can be observed on a string model. Applied load elongates one string in tension
and shortens the other in compression. Without prestress, the compressed string will
0
9
get slack and unstable; but prestressed strings absorb compressive stress by reduction
1 9
of prestress. Since prestress renders both strings active to resist load, the resulting
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deflection is reduced to half compared to non-prestressed condition where only one
string is active. This observation is also described under Prestress at the beginning of
c h i
this chapter.
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Flat membranes are unstable. This, too, can be observed on a string model. Two
strings in a flat surface must deform into a polygon to resist load (a straight string would
i g h t G assume infinite forces). Therefore, flat membranes are unstable under load. Similarly,
synclastic (dome-shape) membranes would deform excessively under gravity load and
y r flutter in wind.
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1 Two strings crossing in non-parallel planes stabilize a point in space
2 A series if strings (or a membrane) form a stable surface
3 Without prestress, one string (or series of strings) would get slack under
load, causing instability
4 Strings in a flat surface deform excessively under load, causing instability
6
height between low and high points regardless of boundary conditions. 3 Length section with Y-axis vertical
1 Minimal surface of square plan
2 Minimal surface of rhomboid plan
4 Cross section
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3 Hyperbolic Paraboloid of square plan
4 Hyperbolic Paraboloid of rhomboid plan
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nearly straight, like generating lines of a Hyperbolic Paraboloid shell. Such flat cables
- 2 0 0
will deform much more under applied load than curved cables. This was first
demonstrated by tests the author conducted with students at the University of California,
0
9
Berkeley in 1967. One cable nets was tested with curved cables and the other with flat
1 9
cables. Under equal load the net with flat cables deformed about six times more than the
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one with curved cables. The test results, drawn as dots on both nets, show the great
difference in stiffness. It is clear from this test, later confirmed by computer, that nets
c h i
with flat cables are not a viable solution as structures. The test results have been widely
GS
published.
G
1 Net with cables arranged in vertical planes, with square grid projection
y
3 Net of square meshes, prefabricated flat, deform into rhomboids in space
Co p 4
5
6
Net of cables running nearly straight in direction of generating lines
Net 3 under gravity load (dots show small deformations)
Net 4 under gravity load (dots show 6 times greater deflection than net 3)
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Hockey rink, Yale University (1958)
Architect: Ero Saarinen
c h i
Engineer: Severud, Elstad, Krueger
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The 200/85 feet rink, built 1958, has an arch supported anticlastic cable net. The central
concrete arch is designed to resists unbalanced load in bending, rather than using the
i g h t G cable net for stability. Both support and stabilizing cables are 1¾ inch diameter, spaced
6 feet. The roof consists of 2x8 inch wood planking, nailed to 2x6 inch wood strips. The
y r oval plan provides most spectators seating at the preferred location near the rink center.
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Entry arch Kőln (1957)
Architect: Frei Otto
Engineer: Fritz Leonhard
This arch marked the entry of the 1957 Kőln garden show. The steel arch of 112 feet
span and only 7.5 inch diameter is stabilized by the membrane to resist unbalanced
loads and wind uplift. The membrane, projecting 39 feet on both sides of the arch is
prestressed by edge cables which are supported by four steel masts.
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cables to remain in vertical plains as required for repeatability of the modules. The
prestress levels were determined by computer analysis. Mats were designed as
-
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standard steel pipes with pin joint attachment to the foundation. The pin joints avoided
9 9
bending stress for optimal efficiency; moment resistant joints would introduce bending
1
stress in the masts under any movement.
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contrast to the conventional concrete infrastructure. The concrete pylons reinforce this
contrast with compelling elegance. The Teflon-coated glass fiber membrane provides a
0
fireproof enclosure as required for permanent structures.
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equipment.
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provides natural lighting and is removable to provide access for replacing the drilling
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is nailed to the lattice grid. This unusual combination of materials creates a unique
interior spatial quality of quite elegance, contrasting the lightness of the translucent fabric
0
membrane with the warms of the wood lattice grid.
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pressure. Air supported structures require continuous air supply, usually with standby
0 - 2 0 0
electric power generator to retain air pressure in case of power outage.
Air inflated structures are hermetically enclosed volumes that are inflated under high
9 9
pressure much like a football to provide stability. They can have various tubular or
1
cushion forms with high air pressure between two layers of fabric that provide usable
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space under normal air pressure. The air pressure ranges from 2 to 70 meters of water,
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yielding 2.8 to 100 pounds per square inch pressure, enough to resist gravity and lateral
GS c hload. Without air pressure they would have no stability. Air inflated structures also
require some continuous air supply to make up for pressure loss due to membrane leaks.
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2
Air supported dome or vault
Air supported vault
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3 Air supported vault with support cables
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5
6
7
Air supported dome repetitions
Air inflated cushion
Air inflated tubular vault
Air inflated tubular dome
8 Air inflated cushion repetitions
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understatement and technical innovation and refined sophistication.
0
2
3
Length section
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Laced membrane to cable attachment
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4 Concrete compression wing with gutter and adjustable cable anchors
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was divided into air chambers, separated by fabric ribs that provided additional strength.
The stout outside form reflected the interior space, given the constant spacing of 4 feet
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(1.2m) between the two membranes. The portable pavilion of 131/328 feet (40x100
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meters) was erected at each new exhibit site in 12 days by a crew of 12 workers.
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Vertical structures are presented in four categories, considering primary resistance to
load: shear, bending, axial, and suspended (tensile). Although most structures combine
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Vertical structures have been a challenge since the famed tower of Babylon. Motivations
to build tall structures include: a desire to reach toward heaven; to see the world from
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several categories, one usually dominates. For example, axially stressed braced frames above; the prestige of being tallest, and high land costs. The tallest church tower in Ulm,
i
Germany exemplifies the spiritual motivation. The Eiffel tower allows seeing Paris from
h
may also have moment resistant joints, yet the bracing provided most strength and
c
stiffness. above. The towers of the Italian hill-town San Gimignano, and contemporary corporate
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office buildings express power and wealth; the latter are also motivated by high land cost.
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Traditional building materials like wood and masonry imposed height limitations
r i g h t overcome by new materials like steel and prestressed concrete. The Eiffel tower in Paris
marks the beginning of tall steel towers. Prestressed concrete towers were pioneered
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1955 by Fritz Leonhard with a television tower in Stuttgart.
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and bulky ones at ground level. For example W14 wide flange columns come in many
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weights from 43 to 730 plf (64 to 1,086 kg/m) with capacities of 272 to 4,644k (1,210 to
20,656 kN). It is also possible to use higher strength steel at lower floors. However,
0
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increase in steel strength does not yield higher stiffness since the modulus of elasticity of
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steel is constant regardless of strength. For concrete structures it is possible to increase
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concrete strength and stiffness, or to increase the cross sectional area. If a mechanical
room is on the top floor it is possible to balance the decreasing need for duct sizes from
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top down, with need for increasing column sizes from top to bottom. Eero Saarinen
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designed the CBS tower New York with such a strategy but was only partly consistent
since the lower floors are served from a mechanical room on the second floor.
i g h t G 1
2
structure with increasing column size as load increases from top down
Light-weight wide-flange column
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4 Increasing column size dovetails with reducing duct size from top down
5 Small column cross section and large duct size on top column
6 Large column cross section and small duct size on lower floor column
7 Large column on ground level where no duct space is needed
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Cantilever beam with shear and bending deformation6
The non-uniform wind and seismic loads cause nonlinear shear distribution.
