Oyster Mushroom Handbook PDF

ISSN 1739-1377
Free from Poverty
Mushroom
Growers
Handbook 1
Oyster
Mushroom
Cultivation
1
Free from Poverty
Mushroom Growers Handbook
Oyster
Mushroom
Cultivation
Copyright 2004 by MushWorld - HEINEART Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form
or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
ISSN 1739-1377
Published by MushWorld - HEINEART Inc.

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Distributed mainly to developing countries for free
Printed in Republic of Korea

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"us%room Ero7ersF Gandboo: 1
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PREFACE
"us%room culti-ation %as been e-aluated as an e33ecti-e means 3or po-erty alle-iation in de-elopin6 countries
due to its possibility o3 lo7 cost production8 %i6% pro3it and 9uic: return; <s a non=pro3it or6ani>ation8
"us%?orld %as de-oted itsel3 to distributin6 -aluable and abundant in3ormation on mus%room science and
culti-ation -ia its 7ebsite8 777;"us%?orld;com8 3or 3ree since establis%ed in @AAB; C%ou6% t%e access to
"us%?orld is 3ree and unlimited8 Dnternet is not readily a-ailable 3or people in de-elopin6 countries 7%o
sincerely need in3ormation sources 3or mus%room 6ro7in6;
"us%room Ero7ersF Gandboo: is publis%ed to pro-ide more accessible in3ormation on mus%room culti-ation
3or people in de-elopin6 countries; Dt 7ill be distributed to 6ro7ers8 scientists8 eHtension 7or:ers and
6o-ernmental o33icials in de-elopin6 countries 3ree o3 c%ar6e; Iollo7in6 Jyster "us%room Kulti-ation8 t%e topic
o3 t%is 3irst boo:8 culti-ation o3 ot%er mus%rooms 7ill be eHplored one by one in t%e 3ollo7in6 boo:s to be
publis%ed eac% year; C%rou6% t%is (ushroom /rowers2 Handboo88 "us%?orld %opes to reac% more mus%room
6ro7ers in de-elopin6 countries and o33er practical 6uides to mus%room culti-ation 3or po-erty alle-iation;
(ushroom /rowers2 Handboo8 1: ;yster (ushroom Kulti-ation is consisted o3 3our parts and t7el-e c%apters;
!art > provides overall information on mushroom and its Dultivation.

&hapter 1 is an introduction to mus%room culti-ation; Lrie3 eHplanation on mus%room and principles o3
mus%room culti-ation are pro-ided; ?%y mus%room 6ro7in6 is a 6ood 7ay 3or po-erty alle-iation is discussed
7it% speci3ic eHamples;
&hapter 2 illustrates mus%room 6ro7in6 and proMect 3or a li-in6 in Nepal8 Oimbab7e8 Dndia8 C%ailand and
P7a>iland;
!art >> foDuses on various aspeDts of oyster mushroom Dultivation.

&hapter 3 is an introduction to oyster mus%room culti-ation; Dt presents principles o3 oyster
mus%room 6ro7in6 and illustrated 6uides to oyster mus%room ba6 and s%el3 culti-ation;
&hapter 4 is about spa7n8 one o3 t%e :ey elements 3or %i6% yields; C%e c%apter be6ins 7it% descriptions o3
commercially important !leurotus species8 3ollo7ed by 6rain spa7n ma:in6 in a simply=made clean benc%;
&hapter 5 is about anot%er crucial 3actor= substrate; C%e c%apter lists possible substrate materials 3or oyster
mus%room based on 7orld7ide sur-ey and presents nine eHamples o3 substrate materialsQ cereal stra78 coco
lumber sa7dust8 sun3lo7er seed %ulls8 6rass8 cottonseed %ulls8 su6arcane ba6asse8 rubber tree sa7dust8 6roundnut
s%ells8 and non=pasteuri>ed 7%eat stra7;
&hapter 6 re-ie7s t%e maMor t%ree 3actors t%at s%ould be considered 7%en a 3armer builds a mus%room 6ro7in6
%ouseQ site selection8 construction materials and 3unctions; Rarious eHamples o3 6ro7in6 %ouse 3rom many
countries are pro-ided ran6in6 3rom simple s%ade to structural insulated panel %ouse 7it% automatic control;
&hapter 7 introduces di33erent 6ro7in6 met%odsQ lo68 ba68 s%el3 and bottle culti-ation 7it% ima6es o3 eac% step;
Seaders are eHpected to select appropriate culti-ation met%od 3or t%emsel-es and adopt tips and :no7=%o7s 3rom
eac% met%od;
!
Copyright! 2004 by MushWorld All rights reserved.
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&hapter 8 is on pest and disease mana6ement; Pat%o6ens8 symptoms and control measures o3 eac% disease are
7ell summari>ed; Pests and abnormalities are also 7ell described 7it% in3ormati-e supportin6 ima6es;
&hapter 98 t%e last c%apter o3 t%is part8 co-ers post=%ar-est mana6ement; Rarious 7ays o3 recyclin6 o3 spent
oyster mus%room substrate is illustrated; U33ecti-e 7ays to eHtend s%el3 li3e o3 mus%room are introduced 7it%
detailed ima6es;
!art >>> offers Dase studies on mushroom growing worldwide.

&hapter 10 pro-ides in=dept% researc%es on mus%room industry o3 t%ree <3rican countriesQ Venya8 Oimbab7e and
W6anda;
&hapter 11 introduces ot%er mus%rooms t%at can be 6ro7n in t%e Cropics; Xetailed in3ormation on lo7=cost
culti-ation met%ods are illustrated about )*+oder-* mus%room8 s%iita:e8 paddy stra7 mus%room8 and !leurotus
tuberregiu-;
!art >P lists useful information sourDes;

&hapter 12 lists recommended boo:s and 7ebsites on mus%room 3or 3urt%er readin6;
%D8nowledgement
C%is 6ro7in6 manual cannot be made by "us%?orld alone8 but to6et%er 7it% t%ose de-oted scientists and
6ro7ers 7it% di33erent educational8 pro3essional8 cultural and national bac:6rounds; "ore 7riters are in-ited to
Moin in t%is 6ro7ersF %andboo:;
"us%?orld ta:es t%is opportunity to eHpress our special t%an:s to "r; Sic: Eus% 3or %is 6reat 7or:8 7%o
-olunteered to copyedit all t%e manuscripts o3 t%is 6ro7ersF %andboo:; <s a pro3essional copy editor8 %e de-oted
%is -aluable time to editin6 YZ[ pa6es o3 manuscripts 3rom a score o3 7riters; "us%?orld also ac:no7led6es Pro3;
\o>e3 Poppe super-ised K%apter ]; Pubstrate; Ge 6a-e us %elp3ul 3eedbac:s on ten articles in t%e c%apter 3rom %is
3orty=year researc% and eHperience;
P%oto credits are 6i-en to "eera Pandey8 "i:e Xubose8 K%an6=Pun6 \%une8 Geun6=Poo êe8 Vap=_eol \an68
_oun6=Lo: _oo8 Gyun=Pu: êe8 Peun6=Gun _u and K%an6=Gyun _ou;
"us%?orld is 6rate3ul to Panbo systems b-; and Iancom b-; 7%ic% 3inancially supported t%is publication
proMect and Xan Ieistels 3or %is 3eedbac: 3rom t%e -ie7 point o3 non=pro3essional 3or mus%room;
Primary ac:no7led6ement must 6o to t%e many contributed aut%ors listed belo7 3rom nearly a score o3
countries; Lein6 "us%?orld members8 t%ey 6a-e us -aluable contributions de-oted to po-erty alle-iation t%rou6%
mus%room 3armin68 and substantial encoura6ement as 7ell;
<bella8 U-aristo <; Kentral û>on Pate Wni-ersity C%e P%ilippines

K%a8 \ae=Poon K%un6bu: National Wni-ersity Vorea
K%en8 <lice ?; Ppecialty "us%rooms W;P;<;
K%iroro8 Kan3ord V; Wni-ersity o3 Oimbab7e Oimbab7e
Kur-etto8 N; S; Wni-ersidad Nacional der Pur <r6entina
Kustodio8 \; K%ristop%er X; Lataan Ptate Kolle6e C%e P%ilippines
Xelmastro8 P; Wni-ersidad Nacional der Pur <r6entina
Xe7raM8 Caurac%and ?in6s o3 <n6els "auritius
U6uc%i8 Iumio Co:yo Wni-ersity o3 <6riculture \apan
Ii6las8 X; Wni-ersidad Nacional der Pur <r6entina
Gi6a:i8 "iyato Co:yo Wni-ersity o3 <6riculture \apan
DiMima8 Comoa:i Co:yo Wni-ersity o3 <6riculture \apan
Dsi:%uem%en8 Jmoan6%e P; Nort% Karolina <`C Ptate Wni-ersity W;P;<;
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V%an8 <%:la9 Pa:istan