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2
3
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Tall building with shear and bending deformation
Shear and bending diagrams for uniform load on a cantilever beam
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4 Shear and bending diagrams for idealized uniform load on a building
5 Vertical distribution of wind force, shear, and bending diagrams
c h
6
i Vertical distribution of seismic force, shear, and bending diagrams
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A Load/force diagram
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B Shear deformation
t
C Bending deformation
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E
Shear diagram
Moment diagram
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Cantilevers are slender elements that resist load primarily in bending. Pole houses are
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cantilevers; but more commonly, cantilevers are of reinforced concrete or masonry,
anchored to foundations, wide enough to resist overturn. Overturn cause compression
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on one side and tension on the other. Compression acts in addition to gravity, tension
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may be partly offset by gravity compression. In tall cantilevers, tension due to lateral load
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may be greater than gravity compression, resulting in net tension.
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Moment frames consistent of posts and beams connected by moment resistant joints.
They may be of steel or reinforced concrete. To resist seismic load, concrete should
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have ductile reinforcement that yields before brittle concrete failure. Ductile design
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results in greater concrete members with less reinforcing steel.
rig h t Braced frames may have diagonal-, A-, X-, or V-braces. The best bracing scheme
depends on structural and architectural considerations. K-bracing tends to buckle
Co p y columns and must not be used. X-bracing allows no doors and requires more joints for
greater cost; but X-bracing can be of tension rods to eliminate buckling. A- and V-braces
are shorter than single diagonals and result in reduced buckling. (However, beams must
be designed for the full span since bracing may adversely affect the beam load). Braced
frames are usually of steel but may be of reinforced concrete or wood (for low-rise).
1 Long shear wall resists in-plane load in shear primarily
2 Shear wall supports adjacent bays (slender walls tend to overturn)
3 Cantilever resists lateral load primarily in bending
4 Cantilever supporting adjacent bays
5 Moment frame requires moment resisting beam-column joints to resist lateral load
by beam-column interaction
6 Moment frames at both ends supports intermittent bays
7 Braced frame with diagonal bracing
8 braced center core supports adjacent bays
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Bending resistance of moment frame portal under lateral load
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2 Axial resistance of braced frame portal under lateral load
3
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Lateral drift of moment frame is maximum at base
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4 Lateral drift of braced frame is maximum on top
5 Reduced drift of combined braced/moment frame
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Framed concrete tube 60 stories
Framed steel tube
Braced tube
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80 stories
100 stories
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Bundled tube 110 stories
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Truss tube without interior columns 120 stories
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1 Cellular shear walls
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2 Exterior shear walls
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4
Curved shear walls
Cantilever core with cantilever floors
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5 Cantilever round core with cantilever floors
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6 Cantilever core with suspended floors
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8
Moment resistant frame
Moment frame with two shear cores
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9 Moment frame with single shear core
10 Braced core
11 Braced exterior bays
12 Braced core with outrigger trusses
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E Weight of structural steel considering gravity load only
F
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Weight of structural steel for total structure optimized
Weight of structural steel for total structure not optimized
0
H
I
9
Empire State building New York
1
Chrysler building New York
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J World Trade center New York
c h
K
L
i Sears tower Chicago
Pan Am building New York
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M United Nations building New York
G
N US Steel building Pittsburgh
r i g h t O
P
John Hangkock building Chicago
First Interstate building Los Angeles
y
Q Seagram building New York
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R Alcoa building Pittsburgh
S Alcoa building San Francisco
T Bechtel building San Francisco
U Burlington House New York
V IDS Center Minneapolis
W Koenig residence Los Angeles
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Joists resist rotational buckling of beam
5
Mechanical ducts must run below framing
Layered framing
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Provides easy connections
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Main ducts between beam, feeder ducts between joists reduces height
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Joists don’t resist rotational buckling of beams
i
A Joist
GS c hB
C
Beam supports joist
Girders supports beam
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D Column supports beam or girder
t
E Symbol for moment resisting connection common in framing plans
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5 Axon of beam running behind column
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7 Visual expression of beam
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Section of beam running behind column yielding a moment couple
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8 Axon of beam running in front of column
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Section of beam running in front of column yielding a moment couple
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walls or braced frames, but it provides greater ductility to absorb seismic energy in the
elastic range, much like a flower in the wind. On the other hand, bending resistance
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implies large deformations that may cause damage to non-structural items. Bending
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resistant structures are sometimes combined with other systems, such as braced frames
1
or shear walls, for greater stiffness under moderate load; but moment frames provide
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ductility under severe load, after the bracing or shear walls may fail.
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Floors may also cantilever from the towers. Cantilevers need large foundations to resist
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overturn moments. Cantilever systems of multiple towers may have joint foundations that
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Single tower cantilever with cantilever floors
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2 Single tower cantilever under lateral load
3 Twin tower cantilever with joined footing for improved stability
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4
i Twin tower cantilever under lateral load
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5 Single tower cantilever with suspended floors
6 Single tower suspension cantilever under lateral load
i g h t G
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tubular end towers of triangular plan house exit stairs, service elevators, and ducts.
Concrete rib slabs supported by beams that span between the towers provide column-
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free office space of 79 and 43 ft (24 and 13 m). The plan and structure give the tower its
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unique appearance, a powerful synergy of form and structure.
1
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Floor plan: 18 x 68 m (59 x 223 ft)
i
Height: 127 m (417 ft))
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The office space consists of three triangular units, joined by a T-shaped center. Two-way
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beams for office floors are supported by columns above the platform and suspended
below. Three sub-grade levels include parking, security control, and loading stations.
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Floor plan: 7 m (23 ft) diameter towers
i
Height: 114 m (374 ft)
GS c hHeight/width ratio
1
16 per tower
Typical upper floor supported by columns above the platform
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2 Story-high platform forms a mega frame with four towers
r i g h t 3
4
Typical lower floor suspended from the platform
Isometric view of building
Copy 5
6
7
8
Roof plan
Typical office floor framing
Support platform framing
Typical floor plan layout
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0
Floor plan: 16 x 32 m (52 x 104 ft)
Height:
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Typical story height
44 m (144 ft)
3 m (9.8 ft)
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Height/width ratio 10 per cantilever
c h2
i Lend Lease House Sydney (1961)
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Architect: Harry Seidler
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This 15-story office tower with north-south orientation of its length axis has
r i g h t movable exterior blinds for sun control. They give the facade an ever-changing
appearance. On sunny mid-days, they are horizontal for optimal sun protection.
Copy On cloudy days, in lowered position, they tend to darken the inside rooms. The
orientation provides inspiring views to the Sydney harbor and a nearby botanical
garden. A two-story showroom with mezzanine floor is located on the ground floor,
above a four-story underground parking garage. The office floors feature
elevators, stair and bathrooms on one end and an exit stair at the opposite end,
providing flexible office floors. Mechanical equipment is in a roof penthouse. The
structure consists of reinforced concrete. Two rows of wall-shape cantilever
columns support cantilever slabs. The cantilever columns resist both gravity and
lateral loads.
6
Given the high cost of moment-resistant joints, low-rise buildings may provide only some
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bays with moment resistant frames. The remaining bays, with pin joints only, carry
gravity load and are laterally supported by adjacent moment frames.
0
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Moment frame behavior can be visualized by amplified deformations. The connection of
1
column to beam is usually perpendicular and assumed to remain so after deformation.
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Under lateral load, columns with moment joints at both ends assume positive and
i
negative bending at opposite ends, causing S-shapes with inflection points of zero
GS c hbending at mid-span and end rotation that rotates the ends of a connected beam. By
resisting rotation, beams help to resist lateral load. Similarly, a beam subject to bending
G
under gravity load will rotate the columns connected to it and thus engage them in
t
resisting the gravity load. Columns with moment-resistant joints at both ends deform less
y r i g h than columns with only one moment joint. Deformations under gravity and lateral loads
are visualized in the diagrams, with dots showing inflection points of zero bending stress.