Von68 ?on=Pi: Sural Xe-elopment <dministration Vorea
êbauer8 Xa-id P; Wni-ersity o3 Kali3ornia W;P;<;
în8 O%anHi \WNK<J Sesearc% Dnstitute K%ina
"ab-eni8 <udrey S;P; Wni-ersity o3 Oimbab7e Oimbab7e
"anand%ar8 Ves%ari ^; Kentre 3or <6ricultural Cec%nolo6y Nepal
"asenda8 Umilia <idabase Cec%nolo6y Oimbab7e
"atute8 S; Eon>ale> Wni-ersidad Nacional der Pur <r6entina
N6uyen8 Cruon6 Lin% Liolo6y Dnstitute in Xalat Rietnam
Ns%emereir7e8 Iederica W6anda National Kouncil 3or Pcience an Cec%nolo6y W6anda
J6den8 <drian Eourmet ?oodland "us%rooms ^td; W;V;
Pa:ale8 Niles% Eul3 "us%room Products Kompany Dndia
Poppe8 \o>e3 Eent Wni-ersity Lel6ium
Pro7se8 Vat%erine Eourmet ?oodland "us%rooms ^td; W;V;
aian8 Euo P%an6%ai <cademy o3 <6ricultural Pciences K%ina
auimio8 Cricita G; Wni-ersity o3 t%e P%ilippines at ôs Lanos C%e P%ilippines
Seyes8 Senato E; Kentral û>on Pate Wni-ersity C%e P%ilippines
Sin:er8 Xanny ^; Wni-ersity o3 Euelp% Kanada
Ri>iteu8 Eabriel Somania
?ambua8 \ustus Kommunity Pupportin6 Eroup Venya
Oero Umissions Sesearc% and Dnitiati-es
!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Photo Gallery
Part I. Mushrooms
Chapter 1. Introduction to Mushroom
What is Mushroom 1
Why Grow Mushrooms 4
Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide
Mushroom Cultivation to Make Living in NEPAL 13
Poverty Alleviation by Mushroom Growing in ZIMBABWE 19
Mushroom Growing in INDIA 24
Mushroom Growing in NORTHERN THAILAND 30
Mushroom Project in SWAZILAND 38
Part II. Oyster Mushrooms

Chapter 3. Introduction to Oyster Mushroom
What is Oyster Mushroom 48
Illustrated Guide to Oyster Mushroom Cultivation 52
Chapter 4. Spawn
Descriptions of Commercially Important Pleurotus Species 54
How to Make Oyster Mushroom Grain Spawn in a Simple Way 62
Chapter 5. Substrate
Agricultural Wastes as Substrates for Oyster Mushroom 75
Cereal Straw and Corncobs 86
Coco Lumber Sawdust 91
Sunflower Seed Hulls 95
Grass (Juncao) 101
Cottonseed Hulls 108
Sugarcane Bagasse 112
Sugarcane Bagasse 112
Rubber Tree Sawdust 116
Groundnut Shells 120
Non-Sterilized Wheat Straw 123
Chapter 6. Growing Houses
Mushroom Growing Houses 129
Chapter 7. Cultivation Modes
Log Cultivation 135
Bag Cultivation 139
Shelf Cultivation 153
Bottle Cultivation 166
Chapter 8. Pest and Disease Management
Green Mold and Hypocrea Disease 172
Brown Blotch Diseases 175
Viral Disease 178
Pests 180
Abnormalities in Fruiting Body 183
Chapter 9. Post-harvest Management
Recycling of Spent Oyster Mushroom Substrate 187
Mushroom Storage and Processing 192
Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide

Chapter 10. Regional Research
Mushroom Cultivation in KENYA 197
Mushroom Industry in ZIMBABWE 204
Mushroom Cultivation in ZIMBABWE 212
Mushroom Cultivation in UGANDA 220
Chapter 11. Mushrooms for the Tropics
Growing Ganoderma Mushrooms 224
Growing Shiitake Mushrooms 235
Growing Paddy Straw Mushrooms 247
Growing Pleurotus tuberregium 255
Part IV. Information Sources

Chapter 12. Mushroom Cultivation Information Sources
Recommended Books 266
Recommended Websites 268
MushWorld’s Profile 274

! Mushroom Photo Gallery www.MushWorld.com
Mushroom )ro*ers, -an01oo2 7
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PHOTO GALLERY
Wild Mushrooms
!"e$r&t$( sp. )*"ar,a sp.
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!"e$r&t$( sp. 2*/&per4&5 e/h,5at$0
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Mushroom Products
Photo Gallery
Dried shiitake slices, U.S.A Fresh eryngii, Japan
Fresh 89ar,/$( imported from the Republic of Mushroom pickles and wines, Thailand
South Africa / Swaziland
!he"",5$( :a$0,, instant noodle, Korea Canned mushrooms, China
!
Mushroom Dishes
Straw mushroom and eryngii, china Various mushroom snacks, Thailand
89ar,/$( mushroom cream soup, France Mushroom shabu-shabu, Korea
Sandwich with shiitake, China 89r&/*:e sp., Thailand
!
Mushroom Markets
Dried shiitake (Huagu), China Wild mushroom market, U.S.A.
Photo Gallery!
Photo Gallery
Wild mushrooms, Thailand (by Tawat) Matsutake on display, Japan
Local market, Mexico (by Armando Lopez) Local market, Switzerland
!
Growing Methods
Bags hung in a wall formation Horizontal shelf with bags
Inoculated logs of 2e5t,5$"a e4&4e( Bottles of king oyster mushroom
Shelf cultivation of C&pr,5$( /&0at$( Bags of shiitake mushrooms in a green house
!
Growing Methods
Bag cultivation of C&pr,5$( /&0at$(
A-frame shelf with bags

!
Shelf cultivation of !"e$r&t$( sp.
Tray cultivation of 89ar,/$( mushroom Sawdust blocks of 2e5t,5$"a e4&4e(!
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Cultivated Mushrooms
2e5t,5$"a e4&4e(, Block, Japan !"e$r&t$( &(treat$(, Bag, Korea
<&"=ar,e""a =&"=a/ea, Shelf, Thailand 89ar,/$( :,(p&r$(, Shelf, Australia
>"a00$",5a =e"$t,pe(, Bottle, Korea C&pr,5$( /&0at$(, Shelf, China
!
Contributed Photos
Photo Gallery
80a5,ta /ae(area, Armando lopez, Mexico
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?a5&4er0a "$/,4$0. Alice W. Chen, U.S.A
C&pr,5$( /&0at$(, Eunjoo Lee, Canada
.&r/he""a e(/$"e5ta, Huang Tong, China
@&"et$( e4$",(, Rick Gush, Italia!
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! Part I Mushrooms Chapter 1. Introduction Mushroom !
Mushroom Growers’ Handbook 1
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Part I. Mushrooms
Chapter 1
Introduction to Mushroom
"#$% 'S M*S#ROOM
Song Baek Cho

MushWorld
Translated by Seung Woo Kang
"-./ 01 M21-34456
A mushroom is defined as =a macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body which can be either epigeous or
hypogeous. The macrofungi have fruiting bodies large enough to be seen with the naked eye and to be picked up
by handC (Chang and Miles, 1992). In a narrow sense, the word mushroom also refers only to the fruitbody.
Mushrooms used to be classified into the Kingdom Plantae, but now they belong to the Kingdom Fungi due to
uniKue fungal characteristics which draw a clear line from animals or plants. Unlike green plants, mushrooms are
heterotrophs. Not having chlorophyll, they cannot generate nutrients by photosynthesis, but take nutrients from
outer sources. Most mushroom species are under the Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, the two phyla under the
Kingdom Fungi (Table 1).
Table 9: ;ingdom Fungi

Ascomycota sac fungi (yeast to large cup fungi)
Basidiomycota higher fungi (toadstool, puffball, bracket fungi)
Oygomycota molds, mycorrhizal fungi and soil decomposers
Chytridiomycota primitive fungi, chytrids
Deuteromycota asexually reproducing fungi
Mushrooms breed by spores (seeds for plants). Under the proper

conditions, spores germinate into hyphae (collectively, mycelia). Mycelia
are filamentous and generally unseen with the naked eye. Germinated
hyphae form primary mycelia, and then secondary mycelia through
plasmogamy (hyphal fusion). They accumulate nutrients from the
substrate (soil for plants) and colonize substrate. When stimulated by
temperature, humidity, etc., the mycelial colony forms pins under certain
conditions and grow to fruitbodies (fruits for plants). Toung fruitbodies
are called pins (buds for plants). Pins differentiate into a cap and stem
Figure1. Fruitbody! forming fruitbodies. Under the cap, spores are produced in the gills (Fig.
!
! Part I Mushrooms Chapter 1. Introduction Mushroom 7
1). Fruitbodies release spores in order to produce the next generation.

This life cycle of mushroom is divided into two phasesW vegetative and reproductive growth. Vegetative growth
indicates linear growth of fungal mycelia dissolving complex substrate components into simpler molecules and
absorbing them as nutrients. When low temperature, high humidity, much oxygen, and sometimes light are offered,
the mycelia cease vegetative growth and begin to produce fruitbodies, which we call Ymushroom’. This is
reproductive growth. Mushroom cultivation can be said the practice of obtaining fruitbodies by artificially
repeating these two growing stages.
Mushroom cultivation reKuires enough understanding on the optimal growing conditions of each mushroom
species and how to make favorable environment for both vegetative and reproductive growth of mushrooms.
%-388 9.:/431 4; M21-3445 C2=/0>./04?

S@.A?
What spawn is to mushroom is
like seed is to crop. Unlike
spore, spawn is already at its
mycelial stage growing on its
own substrate such as sorghum,
barley or sawdust. The life cycle
of mushroom starts from spores,
but growers inoculate mycelial
origin spawn rather than spore
origin spawn because of
possible variations and
mutations. The Kuality of spawn
A. Grain spawn B. Sawdust spawn
is one of the most decisive
factors for successful crop.
Therefore, growers need to use
Kualified spawn for commercial
production. Spawn should
maintain the strain
characteristics and is propagated
by subcultures. New strains are
C. Plug spawn D. Liquid spawn developed with genetic methods
such as variation and mating.
Figure2. Various types of spawn!
The various types of mushroom
spawn include grain, sawdust, plug and liKuid.
S2B1/3./8
Mushrooms can be classified as Z categories by their tropic pattern[ saprophytes, parasites or mycorrhizae. The
most commonly grown mushrooms are saprophytes, decomposers in an ecosystem growing on organic matters
like wood, leaves and straw in nature. Raw materials can be used as substrate for primary decomposers such as
oyster mushroom and enokitake which have lignocellulosic enzymes. On the other hand, secondary decomposers
like button mushroom or straw mushroom reKuire substrate degraded by bacteria or other fungi. Mushroom
reKuires carbon, nitrogen and inorganic compounds as its nutritional sources and the main nutrients are carbon
sources such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Thus, most organic matters containing cellulose,
!
! Part I Mushrooms Chapter 1. Introduction Mushroom C
hemicellulose or lignin can be used as mushroom substrate. Examples are cotton, cottonseed hull, corncob,
sugarcane waste, sawdust, and so on. However, demanded amount of each nutritional sources differs according to
mushroom species. For example, button mushroom ()*ar+,-. /+.p0r-.) reKuires relatively high nitrogen source,
so the optimal C/N ratio of button mushroom compost is 1`. On the other hand, oyster mushroom and shiitake
reKuire less nitrogen and more carbon source. Mushroom mycelia secrete digestive enzymes into the substrate and
absorb the dissolved nutrients. Cellulose, the main nutritional source of mushroom is one of the most abundant
organic matters on earth, but its digestive enzyme, cellulase is owned by several microorganisms including fungi.
Here comes the reason mushroom is considered an important food source. Mushroom is the only one by which
cellulose is dissolved and absorbed and transformed into food for mankind. Mushroom is also influenced by
acidity of substrate. The optimal pH value of substrate ranges from 6 to b, varying with mushroom species.
E?>034?58?/
The last important factor for mushroom growing is providing an appropriate environment both for vegetative and
reproductive growth. Not being protected by a skin layer, fungi are easily affected by their growing conditions. So
it can be said that the success or failure of mushroom cultivation depends on the control of growing conditions.
Environmental factors affecting mushroom cultivation include temperature, humidity, light and ventilation.
Optimal levels of them at vegetative stage differ from those at reproductive stage.
Mushroom mycelia can survive between c and de" depending on the species. Mushroom mycelia grow well
with the temperature range between 2e and Ze". Pins form at 1e-2e", lower than that of mycelial growth by
1e". Over beg of the fruitbody is water. Substrate moisture content should be 6e-`cg and log moisture content,
Zc-dcg. During fruiting, different relative humidity levels, ranging from be-9cg, are needed at the early, mid and
latter stage. Though mycelia can grow without light, some species reKuire light for fruitbody formation. Being
aerobic fungi, mushrooms need fresh air during growing, but ventilation is more reKuired for reproductive stage.
No matter how well the substrate is colonized, it is useless if it fails in fructification. Therefore creating the
optimal conditions for transition from vegetative stage to reproductive stage is crucial to successful mushroom
cultivation.
In conclusion, among the three factors, the most important is environmental control. By maintaining optimal
conditions at each growing stage and for each species, growers can produce the desired yield of Kuality
mushrooms.
E=411.3F
# Epigeous Growing on (or close to) the ground.

# Hypogeous Growing under ground.
# Plasmogamy Fusion of cells or protoplasts without fusion of the nuclei, as occurs in higher terrestrial fungi.
Nucleus fusion is called karyogamy.
# Heterotroph An organism that cannot synthesize its own food and that is dependent on complex organic
substances for nutrition. Most organisms except green plants (autotrophs) are heterotrophs.
# Saprophyte An organism which grows on and derives its nutrient from dead or decaying organic matter.
# Parasite An organism that grows, feeds, and is sheltered on or in a different organism while contributing
nothing to the survival of its host.
# MycorrhiBa The symbiotic association of the mycelium of a fungus with the roots of certain plants, such as
conifers, beeches, or orchids.
# Aerobe Organism that is living or occurring only in the presence of oxygen.
!
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WHY GROW MUSHROOMS
/r-,-ta 12 3"-'-&
/ni2ersity o5 the !hilippines at 8os 9anos: the !hilippines
Mushrooms in History and Different Regions
Mushrooms ha2e been part o5 our human diet sin=e time

immemorial( >hey ?ere used as 5ood e2en be5ore man
understood the use o5 other organisms( /ndoubtedly:
mushrooms ?ere one o5 manAs earliest 5oods: and they
?ere o5ten =onsidered an eBoti= and luBurious 5ood
reser2ed 5or the ri=h( >oday mushrooms are 5ood 5or both
the ri=h and the poor( >hey =an be gro?n any?here as
long as the =onditions 5or their gro?th and =ulti2ation are
pro2ided( A2ailable mushroom te=hnologies range in
=ompleBity 5rom 2ery high to amaDingly lo?(
"#$%&' 1) 8%/6&--5/ 0-& .'9':-;5'+*
"#$%&' () "&%#*#+$ ,-.#'/ -0 ! volvacea "#$%&' 1) 2*&34 5%/6&--5 ,'./
Mushrooms ha2e been 2ariously =onsidered as a hedge against 5amine or a possible =an=er =ure( >hey do
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=ertainly ha2e enormous potential 5or 5eeding third ?orld peoples( In the Hest: mushrooms are regarded as a
luBury 5ood( 9ut in many de2eloping =ountries o5 the ?orld: mushrooms =an mean =ash 5or the poor IFig( 1K and a
ne? sour=e o5 nutrition( L2en landless peasants =an gro? mushrooms as a 2aluable =rop as long as they ha2e the
proper te=hnology: the proper substrates: and the planting material =alled spa?n( In some 2illages o5 India: it has
been reported that 5armers are gro?ing mushrooms right in their o?n homes or immediate surroundings( Millagers
gro?ing mushrooms =an rapidly begin to bring in more =ash than some lo=al lando?ners(
"#$%&' <) =3&9'/*#+$ -0 /*&34 5%/6&--5 "#$%&' >) "&%#*#+$ ,-.#'/ -0 -?/*'& 5%/6&--5
In some poor =ountries o5 Asia: the tropi=al Nhinese stra? mushroom I)*+,#'-&++# ,*+,#.&#K IFig( 2K is gro?n in
2ery simple traditional ?ays( >his mushroom likes the hot humid =onditions o5 the tropi=s and =an be =ulti2ated
on beds IFig( 3K made up o5 agri=ultural ?astes su=h as stra? or banana lea2es( Hithin 2 ?eeks: 5ruitbodies are
ready to be har2ested IFig( 4K(
"#$%&' @) A?/*'& 8%/6&--5 6-%/'/ 53.' -0 $&3//'/ "#$%&' B) A?/*'& 5%/6&--5 $&-4#+$
-+ /34.%/* ,'./ -%*.--&!
Oyster mushrooms I/+&0'*%01 spp(K IFig( 5K are e2en more suited throughout the third ?orld areas that are ri=h
in plant ?astes su=h as sa?dust: sugar=ane bagasse and others( Moreo2er: =ompostingTthe di55i=ult preliminary
step 5or button and stra? mushroomTis not required 5or oyster mushroom =ulti2ation(
>he oyster mushroom gro?ing houses =an be =onstru=ted o5 mud as in some 2illages in India: or made o5
bamboo and dried lea2es as in most o5 Asia IFig( 6K( In =ooler areas: oyster mushrooms may e2en be gro?n
outdoors i5 they are shielded 5rom eB=essi2e sun IFig( 7K( Oyster mushrooms are easily dried to pro2ide 5or a
longer shel5 li5e and eBport possibilities IFig( 8K(
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' $
"#$%&' C) D&#'. -?/*'& 5%/6&--5/ &'3.? 0-& 'E;-&*!
Benefits Derived from Mushrooms and Growing Mushrooms
Nutrition of the mushrooms

>he popularity o5 mushrooms is still based not on the nutrients that they =ontain but mostly on their eBoti= taste
and their =ulinary properties: ?hether eaten alone or in =ombination ?ith other 5oods( It is not ?ell kno?n that
mushrooms are 5ull o5 nutrients and =an there5ore make a 2ery important =ontribution to human nutrition( >able 1
sho?s the 5ood 2alue obtained 5rom =ulti2ated mushrooms =ompared ?ith other =ommon 5oods(
/a45e 72 8&&+ 9a5"e &: the +-::ere)t ,"5t-9ate+ '"#hr&&'# ;< :re#h =e->ht?
MushroomsY !rotein NFO Fat Nal=ium >hiamine Zibo5la2in Iron [ia=in

5ood item INaK IMit( 91 K IMit( 92K IFeK IMit( 93K
/+&0'*%01 2(9 5(66 1(79 3(14 0(20 0(22 3(40 7(72
/0+2*3#'-01 I26^35K_
)*+,#'-&++# 3(8 6(00 0(60 3(00 0(10 0(17 1(7 8(30
,*+,#.&# I25^29K_
A5#'-.01 3(5 11(4 0(40 2(40 0(10 ^ tra=e 5(85
6'033&1.&31 I24^34K_
L&3%-30+# 7(5 6(50 0(93 3(00 ^ ^ 1(90 7(60
&8*8&1 I13^17K_
A0'-.0+#'-# 4(8 7(16 0(50 3(15 0(08 0(19 3(60 4(00
$*+9%'-."# I4^8K_
!otato 2(0 9(10 0 11 0(10 0(04 0(70 0(04
Milk 3(5 4(90 3(9 118 0(04 0(17 0(10 0(17
Fish 14^20 2^3 1^2 15 60 1(20 1(50 1(20
Lgg 13 2(0 13(3 68 18 0(27 1^15 0(27
Meat 21 ^ 3(6 8(3 0(10 0(29 2(52 29(00
Narrot 1(2 9(3 0(3 39 0(06 0(06 0(8 0(06
Nompiled 5rom 2arious sour=es( _[umbers in parenthesis are dry ?eight data(
ISour=ea T'*$-.#+ ;01"'**2 !0+%-,#%-*3 by >(F(buimio: 2002K
!rotein is one o5 the most important nutrients in 5ood: being parti=ularly important 5or building body tissues(
Mushrooms ?ith protein =ontent ranging 5rom 3^7c ?hen 5resh to 25^40c ?hen dry =an play an important role in
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' %
enri=hing human diets ?hen meat sour=es are limited( >he protein =ontent is almost equal to that o5 =orn: milk:
and legumes: although still lo?er than meat: 5ish and eggs( As a dietary sour=e o5 protein: mushrooms are superior
to most 5ruits and 2egetables ?ith the eB=eption o5 beans and peas( Mushrooms =an be eaten 5resh or =ooked:
unlike other protein sour=es su=h as soya and yeast that ha2e to be pro=essed or disguised in some manner be5ore
they are a==eptable on the table(
Mushrooms also =ontain all the essential amino a=ids as ?ell as the =ommonly o==urring nonêssential amino
a=ids and amides( 8ysine: ?hi=h is lo? in most =ereals: is the most important amino a=id in mushrooms(
Mushroom protein is indeed a 2aluable addition to the human diet(
Mushrooms also rank quite high in their 2itamin =ontent: ?hi=h in=ludes signi5i=ant amounts o5 Mitamin N(
Although de2oid o5 Mitamin A: mushrooms make up 5or that ?ith their high ribo5la2in: thiamin and
=yano=obalamin IMit( 912K =ontent: the latter usually being 5ound only in animal produ=ts( >heir =ontent o5 the
anti^pellagra 2itaminTnia=inTis nearly equi2alent to the le2els 5ound in pork or bee5: ?hi=h are =onsidered to be
the ri=hest sour=es o5 this 2itamin( Mushrooms are also good sour=es o5 minerals su=h as =al=ium: potassium:
sodium and phosphorous in addition to 5oli= a=id: an ingredient kno?n 5or enri=hing the bloodstream and
pre2enting de5i=ien=ies( Iron is also present in an appre=iable amount in mushrooms and together ?ith
phosphorous: =an pro2ide a good proportion o5 the re=ommended daily dietary needs( Mushrooms are lo? in
sodium: making them ideal 5or persons ?ith =ertain types o5 heart and kidney ailments(
As health food and medicinal