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1 portal with hinged joints unable to resist lateral load
2 Moment joints at base, hinge joints at beam, large drift
3 Moment joints at strong beam, hinge joints at base, large drift
4 Moment joints at base and strong beam, drift reduced to half
5 Hinged base, moment joints at beam, beam forms inflection point
6 Gravity load, hinged base, beam moment joints, 2 beam inflection points
7 Lateral load, all moment joints, inflection points at beam and columns
8 Gravity load, all moment joints, inflection points at beam and columns
9 Multi-bay frame deformation under lateral load
10 Multi-bay frame deformation under gravity load
A Inflection point of zero bending stress
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joints was challenged by failures during the 1994 Northridge Earthquake. The failure
resulted primarily from joint welds. Research developed solutions for moment-resisting
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steel joints, notably dog-bone beam ends to form plastic hinges to reduce stress at the
joints.
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Concrete frames achieve ductile joints by proper steel reinforcing, designed to yield
i
before the concrete crushes in brittle mode. Usually that implies 25% to 50% less steel
GS c hand more concrete than used for balanced design (balanced design has just enough
reinforcing to balance the concrete strength). Ductile design also requires: closely
spaced tie bars near beam/column joints; column rebars to extend through beams; beam
h t G rebars to extend through columns; and column ties to continue through beams.
rig
1 Moment-resisting steel joint at end column
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2 Moment-resisting steel joint at interior column
C o p 3
4
A
B
Moment-resisting concrete joint at end column
Moment-resisting concrete joint at interior column
Steel wide-flange column
Steel wide-flange beam
C Stiffener plates resist bending stress of beam flanges
D Steel bar welded to column in shop and bolted to beam in field
E Weld, joining beam flange to column
F Steel reinforcing bars in concrete beam
G Steel ties to restrain reinforcing bars from buckling
H Column reinforcing bars to resist compression and bending
6
with greater stiffness than the other end. Also to better resist possible torsion from
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asymmetric mass distribution, columns should be placed near or at the building edge,
rather than near the center of mass where they have no effective lever arm to resist
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torsion. Column size should also account for setbacks on upper floors, to account for
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asymmetric wind or seismic load resulting from such setbacks.
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1 Front view of moment resisting frame with setback floors on top
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2
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A Column oriented for lateral support in width direction
B Column oriented for lateral support in length direction
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respectively. The steel moment frame structure is embedded in concrete for fire
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protection and added stiffness. The core walls have diagonal bracing up to the 29th floor
for additional wind bracing. Concrete shear walls up to the 17th floor provide additional
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stiffness.
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Floor plan: 84 x 140 feet (26 x 43 m) without extrusion
Height: 525 feet (160m)
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Typical story height: 13.6 feet (4.15m)
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Height/width ratio 6.3 without extrusion
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1 Axon view of tower
r i g h t 2
3
Comer detail of structure and skin
Typical plan with recessed comers to express 3 to 5 proportion
Copy A
B
C
Air conditioning duct as parapet
Glare reducing pink glass appears without color from inside
Bronze cover of steel column embedded in concrete
6
Steel joists, spaced 7 feet (2.1 m), support concrete slabs on cellular metal decks. The
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joists cantilever at each end of the building. All columns are oriented with their strong
axis to provide moment resistance in the width direction, giving the building much greater
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9
strength and stiffness in width than in length direction. Since the building is much longer
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than wide, the column orientation is good for wind load which is greater on the long
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faced; but it is less effective for seismic load which is greater in length direction. Also
the eccentric service tower causes seismic torsion. The fire exits on both side of the
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service tower are too close together for fire safety and would not be allowed by current
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code. The building is supported by a mat foundation, 8 feet (2.4 m) deep, extending the
full width and length of the building. The foundation rests on firm soil 45 feet (13.7 m)
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below grade under a 2-story parking garage. The steel structure is protected by fire
r i g h t proofing that consists of stucco applied to metal lath wrapped around beams and
columns.
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top floors of this 25-story tower. Parking for 280 cars is in the underground garage,
rapped around the building. The long facades feature glass curtain walls; the narrow end
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facades are glad in stainless steel. The steel frame structure is embedded in concrete
9 9
for fire protection and to provide additional stiffness. The columns consist of steel pipes
1
produced by the building owner. The structural module is 7x4.2 m (23x14 ft), with some
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variation between central and outer slabs. Braced end walls provide some additional
i
stiffness to resist wind load on the long building sides. The exterior composition of the
GS c hbuilding, expressing the internal organization, has earned the nickname “Drei-Scheiben
Haus” (Three-slab-house). The pristine design, combining American know-how with
European sophistication stands as an icon of the modern movement in Europe.
h t G
rig
Floor plan: 21x80 m (70x226 feet)
y
Height: 94 m (308 feet)
6
1 Framed tube without interior core
2
3
Framed tube with interior core
Global stress diagram of framed tube
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4 Framed tube with belt and top truss for additional stiffness
5
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Prefab frame with joints located at beam inflection point of zero bending
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6 Prefab element ready for assembly
i
A Reduced shear resistance (shear lag) at hollow interior
GS c hB
C
Peak axial force from overturn moment
Pin joint at inflection point of zero beam bending stress
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use. The four sides facing the core feature one-way rib slabs, but the four corners have
two-way waffle slabs, designed to make the transition from one direction to the other.
0
Glad in black granite the closely spaced triangular columns express a stark verticality,
9 9
perforated with regular windows on all but the top and ground floors. The top mechanical
1
floor has ventilation louvers instead of windows; the ground floors have taller windows
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and doors. The articulation of top and bottom of the façade emphasizes the most
i
prominent part of the building, a strategy often use for the design of tall buildings.
GS c hFloor plan:
Height:
155x125 feet (47x38m)
494 feet (151m)
G
Typical story height: 12 feet (3.66m)
r i g h t Floor-to-ceiling height:
Height/width ratio
8.75 feet (2.67m)
3.9
Copy A
B
C
Column profile at top floor
Column profile at lower floors
Column profile at ground floor
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consisted of 56 box steel columns on each façade, joint at each floor by spandrel beams
with moment resistant connections. This giant Vierendeel frame was assembled from
0
prefab elements of three two-story columns with beam and column joints at mid-span and
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mid-height where inflection points of zero bending occur under lateral load. Combined
1
with rigid floor diaphragms, the towers formed torsion-resistant framed tubes that
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cantilever from a five-story underground structure that houses train and subway stations
i
as well as parking for 2,000 cars. Although the framed tube columns overall dimensions
GS c hare constant, their wall thickness increases from top to bottom in response to increasing
loads. Floor truss joists span from the framed tube to columns around the central core.
Mechanical ducts run between truss joists for reduced story height. The core columns
i g h t G are designed to carry gravity load only. The framed tube resisted both lateral and gravity
load.