For the past 20 years: interest in the medi=inal aspe=ts o5 mushrooms has greatly been stimulated by the large
number o5 s=ienti5i= studies =ondu=ted on mushrooms( Folklores ha2e pro2ided =lues 5or potential sour=es o5
medi=ine 5rom mushrooms as ?ell as 5rom herbal plants( /sing modern approa=hes: s=ientists ha2e isolated and
identi5ied spe=i5i= =omponents that =an either destroy or at least debilitate three o5 mankindsA killer diseasesa
=an=er: heart disease and AIdS( As a result: a 2ast body o5 s=ienti5i= literature =on=erning mushrooms has been
published sin=e the 1970s: mostly in hospitals and resear=h institutions in Lurope: eapan: Nhina and the /nited
States(
"#$%&' F) "&%#*#+$ ,-.#'/ -0 )anoderma lucidum "#$%&' 1G) )anoderma *'3
>he most re=ent introdu=tion o5 a medi=inal mushroom is <#3*8&'2# spp( >he 5ruiting bodies IFig( 9K ha2e
traditionally been used 5or medi=inal purposes and 5or thousand o5 years: ha2e been regarded by the Nhinese to be
a high quality herbal medi=ine( It has been used =lini=ally sin=e an=ient times in Nhina 5or the treatment o5 5atigue:
=oughing: asthma: indigestion: neurosis and a 2ariety o5 other diseases( Larly reports indi=ated the ability o5
<#3*8&'2# to impro2e body 5un=tions: in=reasing its healing ability ?hile maintaining a healthy and long li5e( It
is no? ?ell established 5rom -3 ,-%'* and -3 ,-,* studies that <#3*8&'2# =an help 5ight 2iral diseases: and modern
resear=h has pro2en its anti^tumor and inter5eronîndu=ing a=tions( Nonsiderable data no? indi=ates that
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' &
<#3*8&'2# basidio=arps ha2e se2eral =omponents responsible 5or the inhibition o5 FIM multipli=ation( >oday:
<#3*8&'2# is a2ailable in many =ountries in the 5orm o5 dried 5ruiting bodies: =apsules: toni= and instant teas IFig(
10K: and is gro?n in =ulture all o2er Asia( In Nali5ornia: <#3*8&'2# is sold in Nhinese stores in dry 5orms:
?ithout the need 5or pre^pro=essing into teas( 9eing a tropi=al 5ungus: this mushroom =an be ?idely =ulti2ated
using sa?dust and other tropi=al agri=ultural ?astes su=h as palm 5ibers: =o=onut ?astes and ri=e stra?(
/+&0'*%01 spp(: oyster mushrooms: are also good sour=es o5 beta^1:3Y1:6^glu=an( >hese mole=ules I=alled
pleuranK stimulate the immune system o5 the body to help 5ight abnormal =ells as ?ell as boost the system against
the damaging e55e=ts o5 =hemo and radiation therapies used to kill tumor =ells( /+&0'*%01 also =ontains me2inolin
and related =ompounds ?hi=h inhibit redu=tase: an enDyme used in =holesterol biosynthesis( >he =onsumption o5
oyster mushrooms =an lo?er the =holesterol le2els in the body( MitaÊlu=an tablets and eliBirs: 5ormulated 5rom
puri5ied glu=an eBtra=ted 5rom /= *1%'&#%01: are no? a2ailable 5or strengthening the immune system and lo?ering
serum =holesterol le2els to pre2ent heart disease( A==ording to mu=h 5olklore: /+&0'*%01 =an also pre2ent high
blood pressure: impart long li5e and 2igor and assist people in re=o2ering 5rom 5atigue( It =an also pre2ent
hango2ers: =onstipation and is an aphrodisia=(
Other edible and =ulti2ated mushrooms ?ith reported s=ienti5i= medi=al e2iden=e are L&3%-30+# &8*8&1
IshiitakeK: A5#'-.01 >+#?&- IhimematsutakeK: A5#'-.01 >'033&1.&31 I=hampignonK and <'-@*+# @'*38*1# ImaitakeK(
>hose are kno?n to indu=e the 5ormation o5 inter5eron: a de5ense me=hanism against some 2irus in5e=tions: and
ha2e displayed hypo=holesteromi= a=ti2ity(
Use of agricultural wastes as substrates

Mushrooms are gro?n on some organi= substrates: mostly ?aste materials 5rom 5arms: plantations or 5a=tories(
"#$%&' 11) H#I' /*&34 "#$%&' 1() 234.%/*
>hese other?ise useless by^produ=ts =an there5ore be re=y=led to produ=e 2alueâdded mushrooms( Nurrently:
millions o5 tons o5 agri=ultural ?astes are dis=arded: burned and negle=ted( In the pro=ess o5 mushroom gro?ing:
ho?e2er: en2ironmental pollution 5rom su=h pra=ti=es may be redu=ed( LBamples o5 su=h agro^?astes in
abundan=e in the tropi=s are stra? IFig( 11K: =orn=obs: grass: sa?dust IFig( 12K: sugar=ane bagasse: =otton ?aste
IFig( 13K: oil palm ?aste: =o55ee pulp: ?ater hya=inth plants IFig( 14K: =o=onut husks: tree lea2es: bran=hes and
logs IFig( 15K( >hese all =an be used alone or in =ombination to =reate mushroom gro?ing substrate( Hith
moderate e55ort and =are5ul management: the 2ery people hungry 5or 5ood =an ha2e ?ithin their grasp a ne? 5ood
sour=e in the 5orm o5 =ulti2ated mushrooms(
!
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"#$%&' 11) J-**-+ 43/*' "#$%&' 1<) K3*'& 6?3I#+*6 ;:3+*/
Income and job generation

Mushroom gro?ing is laborîntensi2e: and 5or =ountries ?here fobs are s=ar=e:
mushroom gro?ing =an =reate fobs both in semiûrban and rural areas( In 5a=t:
some te=hnologies =an use 5amily labor thus pro2iding all members o5 the 5amily
?ith employment(
>he labor o5 outô5^s=hool youths IFig( 16K and e2en s=hool =hildren IFig( 17K
=an also be utiliDed: espe=ially as the bagging o5 substrate and related operations
=an be easily done by =hildren( A big 5a=tory in Indonesia hires some 50 teenâge
girls IFig( 18K: ?ho trim the mushrooms ready 5or =anning and 5or eBport(
Mushroom gro?ing is also re=ommended as a profe=t in a =ooperati2e ?here
di2ision o5 labor is pra=ti=ed( One group may be engaged in spa?n produ=tion:
another group ?ill do the substrate preparation: and still another group =an take
=harge o5 gro?ing =ondition management(
"#$%&' 1>) N-$/ 0-& $&-4#+$
5%/6&--5/
"#$%&' 1@) A%*L-0L/I6--: ?-%*6/ "#$%&' 1B) 2I6--: I6#:.&'+ "#$%&' 1C) M#&:/ *&#55#+$ /*&34
0#::#+$ 5%/6&--5 ,3$/ 6':;#+$ #+ ,3$$#+$ /34.%/* 0-& 5%/6&--5
Pleurotus I%:*#93*#-+
Resulting compost used for soil conditioner and animal feed

>he used =ompost that remains a5ter har2esting mushrooms may still be re=y=led 5or use as animal 5eeds and soil
=onditioner( Larlier studies o5 the author ha2e demonstrated that spent =ompost o5 both )*+,#'-&++# and /+&0'*%01
had in=reased =rude protein =ontent =ompared ?ith ra? stra?( !oultry 5eeding trials sho?ed that spent =ompost
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' ()
5ed to broilers resulted in greater ?eight gains =ompared ?ith =ommer=ially used 5eeds( 8o? intake and lo?
digestibility ho?e2er ?ere obser2ed in trials ?ith sheep using )*+,#'-&++#^=ropped ri=e stra?Ybanana lea5 =ompost(
Zesear=h at the Febre? /ni2ersity in eerusalem in=luded the produ=tion o5 a highly digestible nutritious 5eed 5or
=attle and sheep 5rom /+&0'*%01 =otton ?asteYstra? =ompost(
[umerous studies ha2e indi=ated that mushroom =omposts made 5rom ?heat stra? and other supplements ga2e
=omparable or higher yields o5 su=h sele=ted 2egetables as =abbage: beans: =elery and =auli5lo?er ?hen =ompared
?ith those gro?n using poultry manure( In !uerto Zi=o: /+&0'*%01 spent^=ompost made 5rom sugar=ane bagasse:
has been used by lo=al nursery gro?ers as a good substitute 5or the eBpensi2e =ommer=ial 5ertiliDers used in soil
=onditioning( >he spent =ompost is 5urther =omposted in the open air: =o2ered ?ith plasti= 5or 4^8 more ?eeks
be5ore it is dried: bagged and distributed to nursery o?ners(
Case Studies Showing Economic Aspect of Mushroom Cultivation in Rural Areas
Case 1. Village contract growing of Pleurotus sawdust bags in the Philippines