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Floor plan (square): 208x208 feet (63.4x63.4 m)
Height: 1361 feet (415m)
Typical story height: 12 feet (3.66m)
Floor-to-ceiling height 8.6 feet (2.62m)
Height/width ratio 6.5
1 Axon of tower
2 Typical floor framing plan
3 Typical prefab two-story façade assembly
4 Typical framed tube column size and spacing
6
rectangular, or triangular polygons that are repeatable. However, hexagonal polygons
would be less efficient
1 Square tube modules
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2
3
9
Triangular tube modules
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Hexagonal tubes would be less effective to reduce shear lag
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4 Framed tube shear lag
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5 Bundled tube with reduced shear lag
GS c hA
B
Shear lag between connecting shear walls
Peak resistance at shear wall
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to transfer global shear under lateral load from compressed to tensed side of the
structure, to reduce lateral drift. This shear transfer between exterior walls reduces
0
“shear lag” and gives the bundled tube greater strength and stiffness to resist lateral
9 9
loads. The bundled tube concept conceived facilitates the setbacks as the floors get
1
smaller toward the top. Belt trusses at three levels in conjunction with mechanical floors
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reduce lateral deflection by about 15 percent and help distribute uneven gravity load
i
caused by floor setbacks. The horizontal floor framing consists of trusses that span 75
GS c hfeet (23m) between columns and support concrete slabs on metal deck. The one-way
floor trusses of 40 inch (1m) depth change direction every 6th floor to redistribute the
gravity load to all columns. Trusses consist of top and bottom T-bars, connected by twin
i g h t G angle web bars. They allow mechanical ducts between top and bottom chords. The
small truss depth was possible, using composite action; shear studs engage the concrete
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Floor plan at ground: 225 x 225 feet (69 x 69m)
Height: 1,450 feet (442m)
Typical story height: 13 feet (3.96m)
Height/width ratio 6.4
1 Tower axon
2 Base floor plan
3 Floor framing
4 Stress diagram of single framed tube with shear lag between walls
5 Stress diagram of bundled tube with reduced shear lag
6 Floor plan at ground floor
7 Floor plan starting at 51st floor
8 Floor plan starting at 66th floor
9 Floor plan of top floors
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Other architectural and structural reasons are described on the next page.
9
Regarding Lateral load, the challenge of suspended high-rise is usually a narrow footprint
9
and slender aspect ratio. Thus their behavior is comparable to a tree, where the drunk
1
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resists load primarily in bending and large roots are required to resist overturning.
Properly designed, the narrow aspect ratio can enhance ductility to make the structure
c h i
behave like a flower in the wind to reduce seismic forces.
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Challenges
• Load path detour: load travels up to the top, then down to foundation
• Combined hanger / column deflection yields large differential deflection
Architectural rational
• Less columns at ground floor provides planning flexibility and unobstructed view
6
• Facilitates top down future expansion with less operation interference
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• Small hangers instead of large columns improve flexibility and view
9
Structural rational
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• Eliminates buckling in hangers, replacing compression with tension
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• High-strength hangers replace large compression columns
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• Floors may be built on ground and raised after completion
G
Design options
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• Adjust hangers for DL and partial LL to reduce deflection
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• Prestress hangers to reduce deflection to half
6
1 Single tower / single stack
0
Single towers require large footing like a tree to resist overturning
2 Multi towers
9 0 - 2 0
9
Multiple towers with joint footing increase stability
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Twin stacks
c h i Twin stacks reduce the length of hangers and thus differential deflection
GS
(ten stories per stack limits differential deflection to < 2 inch (50 mm)
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4 Twin stacks / towers
r i g h t Twin stacks reduce the length of hangers and thus differential deflection
Twin towers with joint footing increase stability
Copy 5
6
Triple stacks
Three or more stacks limit hanger length and thus differential deflection
Limits
An important limit for suspended high-rise structures is the limited number of floors per
stack. More than ten floors per stack would cause unacceptable differential deflections.
Conventional columns in compression are subject to about equal strain under load.
Suspended high-rise structures are subject to greater differential deflection since hangers
elongate but columns shorten under gravity load. Without buckling, the high tensile
stress of hangers causes greater strain which further increases differential deflection.
6
Babicki, the suspension option was also more economical than a conventional alternative
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they had considered. The suspended structure, stating 30 feet (9 m) above grade
provided unobstructed views at ground level to the beautiful bay of Vancouver. The
0
9
tower is supported by a site-cast concrete core, 36 feet (11 m) square. The floors are
1 9
suspended by 12 cables. Each cable consists of two 2 7/8” (73 mm) diameter strands.
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The sloping guy cables have two additional 2 ½” (64 mm) diameter strands (the 45
degree slope increased their vector force by 1.414).
c h i
GS
Size: 108x108 feet (33 x33 m)
Core size: 36x 36 feet (11x11 m))
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Height 12 stories, 224’ (68 m)
Copy 1
2
3
Section
Exploded axon
Floor framing
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is free from columns to provide highly flexible office areas. Construction of the tower
started with the central core in conventional method; but then proceeded from top down.
0
Post-tensioned concrete floor plates, cast on the ground, where lifted up by hydraulic
9 9
means; starting with the top floor, followed by successive floors downward. Silver
1
gladding exterior conveys a sophisticated high-tech image, true to the BMW philosophy.
c h i
Size:
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Core size
52, 30 m (172 feet) diameter
24.4 m (80 feet)
GS
Height: 18 suspended stories, 101 m (331 feet)
Typical Story height: 3.82 m (10.8 feet)
y r
Cop
The Standard Bank Center is located in the financial center of Johannesburg. Given the
dense surroundings, the design objective was to access the center via an open plaza
with the least amount of bulk and obstructions. The response to this objective was a
suspended structure. The central support core only keeps the plaza level open for free
and spacious access. The suspension system also facilitated construction at the dense
urban surrounding. After the central core was built, floors were suspended from three
cantilevers. To limit differential deflection, the building is organized into three stacks of
6
nine office floors each, suspended from concrete cantilever beams of 18 feet (5.4 m)
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depth. The cantilever beams are attached to the outside face of the concrete core by
shear connection. The cantilever floors house the mechanical equipment and
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9
transformer stations. Basement floors for computer rooms and parking provide stability
9
for the central core.
1
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Floor size: 112x112 feet (34.29x34.28 m)
c h i
Core size: 48x48 feet (14.63x14.63 m)
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Building height: 27 stories, 456 feet (139 m)
Core height: 520 feet (158.5 m)
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Core height/width ratio: 10.8
r i g h t
Copy
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The space between two-story high suspension trusses serves as focal point of each
stack of floors, as reception, conference and dining areas and lead to open recreation
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terraces with dramatic views of Hong Kong.
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The maximum mast pipe diameter is 1400 mm (55”0 and 100 mm (3.9”) thick
1
The maximum hanger pipe diameter is 400 mm (16”) and 60 mm (2.4”) thick
c h i erle
h t G GS
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The Federal Reserve Bank features a structure similar to suspension bridges. The floors
are suspended from parabolic “cables”. However, the “cables” are actually wide-flange
steel sections of parabolic curvature to balance the distributed floor loads. A major
6
reason to suspend the building from two towers was to keep the bank vaults located
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below grade free of columns. Wide flange parabolic suspenders of 37 inch (94eemm)
span 328 feet (100m) between two concrete towers. Trusses on top of the towers resist
0
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the lateral trust of the parabolic suspenders. Floors above the suspenders are supported
9
by compression columns, whereas those below are suspended by tension hangers. The
1
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façade treatment reflects the compressive and tensile support zones by different recess
of the glass line with respect to curtain wall mullions. Floor construction of concrete slabs
c h i
rests on steel trusses that span the 60 feet (18m) width without interior columns.
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Size: 335x60 feet (102x18 m)
G
Span between towers 275 feet (84 m)
r i g h t Height
Typical story height
220 feet (67 m)
12.5 feet (3.8 m)
6
Portland limestone of similar color. The material was soon in wide use and the name
- 2 0 0
Portland cement is still common today. It consists of lime, silica, and alumina, burned to
clinkers in a furnace at about 3000º F (1650º C), and then crushed to a fine powder.
0
9 9
Concrete, consisting of cement, sand, and gravel mixed with water, is strong in
1
compression, but very weak in tension and shear. Thus, concrete by itself is limited to
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applications subject to compressive stress only. This limit was soon recognized and by
i
1850 several inventors experimented with adding reinforcing steel to concrete. In 1867
GS c hthe French gardener, Joseph Monier, obtained a patent for flower pots made of
reinforced concrete. He went on to build water tanks and even bridges of reinforced
G
concrete. Monier is credited to invent reinforced concrete...
r ig h t As any material, concrete has advantages and disadvantages. Concrete ingredients are
widely available and rather inexpensive. Concrete combines high compressive strength
Co p y with good corrosion and abrasion resistance. It is incombustible and can be molded in
many forms and shapes. Concrete's main disadvantage is its weakness in resisting
tension and shear. Steel reinforcing needed to absorb tensile stress can be expensive.