>he obfe=ti2e o5 this profe=t ?as to pilot =ontra=t oyster mushroom gro?ing and use the re2enues 5or 5urther
eBpansion o5 mushroom gro?ing in the rural area( >his a=ti2ity ?as su==ess5ully demonstrated in se2eral small
2illages near the /ni2ersity o5 the !hilippines ?hi=h pro2ided appropriate 5unding support to the parti=ipants and
?here a =entral laboratory prepared the seeded mushroom bags 5or 5ruiting( >he support ?as mainly 5or the
building o5 small I5 g 5mK mushroom houses made up o5 nipa and sa?ali IFig( 19K or styro5oam(
La=h month: 2:000 bags IFig( 20K ?ere deli2ered to ea=h o5 the parti=ipants Ione 5rom ea=h 2illage in the
=ommunityK( Zesulting har2est ?as indi2idually sold: to pro2ide installment payments 5or the bags and the house(
A5ter 4 months ?hen the profe=t =ost o5 !F!_20:000 I/Sd400K ?as re=o2ered: the gro?ers ?ere taught to
prepare their o?n bags: ?ith the spa?n pro2ided by the =entral laboratory(
"#$%&' 1F) 8%/6&--5 6-%/' 53.' %; -0 ,35,--/O "#$%&' (G) 234.%/* ,3$/ &'3.? 0-& .':#9'&? *-
/343:#O 3+. +#;3 &--0 I-+*&3I*%3: $&-4'&/
P Q=Q RQ6#:#;;#+' Q'/-O Q=Q1!S2DG)G( #+ 83? (GG1
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' ((
/a45e @2 8-)a),-a5 a#pe,t &: the pr&Be,t :&r ea,h 9-55a>e

72 /&ta5 ,&#t ;5&a)?
>otal amount o5 loan !F!20:000 I/Sd400K
I5or house and 2 deli2eries o5 2:000 bagsK !F!8:000h I2g!F!6:000K
^ Ero?ing house !F!8:000 I/Sd160K
Imade up o5 nipa roo5 and sa?ali ?alls: ?ooden shel2es: s=reened door: 5loor area o5 10m2K
^ !ri=e 5or 2:000 bags I!F!3 per bagK !F!6:000 I/Sd120K
@2 C#t-'ate+ -),&'e per '&)th

Molume o5 produ=tion per month 350kg
Itotal produ=tion ^ loss during storage: handling and deli2eryK I410kg ^ 60kgK
[et sales per month !F!10:500 I/Sd210K
Itotal produ=tion g pri=e per kgK I350kgg!F!30K
D2 EaF 4a,G &: 5&a) ;:&r H '&)th#?

Nolle=tion per month to pay ba=k loan I50c o5 in=omeK !F!5:250 I/Sd105K
I!F!10:500 Y 2K
_ >he loan =an be 5ully paid ba=k 5or 4 months
ISour=ea ;#30#+ *3 ;01"'**2 !0+%-,#%-*3 by !eter Oei: 1991K
One o5 the problems en=ountered ?as the di55i=ulty o5 pro2iding the proper temperature Ilo?er than 30*K 5or
mushrooms to 5ruit abundantly( >his ?as not a problem during the =ool season 5rom de=ember to February ?hen
gro?ers ?ould enfoy abundant har2ests( >here ?ere also some initial problems o5 bag deli2ery ?hi=h made =ost
and eBpenses relati2ely high( >he problem in marketing ?as not due to la=k o5 buyers o5 mushrooms but the la=k
o5 produ=tion( Supply does not meet the high demand 5rom traders and restaurants(
Ca#e @2 Je+ pr&+",t-&) &: the #tra= '"#hr&&' -) the Eh-5-pp-)e#

>his profe=t ?as done in a small 5arming =ommunity in the pro2in=e o5 Nebu ?here a 5oundation pro2ided 5unds
to the =ontra=t parti=ipants: mostly 5amily^based groups( >he spa?n and super2ision ?as pro2ided by a laboratory:
?hi=h ?as also 5unded by the 5oundation( 9edding materials =onsisted o5 45=m long: 10=m ?ide bundled ri=e
stra? IFig( 21K or dried and bundled banana lea2es IFig( 22K( Zi=e stra? that ?as hard to bundle ?as =hopped and
molded into a bed IFig( 23K( La=h 2m^bed ?ould need at least 60 bundles and ea=h 5amily had to prepare 20^40
beds per month( >he laboratory bought the har2ested mushrooms ba=k 5or marketing so the gro?er had no
problem marketing their o?n produ=e(
"#$%&' (1) Q&';3&3*#-+ -0 ,'./ 3+. /;34+#+$ "#$%&' (() D&#'. 3+. ,%+.:'. :'39'/
-0 /*&34 5%/6&--5
!
! !art I !"#hr&&'# !"#$%&' 1( ()tr&+",t-&) !"#hr&&' (+
Ero?ers are eBpe=ted to har2est at least 2(5kg o5 5resh mushrooms per gro?ing =y=le o5 23 days( First 5lush
?ould bring 2kg: and se=ond 5lush: 0(5kg at the inter2al o5 7^10 days( La=h 5amily there5ore ?ould produ=e at
least 95kg o5 5resh buttons IFig( 24: 25K and ?ould ha2e a net in=ome o5 at least !F!2:000 I/Sd40K a5ter
remo2ing the =ost o5 spa?n: produ=tion o2erheadYpesti=ides: monthly payba=k o5 loan and interest: as ?ell as the
monthly depre=iation o5 their 5iBed in2estment in the 5orm o5 ?ater drum: sprayer and plasti= sheets ?hi=h ha2e
an eBpe=ted 3^year li5e span(
"#$%&' (1) 253:: ,'./ 0-& !olvariella "#$%&' (<) =3&9'/*'. !olvariella "#$%&' (>) Q3IT'. /*&34 5%/6&--5
0-& /3:'
/a45e D2 !&)th5F :-)a),-a5 #tate &: ,a#e @
Molume o5 produ=tion per month 95kg

Eross In=ome per month !F!2:850 I/Sd57K
I2olume o5 produ=tion g pri=e per kgK I95kgg!F!30K
>otal eBpenses per month !F!696(43 I/Sd13(93K
^ Spa?n I5:500m8 bottleYbedK !F!440 I/Sd8(80K
^ !rodu=tion o2erheadYpesti=ides !F!200 I/Sd4K
^ depre=iation o5 in2estment !F!37(77 I/Sd0(75K
^ Monthly pay^ba=k o5 loan and interest !F!18(66 I/Sd0(37K
[et In=ome per month !F!2:153(57 I/Sd43K_
_ >he usual 5armerAs in=ome in the rural Nebu area is !F!1:500 I/Sd30K
ISour=ea ;#30#+ *3 ;01"'**2 !0+%-,#%-*3 by !eter Oei: 1991K
!
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1"
Mushroom Qro>ersS TandbooM !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art &( Mushrooms
Chapter '
Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide
#$%&'((# *$+,-./,-(0 ,( #/12 +-.-03 -0 024/+
6eshari L. Manandhar
Centre for 3gricultural 8echnology: ;epal
/ %5678 &9:867; 6< #=:5766> *=?89@A896B 9B 0CDA?
Mushroom culti=ation >as initiated by the Ai=ision of !lant !athology:

;epal 3gricultural Besearch Council C;3BCD in EFGH( 8he gro>ing
technology for >hite button mushroom >as de=eloped during that early
period and eItended to general farmers starting in EFGG( &t utiliJed the
synthetic media of paddy stra>: >hich is har=ested t>ice a year in
Kathmandu( Lf course: a fe> farmers gre> mushrooms before the
introduction of the technology but the number of button mushroom
gro>ers has increased year after year thanMs to the spread of the
technology(
Figure 1. Nepal
8he gro>ing technology to gro> oyster mushroom using chopped stra> pacMets >as introduced to the farmers
in EFNH: and since then mushroom culti=ation has become more popular among farmers( 8hese t>o Minds of
mushroom culti=ation systems ha=e been employed by farmers in about 'O districts >ithin ;epal( 8he Centre for
3gricultural 8echnology CC38D has recently introduced stra> mushroom CVolvoriella volvaceaD culti=ation in the
8erai districts and shiitaMe in the hill districts and has been instructing farmers ho> to gro> them since 'PPE(
(;:8C7 #=:5766> *=?89@A896B 9B 0CDA?
Lyster mushroom culti=ation >as introduced to ;epalese scientists in EFNE( Besearch on the proper substrate and
climatic conditions for oyster mushroom gro>ing >as carried out by the Ai=ision of !lant !athology( Qro>ing
Pleurotus sajor-caju on stump and chopped paddy stra> pacMets >as successful in Kathmandu in EFN'( 8he
technology: >hich >as distributed to farmers in EFNH: >as so simple: easy to adopt and suitable to the climate of
Kathmandu =alley that farmers could adopt it RuicMly( 8he culti=ation practices: >hich produced RuicM returns:
spread liMe >ildfire( !oor farmers >ere >illing to try mushroom gro>ing on a small scale in order to augment
their incomes( 8he gro>ing of the species P. ostreatus >as introduced later in EFFN( 8hese days farmers prefer P.
ostreatus because it has higher producti=ity and can be gro>n during the >inter in Kathmandu( 8hanMs to this
!
Cop$ri'ht! +,,- .$ /ush2or34 533 ri'hts reser7e48
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1E
durability: local consumers can no> obtain oyster mushrooms all the year round( 8hese mushrooms ha=e been
gro>n recently in the 8erai districts Ca tropic areaD during >inter and also transported to marMets in Kathmandu(
Lyster mushrooms are often gro>n >ithout any en=ironmental control( P. sajor-caju is culti=ated for the
summer crop at Kathmandu C'OUVP" and NPWD and in the hills of ;epal >hile it is culti=ated in the 8erai regions
during the >inter season C''U'X" and GPWD( P. ostreatus is gro>n during the >inter season in Kathmandu and
other cool places COU'P" and GPWD( Yome mushroom gro>ers try to gro> these t>o species together( Lf course:
oyster mushrooms cannot be gro>n in 8erai during the summer CVPUHP" and GPWD( 8he mid hills of ;epal are the
most appropriate areas for oyster mushroom production and therefore the mushroom technology has been
eIpanded >idely in those =illages(
*=?89@A896B #C856F 47AG89GCF 9B 0CDA?
8he culti=ation method for oyster mushroom production using paddy stra> in ;epal is as follo>s( !addy stra> is
selected from the field by choosing fresh: not old: clean and straight pieces: of good Ruality( 8hese stra>s are
manually chopped into small pieces C'UV inches longD using the locally handUmade chopper CZig( 'D( Chopped
stra> is then soaMed in >ater for 'UH hours: or sometimes o=ernight: in a container or a small ditch specially made
for this purpose CZig( VD(
!! !
Figure 2. Straw chopping Figure 3. Soaking the chopped straw
Figure 4. Cleaning the straw in clean water Figure 5. Draining water on a wooden framed net
8he soaMed stra> is cleansed in >ater CZig( HD EU' times in a plastic bucMet or some other container( 8he >ater
from the stra> is drained off in sie=e CZig( OD( Most farmers drain the >ater off slo>ly by placing the cleansed
stra> on a sloped place: a procedure that taMes 'UH hours(
!
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1H
8he drained stra> is then steamed in a steamer( 8he local steamers are clay pots >ith a number of holes on the
bottom( 8hese steamers are put on top of a metallic =essel containing >ater CZig( XD( 8he >ater is boiled using a
Merosene sto=e( 8he mouth of the stra> steamer is co=ered >ith thicM plastic sheet CZig( GD and tied up by a string
so as to maMe it tight( &t taMes about half an hour for the steam to reach the top of the steamer( Lnce the steam
reaches to the top: steaming should be continued for about half an hour or more in order to steriliJe the stra>( 8he
temperature in this process usually goes beyond FP"(
Figure 6. Local steamer Figure 7. Covering the Figure 8. Steaming the

(earthen pot) on a metallic steamer with plastic to straw in a metallic drum
vessel containing water pasteurize
&nstead of the clay pot steamer: a metallic drum CZig( ND can be used( &n such cases the metallic drum is filled
>ith >ater to about X inches from the bottom and a tripod stand is used to support the grate( 8he drum is then
filled >ith stra> and co=ered >ith a plastic sheet( 8he steaming method is then the same as >ith the clay pot
steamer( 8he steamed stra> is cooled do>n in the same container or transferred into a plastic sacM to pre=ent
contamination from outside(
8he plastic bags used for maMing pacMets are of different siJes[ E'#EX\ CsmallD and EN]'X\ ClargeD( 8hese bags
are punched to maMe holes at a distance of H inches apart( Cooled stra> is pacMed in the bags in layers up to H
inches deep and grain spa>n is sprinMled in layer by layer CZig( FD( Lnce the bag is filled: the bag mouth is closed
>ith a rubber band( &ncubation proceeds at room temperature for 'PU'E days CZig( EPD: until the mycelium spreads
completely throughout inside the pacMets(
Figure 9. Making packets and spawning Figure 10. Incubation of packets at farmer’s house
^hen the spa>n run is completed: the bag is remo=ed by cutting the plastic CZig( EED( 8he pacMets are arranged
in a ro> on the floor using a bricM or t>o underneath CZig( E'D( 8he spacing bet>een the pacMets is X inches: >ith
' feets bet>een the ro>s( âtering is done e=ery morning and e=ening using a sprayer( &n the dry season: one
!
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1I
more spraying of >ater should be done( !rimordia appear after HUO days CZig( EVD and de=elop into a full siJe
mushroom >ithin an additional 'UV days CZig( EHD(
Figure 11. Packets after opening the plastic bags Figure 12. Packets are arranged in a row with
bricks underneath
Figure 13. Primordia formation Figure 14. Fruiting bodies
-B<7A:87=G8=7C ABF -B@C:8>CB8 6B (;:8C7 #=:5766> 476F=G896B
;epalese farmers gro> mushrooms in a thatched house CZig( EOD or a plastic tunnel( 8he thatched house is made
up of >heat stra>: bamboo and >ooden support CZig( EXD( !lastic co=er is used >hene=er it is necessary(
8he plastic tunnels CZig( EG: EN: EFD are constructed of thicM plastic sheets >ith bamboo support( 8he siJe of
tunnel is HP feet long: EO feet >ide and N feet high(
8he in=estment cost for oyster mushroom production is Ruite lo>( Most of the total cost is for the construction
of a mushroom house: >hich is made of local and easily a=ailable materials( YMilled construction labor is a=ailable
in most =illages( 8he ra> materials for mushroom culti=ation are agricultural >astes and are usually a=ailable at
the farmerSs door(
!
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1J
Figure 15. Thatched house Figure 16. Inside a thatched house
Figure 17. Plastic house (tunnel) Figure 18. Inside the tunnel Figure 19. Plastic tunnel covered
with straw
*6:8 ABF KCBC<98 6< (;:8C7 #=:5766> 476F=G896B 9B /@C7ALC M<67 N >6B85:OP
$ 8otal :roduction Cost = >:?@@5B150.00 EFGH69.26L
Item Nuantity Cost in >:?

Ytra> for EPP pacMets VPPMg E:'PP(PP C_YAEX(EVD
!lastic bags CEN ] 'X\D EPP pcs HPP(PP C_YAO(VGD
Ypa>n C'OPg`bottleD OP bottles E:'PP(PP C'H per bottleD
Bent ' months E:PPP(PP COPP`monthD
Chemicals EOP(PP C_YA'(P'D
Labor E:'PP(PP C_YAEX(EVD
$ 8otal Income
b ;!BEN:PPP(PPU'G:PPP(PP C_YA'H'(PFUVXV(EHD
:rice Polume Palue in >:?

FP(PP per Mg 'PPUVPPcg EN:PPP(PPU'G:PPP(PP
C'UVMg`pacMD
* It takes one month growing and another month for harvest.

** NPR (Nepalese Rupee, NPR1!USD0.0134 in Feb 2004
!
! !art & Mushrooms Chapter '( Mushroom )rowing for a Living 2orldwide 1Q
$ >Q8 :?RFI8 = 8otal Income T 8otal :roduction Cost

! MaIimum ;!B'E:NOP(PP C_YA'GP(PPD
! Minimum ;!BE':NOP(PP C_YAEXP(PPD
Lne oyster mushroom gro>er produces O tons a year on a=erage( 8he estimated producti=ity is NPPUFPPMg of
oyster mushrooms from E:PPPMg of paddy stra>( 3 farmer can gro> about HUO crops per year and produce the
income of ;!B'PP:PPPUVPP:PPP C_YA':XNF(FUH:PVH(FFD per year(
#=:5766> 376RC7:S %DARB %=DD?; ABF 476F=G8 #A7TC89BL
8here are about O:PPP mushroom gro>ers >ithin Kathmandu =alley and X:PPP gro>ers in other districts in total:
including gro>ers of other mushrooms( dalambu: >ith a long history of mushroom gro>ing: has approIimately
EPP commercial gro>ers and some EPP seasonal gro>ers( 8hey produce ':PPPUV:PPPMg per day during the
summer season and about VPPUHPPMg per day during >inter season( 8here are four or fi=e distributors >ho collect
the product from farmers to supply the marMets( 8hese same distributors also deli=er spa>n to the farmers( Yome
gro>ers purchase directly from the spa>n suppliers and sell their products to the marMet by themsel=es: and at
present this is the system adopted in most of the =illages for mushroom marMeting and production(
8here are about fi=e spa>n producers at Kathmandu( 8hey supply spa>n to farmers as >ell as the distributors(
Yome suppliers deli=er spa>n to remote places through courier transport ser=ices( &n most of the other districts:
mushroom gro>ing is initiated by the 3griculture Aepartment offices of TMQ CTis MacestySs Qo=ernments of
;epalD( 8here are eItension programs of mushroom production of TMQ in the country: but most spa>n
production and mushroom marMeting is done by pri=ate agencies(
8here are no good marMeting systems and no stable marMet price for mushrooms in ;epal( 8he marMet price
fluctuates according to the demand and supply( 8he gro>ers in Kathmandu get ;!BHP(PPUXP(PP C_YAP(OHUP(NPD
per Mg during picM production season( To>e=er the price ranges from ;!BNP(PPUFP(PP C_YAE(PGUE('PD per Mg
most of the other times( Auring the offUseason gro>ers get ;!BEOPU'PP C_YA'(PEU'(XND per Mg(
*6BG?=:96B
Lyster mushroom production is a most appropriate technology for the poor

landless farmers and >omen farmers in ;epal( Mushrooms can be gro>n
in the small space of a farmersS o>n house for small scale production and
generate income that aids in the family support( Mushroom culti=ation is a
most popular acti=ity for de=elopment programs targeting income
generation among >omen in ;epal because it is suitable for the >omenSs
life style(
3s the >omenSs responsibility is mainly to taMe care of the household
>orM and children: they can accommodate mushroom culti=ation in
Figure 20. Training women farmers
bet>een their main >orM( 8he product is highly nutriti=e and a good food
for their children and old parents: and because of its high =alue they can also deri=e some income from the
production( 8he farmers of many districts of ;epal ha=e gro>n oyster mushrooms in a small scale and ha=e
benefited highly( 8hey ha=e managed to adopt the technology in a simple >ay >hereby they can afford to in=est
on a small scale( 8hey are mainly utiliJing the agricultural >aste of >heat and paddy stra>: and thus mushroom
culti=ation has impro=ed the li=ing conditions of many poor farmers in ;epal(
!
! Part I !"#$%&&'# Chapter 2. !"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45 19
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part I. Mushrooms
Chapter 2
!"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45
POVERTY ALLEVIATION BY MUSHROOM GROWING