Concrete has no form by itself and requires formwork that also adds much to its cost.
The heavy weight of concrete yields high seismic forces but is good to resist wind uplift.
Concrete is inherently brittle with little capacity to dissipate seismic energy. However,
concrete frames with ductile reinforcing can dissipate seismic energy. The inherent fire
resistance of concrete is an obvious advantage in some applications.
Today, concrete serves many applications usually with reinforcing. In buildings, concrete
is used for items like footings and retaining walls, paving, walls, floors, and roofs.
Concrete is also used for moment resistant frames, arches, folded plates and shells.
Apart from buildings, many civil engineering structures such as dams, bridges, highways,
tunnels, and power plants are of concrete.
- 2 0 0
beam
6 0.375 ƒ‘c
1.1 ƒ‘c1/2
0
joist 1.2 ƒ‘c1/2
1 9
Shear stress, with reinforcing:
9 footing and slab 2.0 ƒ‘c1/2
5 ƒ‘c1/2
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Elastic modulus (w = concrete density in pcf): w 33 ƒ‘c1/2
1.5
c h i
Temperature increase causes expansion of concrete defined by the thermal coefficient
GS
α=5.5x10-6 in/in/°F (3.1x10-6 m/m/°C). Hence, concrete slabs need temperature
reinforcing to prevent cracks due to uneven expansion. Concrete also has creep
i g h t G deformation over time, mostly during the first year. Concrete shrinks about 1.3% due to
loss of moisture, notably during curing. The temperature reinforcing helps to reduce
r
shrinkage cracks as well. Density of concrete is determined by the type of aggregate.
Copy Light-weight concrete weighs about 100 pcf (1602 kg/m3). Normal concrete 145 pcf
(2323 kg/m3) without reinforcing and 150 pcf (2403 kg/m3) with reinforcing.
Concrete has good fire resistance if reinforcing steel is covered sufficiently.
An 8 in (20 cm) wall provides 4 hours and a 4 in (10 cm) wall 2 hours fire resistance.
1 Stress-strain curves for concrete
2 Concrete creep (deflection with time)
3 Concrete strength increase with time as percentage of 28-day strength
A Point defining line of E-module on curve
B Elastic limit of idealized line for working stress method
C Idealized line for strength method
D Actual stress-strain curve
E Elastic modulus, defined as the slope from 0 to 0.5 ƒ‘c
ε Unit strain, in/in (m/m)
F Unit creep strain, in/in (m/m)
G Days after pouring concrete
6
slumps the concrete to under 3 in (7 cm) for foundations and walls, and 4 in (10 cm) for
columns and beams.
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Aggregate should be clean and free of organic material. Fine aggregate (sand) is less
0
9
than 1/4 in (6 mm). Coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed rock) is used in normal
1 9
concrete. Lightweight concrete has aggregate of shale, slate, or slag. Perlite and
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Vermiculite are aggregates for insulating concrete.
i
Admixtures are substances added to concrete to modify its properties:
GS c h•
•
Air entrained agents improve workability and frost resistance
Accelerators reduce the curing time and increase early strength
G
• Retarders slow the curing and allow more time to work the concrete
r i g h t •
•
Plasticizers improve the workability of concrete
Colors and pigments add colors to concrete
Copy Curing of concrete is a process of hydration until it reaches its full strength. Although
this process may take several months, the design strength is reached after 28 days.
During the curing process the concrete should remain moist. Premature drying results in
reduced strength. Exposed concrete surfaces should be repeatedly sprayed with water
or covered with a protective membrane during curing. This is most important in hot or
windy climates. The curing process accelerates in hot temperatures and slows down in
cold temperatures. Concrete shrinks about 2 % during curing. This may cause cracks.
Synthetic fibers of 1/8 to 3/4 in (3 to 20 mm) are increasingly added to improve tensile
strength and reduce cracking of concrete.
1 Concrete compressive strength defined by water-cement ratio
2 Slump test: sheet metal cone and slumped concrete, C = slump
3 Maximum aggregate sizes: 1/3 of slab, 1/5 of wall, 3/4 of bar spacing
A Compressive strength of normal concrete
B Compressive strength of air entrained concrete
C Slump is the amount the wet concrete settles
6
strengths ƒy
Grade
ƒy ksi (MPa)
40
40 (275)
50
50
0 - 2
(345)
0 0 60
60 (414)
90∗
90∗ (620∗)
9
∗ Available for bars No. 14 and 18 only (for compression reinforcement).
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Properties of reinforcing bars
Diameter Area Weight
c h i
Size in mm in2 mm2 lb. /ft kg/m
GS
3 0.375 9.50 0.11 71 0.376 0.560
4 0.500 12.70 0.20 129 0.668 0.994
G
5 0.625 15.88 0.31 200 1.043 1.552
r i g h t 6
7
0.750
0.875
19.05
22.22
0.44
0.60
284
387
1.502
2.044
2.235
3.042
Copy 8
9
10
11
14
1.00
1.128
1.270
1.410
1.693
25.40
28.65
32.26
35.81
43.00
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
510
6.45
819
1006
1452
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
7.650
3.973
5.060
6.404
7.907
11.380
18 2.257 57.33 4.00 2581 13.600 20.240
1 Deformed bars with stamp for mill, bar #, steel type, and grade
3 Bar hooks of 90°, 180°, and 135°; the latter for stirrups and ties only
2 Minimum bar bend defined by bar diameter
A Hook length: 6D, stirrups and ties; 12D all others; or min. 2.5 in (6 cm)
B Hook length: 4D; or min. 2.5 in (6 cm)
C Hook length: 6D (10D for seismic regions); or min. 2.5 in (6 cm)
D Bar diameter
E Bend diameter: 4D, No. 5 bars and smaller for stirrups and ties only;
Other bars: 6D, No. 3 to 8; 8.5D, No. 9 to 11; 10.5D, No.14 and 18
6
The diagrams show minimum bar cover and spacing for typical concrete structures,
1 Beam
0 - 0
including beam, post, foundation, and slab and plate.
2 0
2
3
9
Slab or plate
1
Column
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4 Foundation
i
5 Wall
GS c hA
B
Minimum bar covers: 1.5” for beam and post; 1” for joist
Minimum bar spacing for beam: 3/4” or 1.33 max. bar φ
i g h t G C Minimum bar cover for slab and plate: 3/4” for #5 bar and smaller
(1.5” when exposed to weather); 2” for #6 bars and larger
r
D Minimum bar cover for foundation: 3”
Copy Welded Wire Fabric is common as reinforcement for slabs on grade and thin slabs. It
consists of orthogonal welded wire mesh. Wires are smooth or deformed for better
bonding and come in yield strengths from 56 to 70 ksi (386 to 483 MPa). The largest
wire has 0.2 sq in area and 1/2 in (13 mm) diameter. A typical welded wire fabric
designation is 4x6-W10xW20, implying:
4x6 Wire spacing (in)
W10xW20 wire size and type (W for smooth, D for deformed wires)
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reinforcement bars have hooks at both ends to anchor them to the concrete if the bond
length between steel and concrete is insufficient. Deformed bars usually don’t need
0
hooks, given sufficient bond length. Temperature reinforcement resists stress caused by
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temperature variation and shrinkage during curing.
1
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Shear reinforcement is placed where the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of
concrete which is very small compared to compressive strength. Beams under uniform
c h i
gravity load have maximum shear at supports which decreases to zero at mid-span.