IN ZIMBABWE
A case study : The Chakowa Orphanage Group
6/,.&%4 78 6$+%&%&
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Although knowledge and production levels are still limited in Zimbabwe,

no other agricultural crop has generated as much interest in the past three
years as the mushroom. One might say that the mushroom industry has
literally mushroomed here recently. The white button mushroom
()garicus bisporus) and the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus and P.
sajor-caju) are the most commonly cultivated varieties, with the latter
being the most popular among the economically vulnerable sector of our
society. It is hoped that the new cottage industry of mushroom cultivation
in Zimbabwe will soon provide an important tool for the generation of
income and the creation of food security for hundreds of households.
Zimbabwe is a country with over 70% of its population of about 1.4
"igure (. *i+b-b.e i/ A1ri2- million people living with HIV-AIDS and a much higher proportion
suffering from protein malnutrition. Reduced income coupled with
increased expenditure on healthcare in a country already facing stiff economic challenges has worsened the
poverty situation. Due to the frequency of drought and livestock diseases in this part of the world as well as the
high cost of conventional agricultural production, the people of Zimbabwe are anxious to develop an alternative
source of protein with a high income generation potential. Mushroom cultivation could possibly offer the solution
for poverty alleviation in this situation. Unlike other agronomic crops, the set-up costs for mushroom production
are low. Fertilizers, machinery, and pesticides are not used, the market price is relatively high, and profit margins
for mushroom crops can be considerably higher than traditional crops. In general the enterprise takes very little
space and can produce returns within a short period of time.
Zimbabwean farmers who are using local varieties of seed can grow maize and wheat crops that take an average
of four months to reach harvest maturity. This time period is equivalent to at least two crops of mushroom
cultivation. Considering this scenario, the relative profitability of these three crops can be compared as shown in
Table 1.
!
Copyright! +,,- by MushWorld All rights reserved.
! Part I !"#$%&&'# Chapter 2. !"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45 20
Even if the input costs in the mushroom enterprise were to be doubled, the enterprise would still remain more
profitable than that of either maize or wheat. Considering that about five crops of oyster mushroom can be
produced per year, the poverty alleviation potential of mushroom cultivation cannot be overemphasized.
9/:35 18 6&'</%54 <%&.+=/:+3+=> &. '/+?5@ *$5/=@ /,4 &>#=5% '"#$%&&' +, A2BC
!/+?5 2$5/= D>#=5% !"#$%&&'

GROSS INCOME ZWD1,050,000 ZWD2,000,000 ZWD2,400,000
Expected yield 3 ton /ha 5 ton /ha 240kg /20m2
Average price ZWD350,000 /ton ZWD400,000 /ton ZWD10,000 /kg
TOTAL COSTS ZWD531,500 ZWD860,000 ZWD697,000
Labor ZWD60,000 ZWD25,000 Labor ZWD50,000
Land preparation ZWD26,000 ZWD25,000 Firewood ZWD20,000
Seed ZWD35,000 ZWD10,000 Spawn ZWD180,000
Fertilizer/Lime ZWD285,000 ZWD580,000 Plastic bags ZWD12,000
Insecticides ZWD40,500 ZWD45,000 Straw ZWD120,000
Transport ZWD40,000 ZWD55,000 Antiseptics ZWD15,000
Levy ZWD12,000 ZWD10,000 Construction ZWD300,000
Miscellaneous ZWD33,000 ZWD110,000
NET INCOME ZWD518,500 ZWD1,140,000 ZWD1,703,000
Cultivation Method for Mushroom in Zimbabwe
Being an agro-based country with more than 70% of the population employed directly in that sector, Zimbabwe
produces vast quantities of crop residues that may be used in mushroom production. Wheat straw, grass, banana
leaves, sawdust and water hyacinth are some of the fibrous residues that have been tried as mushroom cultivation
substrates. Wheat straw and grass are the most commonly used substrates among current mushroom operations.
The pasteurized substrate is usually spawned and packed into polythene bags of about 30cm wide and 90cm
long for the bag culture of the oyster mushroom. The growing rooms are maintained at between 18" and 25",
with a relative humidity of about 75%. Although up to 6 flushes may be obtained from each bag, the first three are
the most important in commercial production. For every 10kg of dry substrate used, as much as 20kg of
mushroom can be harvested from the first 3-4 flushes. On average, Zimbabwean oyster mushroom growers obtain
about 60kg of mushrooms per month. At least 2kg are usually harvested per bag. During the cooler winter season,
P. ostreatus is cultivated while the more heat tolerant P. sajor-caju is produced in summer. Summers in Zimbabwe
may be quite oppressively hot and maintaining the optimum growing room conditions is often a challenge.
The button mushroom, most often grown by well-financed growers, is the main export mushroom. For button
mushroom cultivation, wheat straw and horse manure are mixed and used as substrate. Some farmers add
inorganic fertilizers and/or peat. Cultivation is carried out in trays. Lower temperatures of about 18" need be
maintained and diseases and pests must be closely monitored. The expenses and requirements for strict
management of the growing room have restricted the number of newcomers going into button mushroom
production in Zimbabwe.
Unfortunately, funding to promote the consumption and production of mushrooms has been limited in
Zimbabwe. In spite of this, the potential of mushroom cultivation for poverty alleviation among such vulnerable
groups as women and orphans has been noticed by some organizations. The Chakowa Orphanage Group
3 *W5 6*i+b-b.e-/ 5oll-r9 *W5(!:;50.00(2 i/ >-/. 2004@!
!
! Part I !"#$%&&'# Chapter 2. !"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45 21
mushroom project is a prime example of the successful results mushroom cultivation can produce among typically
vulnerable Zimbabwe citizens.
A Case Study : The Chakowa Orphanage Group
Technology is finally reaching out to some of the resource disadvantaged

communities with a tremendous impact, thanks to the effort of the
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) and a team of
trainers who are currently running a mushroom production training course
in Chakowa. As a result, the locals do not need to wait for the rainy season
to enjoy the delicacy of the wild mushrooms collected from the forests and
anthills. They can now grow oyster mushrooms throughout the year and
get paid for their efforts as well. At Chakowa, ITDG is not only
"igure 2. Ar-i/ees o1 Ch-Eo.- concerned with technology transfer, but also the human factor. In this
Frph-/-ge Hroup situation ITDG is impacting positively on the lives of 56 households,
including many orphans and those looking after children orphaned due to
HIV-AIDS related deaths.
Background
Chakowa, a Shona word that means “that which has been harvested.” is an
appropriate name for this farming community located about 50km from the
picturesque Birchenough Bridge in Zimbabwe’s lowveld region. In addition to the
recently introduced mushroom cultivation, the locals are involved in the production
of field crops like maize, millet, sugar, beans, tomatoes and okra. These crops are
grown here under supplementary irrigation due to the unreliability of rainfall in this
part of the country.
The Chakowa Orphanage Group, initiated a few years ago to assist orphaned
children is the brainchild of Mrs. Margaret Tagwira (Fig. 3). With only a few
children involved initially, the project supplied spawned bags to trainees and taught
them the basics of mushroom growing room management. Today a large project has
grown from those humble beginnings. The group now comprises a wide range of
participants including youths, women, and men, from sixteen to over sixty years of
"igure @. M-rg-ret
A-g.ir- i/ oyster age. The primary goal is still to improve the livelihood of orphans, and the program
+ushroo+ gro.i/g is working wonders in that area. The group has not only paid the school fees and
roo+ 6Lhoto 2ourtesy o1 bought uniforms and books for the orphans, it has also significantly reduced protein
MiEe 5uboseM
malnutrition among the beneficiaries and the community at large. Although still in its
infancy, the potential and success of the mushroom project cannot be underestimated. Their success can be
attributed to the commitment by members of the group and the prior training in other technologies also facilitated
by ITDG. The group has also previously been trained in embroidery and tie ‘n’ dying of fabric with pleasing
results.
The training
The emphasis of the training has been to impart hands-on experience to the trainees and, at the same time, enough
theory has been included to bring about an understanding and appreciation of the mushroom and its production. To
achieve this, the farmer’s field school concept of training was adopted. This training method has a participatory
!
! Part I !"#$%&&'# Chapter 2. !"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45 22
approach that has the advantage of including the trainees in every decision-making step all the way through the
course. The trainees or growers feel they are the owners of the project, and this is a vital element that ensures that
the project succeeds since all the members are aware of the goals and modus operandi of the project.
Although the trainer to trainee ratio is high, the trainers believe that the training has
been effective, and the growers can now produce the mushrooms with minimum input
from the trainers. According to Mrs. Musariri, one of the trainers, the success of the
project will not only be measured by the yields attained in this cooperative farming,
but also in the establishment of individual enterprises by members of the group and
community, thus demonstrating their interest and knowledge of this industry.
The growing room