GS
Thus, shear reinforcement in form of stirrups is closely space near the supports and
spacing increases toward mid-span. Stirrups are usually vertical for convenience,
G
though combined horizontal and vertical shear stresses generate diagonal tension which
r i g h t may cause diagonal cracks near the supports. Small longitudinal bars on top of a beam
tie the stirrups together.
Copy 1
2
3
4
Shear diagram: maximum shear at supports and zero at mid-span
Isostatic or principal stress lines: diagonal tension, dotted, near support
Side view of beam with reinforcement
Axon view of beam with reinforcement
A Bottom steel bars resist tensile stress
B Stirrups resist shear stress which, for uniform load, is maximum at the supports
and zero at mid-span
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3
4
1 9 9
Exterior wall with rib or waffle slab
Interior wall with rib or waffle slab
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5 Exterior wall with foundation and slab on grade
6 Interior wall with foundation and slab on grade
S c h
A
B i Wall with 2 layers of reinforcement
Flat slab with dowel bars connected to wall
h t G G C
D
Rib or waffle slab with dowel bars connected to wall
Slab on grade with construction joint at wall
i g
E Gravel bed under slab on grade
Co
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way and two-way slabs are shown on the left and right, respectively.
0
2
3
1 9 9 0
Two-way slab supported by four edge beams
One-way beams (supporting slab) supported by two edge beams
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4 Two-way beams (supporting slab) supported by four edge beams
5 One-way Rib-slab (pan joist) supported by beams
GS
Total depth 10” to 24” (25 to 60 cm); L/d= 20-28
Rib width 5” to 10” (13 to 25 cm)
G
Rib spacing 2’ to 3’ (0.6 to 1 m)
r i g h t 6 Two-way waffle slab with solid panels over columns to resist shear:
Slab depth 2.5” to 4.5” (6 to 10 cm)
area as follows:
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to main reinforcing and must be a minimum percentage of the concrete cross section
Grade 40
Grade 60
1 9 9 0
0.20% reinforcement
0.18% reinforcement
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Slab span/depth ratios L/d
i
Grade Cantilever Simple support one end cont... Both ends cont.
GS c h40
60
13
10
25
20
30
24
35
28
G
Two-way slabs need no temperature rebars. Slabs without beams require different
r i g h t reinforcement for middle strips and column strips. Column strips need more rebars since
they carry a greater load share. Two-way slabs need about 20 % less depth, but require
1
6 to 14 in (15 to 36 cm) for plates
One-way slab on beams
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2
3
Two-way slab on beams
1 9 9 0
Two-way flat slab on columns with drop panels, column strip
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4 Two-way flat slab on columns with drop panels, mid-strip
5 Two-way flat slab with mushroom columns, column-strip
c h
6
GS
A Top reinforcement at zone of negative bending
B Temperature reinforcement of one-way slab
i g h t G C
D
Bottom reinforcement in zone of positive bending
Beam
Cop
F Mushroom panel on top of column
- 2 0 0 6
0
Maximum span = 50’ (15 m)
9
Slab depth 2.5” to 4.5” (6 to 11 cm)
1
Total depth 12” to 24” (30 to 60 cm)
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Rib width 5” to 9” (13 to 23 cm)
i
Rib spacing 2’ to 3’ (60 to 90 cm)
GS c hSlab on beam
Slabs on beams may be one- or two-way systems depending on proportions of spans
G
between the boundary beams. For equal spans, two-way slabs are appropriate. For
r i g h t unequal spans, one-way slabs are better and should span the shorter direction. Slabs on
beams are an intermediate solution between flat slab or plate, and rib or waffle slabs.
Copy The formwork for slab on beam is more complex and costly than for rib slabs.
The slab on beam is designed by the Direct Design Method as two-way system and as
beam-like strip as one-way system.
Slab on beam dimensions:
Span/depth ratio L/d = 30-36
Maximum span = 30’ (9 m)
Slab depth 4” to 12” (10 to 30 cm)
1 Rib slab braced by intermediary cross rib
2 Slab on beam may be one-way or two-way span
6
1 Waffle slab with a single solid panel over columns
2
3 Waffle slab supported by beams
0 - 2 0 0
Waffle slab with four solid panels over columns
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c h i erle
h t G GS
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Allowable soil pressure of various soil types
0 0 6
•
•
1 9 9 0
Soil settlement (critical when soil of uneven stiffness exists on a site)
Allowable bending and shear stress of reinforced concrete foundations
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• Depth of frost (ground water expansion due to frost causes cracks)
• Hot climate ~ 0, moderate climate ~ 3 ft (1 m); cold climate ~ 7 ft (2 m)
c h i
Soil Capacity, approximate allowable pressures (rounded for kPa)
GS
Soil type Approximate allowable soil pressures
G
Soft clay 2 ksf 100 kPa
r i g h t Stiff clay
Sand, compacted
4 ksf
6 ksf
200 kPa
300 kPa
y
Gravel 15 ksf 700 kPa
Cop
Sedimentary rock 50 ksf 2400 kPa
Hard rock (basalt, granite) 200 ksf 9600 kPa
1 Column footings are usually square, from 1 to 2 ft (30 to 60 cm) thick with two-way
rebars at bottom and dowel bars extending into column
2 Grade beams carry uniform load (of walls) to caissons, piers, orpiles;
or distribute column loads and tie them together as shown
3 Wall footings are linear and usually about twice the width of the wall, with bottom
rebars in length direction and cross bars for wide footings
4 Mat foundations can bridge uneven settlements in variable soil and may
counteract groundwater buoyancy with appropriate mat depth
5 Pile caps distribute column load to piles and tie them together
6 Grade beams may connect pile caps for increased lateral stability
6
be weld-spliced to great length as they are driven. H-piles displace the least soil for easy
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penetration. Concrete piles may be plain, reinforced, prestressed, precast, or site-cast.
They are the most common because of inherent corrosion resistance.
0
Pile type
Wood
1 9
Diameter
12 - 24 in
9 Max. length
80 ft
Capacity range
60 - 100 k
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30 - 60 cm 24 m 270 - 450 kN
i
Steel pipe 10 - 36 in 200 ft 100 -400 k
GS c hSteel H-pile
25 - 90 cm
8 - 14 in
60 m
300 ft
450 - 1800 kN
80 - 400 k
G
20 - 36 cm 91 m 360 - 1800 kN
r i g h t Concrete 8 - 36 in
20 - 90 cm
200 ft
60 m
60 - 200 k
270 - 900 kN
Copy Piers are usually shorter than piles and are used in firmer soil where pile driving is
difficult. They are cast in place against excavated soil or a steel form that is gradually
removed as the concrete is poured. Piers resting on soft soil may need a bell at the
bottom to enlarge the bearing area but those on rock have straight shafts. The bell is
formed by partially removing the form and compacting the concrete to push it outward.
Placing of piers is more precise than piles. Thus, only a single pier is needed to support
a column. Pier diameters range from 1.5 to 7 ft (0.5 - 2.1 m) with bells 2 to 3 times wider.
Capacities range from 70 to 10,000 k (300 to 45,000 kN).
1 Steel H-pile cross section
2 Wood pile cross section
3 Concrete pile cross sections
4 Piles: end-bearing pile at left; friction pile at right
5 Piers: bell pier at left; straight pier at right
6 Pile caps: common plans and cross sections
6
portion. Depending on height, vertical rebars range from # 3 to # 8, spaced 8 to 32 in (20
- 2 0 0
to 81 cm) and horizontal bars are spaced about 16 in (40 cm). Retaining walls are
usually designed using equivalent fluid pressure as lateral load.
0
9 9
Mass walls resist lateral pressure by their mass or dead weight and are thus very bulky.
1
They are usually of plain concrete, but may be reinforced to reduce cracking. Mass walls
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are about 12 in (30 cm) wide on top and increase in width about 1/3 of the distance from
i
the top.
GS c hConcrete walls are cantilever retaining walls that resist lateral pressure by being
cantilevered from the ground. They balance overturn moments by their own weight
G
combined with soil surcharge imposed on their footing and resist sliding by lateral soil
r i g h t pressure and friction at the base. They are more expensive than concrete masonry walls
due to the expense of formwork.
Copy Concrete masonry walls are also cantilever retaining walls that resist lateral pressure
by cantilever action. They resist overturn moments by their own weight and soil imposed
on the footing and resist sliding by lateral soil pressure and friction at the base. The
footing usually requires a key below the footing to help resist lateral sliding. Concrete
masonry retaining walls are most common due to a balance of strength and economy.
1-3 Mass retaining walls
4 Concrete /CMU wall at property line with adjacent land lower
5 Concrete / CMU wall not at property line
6 Concrete / CMU wall at property line with adjacent land higher
7 Concrete / CMU wall at property line with adjacent land lower
8 Concrete / CMU wall not at property line
9 Concrete / CMU wall at property line with adjacent land higher
6
Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning are two methods to prestress concrete. They are
- 2 0 0
based on patents by Doehring (1886) and Jackson (1888); yet both were unsuccessful
due to insufficient stress that dissipated by creep. Doehring stressed wires before
0
9
casting the concrete, and Jackson used turnbuckles to stress iron rods after the concrete
1 9
had cured. Subsequent experiments by others led to the first successful empirical work
erle
by Wettstein in 1921 and the first theoretical study by French engineer Eugene
Freyssinet during 1920, followed by his practical development. In 1961 the US engineer
c h i
T Y Lin pioneered prestress tendons that follow the bending diagram to balance bending
GS
due to load. Lin’s method controls deflections for any desired load, usually dead load
and about half the live load. By his method, before live load is applied a beam (or slab)
i g h t G bows upward. Under full load, they deflect and under partial live load they remain flat.
Diagram 5 illustrates this for a simply supported beam.
Cop
2 Prestress beam with concentric tendon deflects under service load
3 Prestress beam with eccentric tendon pushes up without service load
4 Same beam as 3 above with service load balanced at max. mid-span moment but
not elsewhere since tendon eccentricity is constant
5 Prestress beam with parabolic tendon to balance bending moment
A Bending stress: top concrete compression and bottom steel tension
B Prestress uniform due to concentric tendon
C Prestress with greater compression near tendon at bottom
D Prestress for eccentric tendon: bottom compression and top tension (tension where
tendon is outside beam’s inner third (Kern). Simply supported beam of zero end
moments has concentric tendon at ends
E Service load stress: top compression and bottom tension
F Combined stress from prestress and service load
G Combined stress with uniform distribution due to balanced moments
2 0 0 6
against concrete to transfer prestress into it. Short members have tension applied at one
end only but long members may require tension at both ends to overcome friction.
-
0
Several devices are available to anchor the ends of post-tensioned tendons into
9 9
concrete. One such device is a conical wedge that holds tendons by mechanical friction
1
between the tendon and a rough surface of the device. Post-tensioning is usually done
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at the building site. It allows tendons to take any form desired to balance bending
i
moments induced by service load.
GS c h1
2
Tendon cross section.
Conical tendon lock rests against steel sleeve (not shown) inserted into concrete
G
and squeezes the tendon and hold it by friction
rig h t 3
4
Beam with straight eccentric tendon below neutral axis
Parabolic tendon emulate bending moment to reduce deflection
Co p y 5
6
7
Multiple parabolic tendons with offset anchors
Continuous beam with tendons emulating bending moment distribution
Continuous slab with tendons emulating bending moment distribution
6
be placed on the truck in the same position as in their final installation. Also, to avoid
0 - 0 0
breakage of corners, it is advisable to provide corners with chamfers.
2
2
9 9
Beam with tendons cut off to transfer prestress into concrete after it has reached
1
sufficient strength
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3 Beam with tendon tie-down to approximate bending moment curves
i
4 Row of pre-tensioned members with tendon anchors at ends only
GS c h5
For members like walls and columns with possible bending in any direction,
tendons may be placed at the center
Row of pre-tensioned beams with tendon tie-down to approximate bending
rig
A Close approximation of parabolic bending moment by tendon shape
C o p y B Temporary tendon tie-downs to approximate bending moments are cut off after
tendons are cut from abutments
2 0 0 6
other hand, has lower dead weight, an advantage for seismic load that is proportional to
dead weight. To reduce high costs of formwork the number of different precast members
-
0
should also be reduced; yet this objective must be balanced by other considerations. For
9 9
example, fewer parts may result in a monotone and uninspired design. Combining
1
precast with site-cast concrete may satisfy economy as well as aesthetic objectives.
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Precast framing allows many variations, both with and without site-cast concrete. A few
c h i
typical examples are presented. They are possible with columns of several stories,
GS
limited primarily by transportation restrictions. The capacity of available cranes could
also impose limitations. In such cases, columns should be spliced near mid-height
h t G between floors where bending moments from both gravity and lateral loads are zero.
rig
1 T-columns with deep spandrel beams support floor and roof slabs. Shear
y
connections between adjacent beams combine them to moment frames
C o p 2
to resist lateral as well as gravity loads
Frames of split columns and deep spandrel beams support floor and roof slabs for
gravity and lateral loads. Shear connections at adjacent split columns tie the
frames together for unified action
3 T-columns with normal spandrel beams support floor and roof rib slabs
Shear connections between adjacent beams combine them to moment frames to
resist lateral as well as gravity loads
4 Tree-columns with beam supports allow flexible expansion. Twin beams allow
passage of services between them. Lateral load resistance must be provided by
shear walls or other bracing
5 Rib slab or double T’s supported on site-cast frame
6 U-channels with intermittent skylights supported on site-cast frame
6
0.6-2.4 m 15-30 cm 7-15 m
3 Single T
0
4-8 ft
1.2-2.4 m
12-48 in
30-120 cm
-2 0 0 20-120 ft
7-36 m
20-40
9
4 Double T 4-8 ft 12-48 in 20-120 ft 20-40
5 I-beam
r l e 1 9 1.2-2.4 m 30-120 cm
20-48 in
6-36 m
20-120 ft 15-30
i e
50-120 cm 6-36 m
G Sc h6
7
L-beam
Inverted T
20-48 in
50-120 cm
20-48 in
20-60 ft
6-24 m
20-60 in
10-20
10-20
i g h t G 50-120 cm 6-24 m
p y r
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- 2 0 0 6
1 9 9 0
c h i erle
h t G GS
y r i g
Cop
6
site-cast concrete. Exterior walls may be temporarily stabilized by dowel bars that are
0 - 2 0 0
tied or welded to dowel bars extending from floor slabs. A slot in the slab is left open to
1
2
9 9
Roof support by exterior wall corbel with welded brackets
1
Roof support by interior wall with bolted and welded brackets
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3 Floor support by exterior wall corbel with welded brackets
i
4 Floor support by interior beam with bolted bracket
GS c h5
6
Exterior footing with wall tied to floor by overlapping dowels. A slot in floor slab is
filled after dowels are tied or welded together
Interior column footing
r
B Roofing membrane on rigid thermal insulation or site-cast concrete
Copy C
D
E
F
Metal plate welded to connect brackets in wall and floor or roof
Precast roof slab (hollow core or other)
Bearing pads of neoprene or rubber to distribute load evenly
Grouted dowel bars to connect adjacent floor slabs
G Site-cast concrete top for smooth floor and to join precast slab panels
H Steel bracket to tie walls of adjacent floors together
I Pocket for bolting bracket (grouted after completion)
J Corbel for floor and roof (or ledger for wood or steel floors and roofs)
K Concrete beam, precast or site-cast
L Slot in floor slab to tie or weld wall to floor dowels (filled subsequently)
M Wall and floor dowels tied or welded together to anchor wall to floor
N Gravel to support floor slab in connecting slot
2 0 0 6
prior to concrete. Panels may be up to 30 ft (9 m) wide and 60 ft (18 m) high, but they
are usually much smaller. The lifting capacity of available cranes must be considered in
-
0
selecting panel sizes. The crane capacity should be about twice the panel weight to
9 9
account for initial inertia and panel bonding with the floor slab. Once the panel has
1
reached sufficient strength, after about seven days, the lifting process begins. Panels
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must be designed not only for service load but for any possible load during lifting and
i
erection. After erection, the wall panels are braced with telescopic steel braces that allow
GS c hproper alignment. The panels are connected to the floor slab by overlapping dowel bars
that extend from wall panels and floor slab. Dowels are tied or welded together to anchor
panels to the floor for initial stability until roof or floor diaphragms are in place. Those
i g h t G diaphragms transfer lateral loads to wall panels that act as shear walls parallel the load.
r
A Wall panel installed with temporary bracing
Copy B
C
D
E
Wall panel being tilt-up and lifted into the footing
Wall panel on the floor slab ready for tilt-up
Steel braces with telescopic spindle for panel alignment
Floor slab dowel bars to be tied or welded to wall dowels
F Wall panel dowel bars to be tied or welded to floor dowels
G Possible dowel bars at panel edges to tie panels together
H Steel ledger supports steel roof (wood ledgers or concrete corbels
are used for wood or concrete roofs)
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7 Roof supported by exterior wall corbel with welded brackets
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Roof supported by exterior wall with steel ledger
Roof supported by exterior wall with wood ledger
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10 Exterior footing with wall tied to floor by overlapping dowels. A floor slab slot is
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filled after dowels are tied or welded together
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11 Exterior footing after floor slab is completed
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A Tilt-up wall panel
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C
D
Cast-in-place concrete splice
Dowel bars extending from wall panels into concrete splice
Grouted concrete shear key ties panels together
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F
Silicone sealant with backer rod
Metal reglet for flashing, inserted in concrete wall
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H Roofing membrane on rigid insulation or concrete topping
I Bearing pads of neoprene or rubber to distribute load evenly
J Corbel to support roof or floor
K Steel angle ledger to support metal roof or floor
L Wood ledger to support wood roof or floor
M Anchor bolt to connect steel or wood ledger to wall panel
N Slot in floor slab to tie or weld wall to floor dowels
O Wall and floor dowels tied or welded together to anchor wall to floor
P Gravel to support floor slab in connecting slot
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shear walls for increased resistance to lateral load. Concrete masonry partitions provide
further resistance. Koulermos explored the plastic qualities of concrete to articulate
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facades in response to program needs. The oblique research wings integrate in a 1.2 m
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(4 ft) deep envelope zone exposed columns and u-shaped walls for sun control and as
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mechanical chases that facilitate changing needs. The plaza block features freestanding
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columns to frame dramatic views and support sun-shading devices. Articulation of the
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administration wing facade reflects interior functions. Facade elements of research
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moderate earthquakes, whereas frames provide ductility for fail-safe performance should
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brick walls fail in severe earthquakes, a proven effective combination in seismic regions.
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Two-way reinforced concrete slab on beams, all site-cast
B
C
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Concrete slab on grade
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Retaining wall with waterproofing
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D Concrete beam
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Reinforced concrete columns, spaced 35x59 ft (11x18 m), support the main structure.
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One-way ribs at 1.8 m (6 ft) and cross-ribs act as diaphragm to carry lateral load to
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vertical bracing. Cross ribs distribute rib load to adjacent ribs
Access floors on stubs provide space for service distribution
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C Precast, prestressed concrete channel beams
D Cantilever brackets support beams
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Beams are connected to columns by inserts, welded together after erection. Neoprene
pads provide smooth load transfer from beams to columns. Most of the precast concrete
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has exposed aggregate finish; only the inside of channel beams is smooth and painted
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white for a striking contrast and to enhance natural lighting by reflection.
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and then coated or laminated with a protective film
Common fabrics include:
• Polyester fabric with PVC coating
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•
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Glass fiber fabric with PTFE coating
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Glass fiber fabric with silicon coating
• Fine mesh fabric, laminated with PTFE film
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Fabric properties are tabulated on the next page. Foils included are only for very short
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spans due to low tensile strength. Unfortunately the elastic modulus of fabric is no longer
provided by fabric manufacturers, though it is required for design and manufacture of
rig
E = 2000 lb/in, 11492 kPa/m to
Coated fabric* Glass fiber fabric Permanent 20 to 160 kn/m ++ ++ 4 to 22 % > 25 years
PTFE coating Internal + external 114 to 914 lb/in
Coated fabric Glass fiber fabric Permanent 20 to 100 kN/m ++ ++ 10 to 20 % > 20 years
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Silicone coating Internal + external 114 to 571 lb/in
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35 to 55 % > 25 years
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Laminated with Internal + external 286 to 571 lb/in
Foil
PTFE film
PVC foil Permanent internal 6 to 40 kN/m 0
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Temporary external 34 to 228 lb/in internally
G S c h
6 to 12 kN/m
34 to 69 lb/in
++ ++ Up to 96 % > 25 years
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Coated or PTFE fabric Permanent + mobile 40 to 100 kN/m ++ ++ 15 to 40 % > 25 years
y
uncoated fabric* (good qualities Internal + external 228 to 571 lb/in
C
Coated or
o p
uncoated fabric*
for sustainability)
Flouropolymer
fabric
Permanent + mobile
Internal + external
8 to 20 kN/m
46 to 114 lb/in
++ ++ Up to 90 % > 25 years
2
E = 22,000 to 24,000 ksi; 70% metallic
Wire rope (good flexibility, low stiffness)
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E = 12,000 to 20,000 ksi; 60% metallic
Cable fittings
Cable fitting for strands and wire ropes may be of two basic types: adjustable and fixed.
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Adjustable fittings allow to adjust the length or to introduce prestress by shortening. The
amount of adjustment varies from a few inches to about four feet
3 Bridge Socket (adjustable)
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4 Open Socket (non-adjustable)
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5 Wedged Socket (adjustable)
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A
Anchor Stud (adjustable)
Support elements
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B Socket / stud
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C Strand or wire rope
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swaged fitting
Adjustment about 2 to 3 time cable size
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3 Open socked connection, perpendicular
Trapezoidal gusset plate for synergy of form and reduced weld stress
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E Sockets
F
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Gusset plates
Bridge socket (to adjust prestress)
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H Foundation gusset (at strand and mast)
I Mast
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2 Fabric pattern developed from triangular grid
Pattern cutting
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Cutting of patterns can be done manually of automatic.
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The manual method requires drawing the computer plot on the fabric
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The automatic method directs a cutting laser or knife from the computer plot
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Note:
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For radial patterns as shown at left, cutting two patterns from one strip, juxtaposing the
wide and narrow ends, minimizes fabric waste.
ig h t G Pattern joining
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• Sewing
• Gluing
Edge cables
Unless other boundaries are used, edge cables are added, either embedded in fabric
sleeves or attached by means of lacing.
Fabric panels
For very large structures the fabric may consist of panels that are assembled in the field,
usually by lacing. Laced joints are covered with fabric strips for waterproofing.
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6 Fabric corner
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Cable transfer at fabric corner
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7 Edge cable/ membrane sleeve
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8 Membrane laced to edge cable
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4 Pneumatic cushion attached to concrete with twin plates and synthetic gaskets
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1 Fabric / cable detail
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1 Strut top
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2 Fabric corner
A
B
Top chord strand
Diagonal strand
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C Fabric attachment
D
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Metal plate at fabric corner, adjustable to induce prestress
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E Edge cable
F Edge webbing
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