Chakowa lies in the lowveld region of Zimbabwe, an area characterized by high
temperatures that sometimes exceed 35" in summer. Winters are generally mild here.
The feasibility of any mushroom cultivation project in this region hinges on the
"igure 4. Ahe tr-i/i/g grower’s ability to control temperature and humidity inside the growing rooms.
progr-++e e+ph-siNes For this project, a single growing room was constructed. This was made from
h-/dsPo/ eQperie/2e
6Lhoto 2ourtesy o1 thatch grass (Hyperrhenia spp.), a traditional material that keeps the internal
Ms.-EeM environment cooler during hot weather. To counter the effect of low relative humidity
in this drought prone region, plastic tubes filled with water were suspended from the
roof adjacent to each bag. The plastic tubes were punctured to allow water to drip out and produce a fine spray
that provided a cooling effect in the growing room. The plastic tubes are then re-filled with water once a day. This
technique was introduced after it was realized that the initial technique of wetting the floor was labor intensive
during hot weather as such watering had to be done three or more times a day. The advantage of using the
suspended plastic tube structures is that it has a low input cost. The materials used are available locally and thus
easier to reproduce by those wishing to go into this business. The group, with the financial backing from ITDG, is
currently constructing a larger growing room. This will be made from brick walls and is intended as a more
commercialized production system.
Spawn
The spawn used in this project is being donated by ITDG. This means that input costs
are relatively low and the group has a more competitive edge on the market. The
mushrooms, often sold within the village, are therefore as cheap as ZWD1,500/kg
(USD1.8/kg) compared with about ZWD5,000/kg (USD6/kg) charged by other
producers. ITDG is planning to venture into spawn production. As the group matures
and starts realizing sustainable incomes, it is expected that most of spawn produced
will go to the group itself first to be self-sufficient. In fact, some of the group
members will have to undergo training on spawn production to reduce operational
costs. "igure R. Mushroo+s
gro./ o/ gr-ss substr-te
Substrate
Although a variety of crops are grown in Chakowa, the availability of substrates remains a constraint. Grass is the
major substrate preferred (Fig. 5), so mushroom production therefore competes for grass with livestock feeding
programs. The substrate use potential of other locally available crop residues needs to be investigated in order to
!
! Part I !"#$%&&'# Chapter 2. !"#$%&&' )%&*+,- .&% / 0+1+,- 2&%34*+45 23
encourage the possible adoption of other substrates with less supply competition from other sectors.
Feasibility
Yields attained at the Chakowa project are fairly good, and average about 1kg of fresh mushroom harvested per
bag. Although more specific yield levels could not be obtained, the trainers estimate that the growers are currently
obtaining about 60% of the yield obtained by other producers and they are catching up fast. The project now
emphasizes the need for continuous production, and at any given time, at least 30 bags should be bearing some
fruit. Although a lucrative tourist spot known as the Hot Springs is located near Chakowa, the growers in this
group are still less than confident about tapping the potential in this market. Their main concern is whether they
will be able to meet given orders if they obtain a contract to supply mushrooms on a more regular basis.
Competitive advantages
! Spawn is donated. The project can therefore sustain lower market prices and earn higher incomes from
increased sales.
! The mushroom project is primarily focused on helping orphans. This adds an emotional appeal to the
product and improves sales.
! There is a potential for both fresh and dried mushrooms. Fresh mushrooms can be sold or consumed by
the locals while dried mushrooms, because of reduced perishability, can be transported to other markets.
! Farmers have the experience in growing other crops. This allows for product diversification.
Competitive disadvantages
! The growers cannot produce a reliable supply to meet regular orders. The group lacks experience in order
fulfillment.
! Adequate substrate is not available due to competition for grass with livestock.
! Temperatures are often very high and humidity quite low. This results in a high labor input in growing
room management.
! The group does not have the organic certification that could improve the market base, especially the
export market, leading to higher returns.
Conclusion
The Chakowa Orphanage Group is a viable project with a bright future. More technical and financial support
could further raise the incomes attained and greatly improve the lives of the Chakowa community. Mushroom is
the right crop which can much contribute poverty alleviation thanks to its low set-up cost, high price margin and
quick returns. The fact that it requires agricultural waste cheaply acquired and relatively small space makes
mushroom growing more accessible for the destitute and landless farmers. In addition, mushroom presents
growers high nutritional value as well as income. Mushroom boom in Zimbabwe during last three years proves
much of it.
!
! !"#$ & Mushrooms Ch#pter '( Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide 24
)*+,#--. /#-@;#+D A"62=--F 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!"#$ &( )*+,#--.+
Ch#pter '
Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide
MUSHROOM GROWING IN INDIA
Nilesh Pakale
/*01 )*+,#--. !#-2*3$+ 4-.5"678 &629"
The Potential of the Mushroom Industry in India

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!
!opyright! 2004 by MushWorld All rights reserved.
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Benefits of Oyster Mushroom Growing
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Table 1. Cost-benefit relationship of oyster mushroom cultivation in India
Growing methods Production Yearly Price Per kg* Value of Earning

cost (USD) Production (tons) (USD) sales (USD) rate
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Table 2. The cultivation aspects of various species of oyster mushroom
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How to Grow Oyster Mushroom in India
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!igure H. Poly sheet on the jute ropes !igure K. !illing cereal stra1s
!igure L. AprinBling spa1n over the surface !igure (N. Oepeating filling and spa1ning C times
!
Fruiting and picking

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For Better Mushroom Industry in India
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! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "#
Mushroom UrowersM Handbook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part &. Mushrooms
Chapter 2
!us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide
M#$%&''M (&'W*+( *+ +'&,%-&+ ,%A*/A+0
Hyun2ong 4won1 and Satit :hatithatgoon2

1
Mush;orld
2
Ayanyik Mushroom Farm
*1trodu7tio1
:hailand is a particularly good place for future growers to learn how to

grow tropical mushrooms. :hailand has ideal enDironmental conditions for
mushroom cultiDation and a long history of mushroom growing. :hai
peopleE who knew that mushroom growing reFuired low cost materials and
technologies while offering a high and Fuick return on their moneyE haDe
long grown a Dariety of mushrooms. Gp to dateE young rural people are
eager to learn how to grow mushrooms using materials readily aDailable to
them to improDe their liDing (Fig. 1E 2).
Figure 1. Rural community people

taking mushroom growing lessons!
!
&n addition the warm climate faDorable for mushroom growingE well-
established growing practices and their will to paDe their way for a better
lifeE the long L successful mushroom production in :hailand are owed to
the sincere efforts and considerable support made by the 4ingdom of
:hailand and :hai goDernment to enhance :hai peopleMs life by
encouraging mushroom growing. :he kingdom initiated Noyal Mushroom
Pro2ects aimed at promoting rural deDelopment in :hailand (Fig. 3E 4E 5E 6E
7). :he goDernment runs loan programs for rural communitiesE some of
which adopt a mushroom production cooperatiDe. More mushroom
production at the community leDel is expectedE enriching rural people. Figure 2. Rural community people
taking mushroom growing lessons
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "$
!
Figure 3. Where Royal Mushroom Project is being Figure 4. A mushroom growing house for Royal
Implemented Mushroom Project
Figure 5, 6. 7. !"r$%"&a !"r$%"&ar$a, )a*+,er.a &"%$,". and /er$%$". er$*a%e"0 grown by Royal Mushroom
Project
6a7le 8. :o''ercially culti1ated 'us$roo's in 6$ailand
Common name Latin name :hai name Market price (:HBYZ kg)
Button mushroom Agaricus bisporus Hed 4radum [0-120
Black poplar mushroom Agrocybe cylindracea Hed Yanagi 250-300
;ood ear Auricularia auricula Hed Hu-noo 30-50
&nky cap Coprinus atramentarius Hed Muerk 120-160
Enokitake Flammulina velutipes Hed 4hemthong
Hed 4haem_gern 150-200
Neishi Ganoderma lucidum Hed Lin ùer 1E000-1E500
LionMs mane Hericium erinaceus Hed Hua ling 1E000 (dry)
Shitake Lentinula edodes Hed Hom 160-1[0
Parasol mushroom Macrolepiota gracilenta Hed _ok Yoong 400-500
Uolden oyster mushroom Pleurotus citrinopoleatus 150-200
Abalone mushroom Pleurotus cystidiosus Hed Pao-hue 70-[0
4ing oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii Hed _anglom Luang 200-250
Oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus Hed _anglom 4hao 30-40
SilDer ear Tremella fuciformis Hed Hu-nu-4hao 300-350
Straw mushroom Volvariella volvacea Hed Fang 90-120
H THB (Thai Baht, THB1!USD0.0258 in Feb 2004!
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "%
(ro9i1g %ouse
Mushroom growing houses can be classified into two typesc those built for temporary use or those erected for long
term use. A typical mushroom house (Fig. [) is made of thatch and bamboo or other kinds of wood poles and
shading net. Urowers use different dried grasses and leaDes which are most readily aDailable or thought to be the
best aDailable. Depending on the durability of the roof and wall material (1-5 years)E growers should replace with a
new roof and walls on a regular schedule. Some button and straw mushroom growers haDe brick houses with two
rows of shelDes inside. :hese houses are highly tolerant to subseFuentE seDere heat treatment during in situ
pasteurieation. Being secondary decomposersE button and straw mushrooms need compost and it should be
pasteurieed to be the selectiDe medium for mushroom. See the steam pipes on the wall (Fig. 9).
Figure 8. Typical mushroom growing houses made of thatch and wooden Figure 9. Steam pipes on the brick
poles wall
Mushroo>s CultivBted i1 $helC
$trB9 >ushroo>
Straw mushroom (Voluariella volvacea) is a high temperature mushroom and the most popularly grown in
:hailand. :hai farmers haDe grown the mushroom since the 1940s. :hailand has a temperature range that is Dery
faDorable for the mushroomfs growth (30-37&). Straw mushroom spawn is easily aDailable for local farmers and
that mushroom is cultiDated on shelDesE unlike other mushroomsE which are grown in bags except button
mushroomsE whose spawn is not that easy to obtain here.
Here is a simple way of growing straw mushroomc A bale of straw
inoculated with straw mushroom spawn is left in the bag and days laterE
mushrooms come out (Fig. 10). :raditionallyE rice growers also grew
straw mushrooms in their rice fields after harDest. :hey made rows of
mushroom mounds with rice straw and other agro wastes in the harDested
fieldsE using a wooden frame. :odayE rice growers still produce straw
mushrooms in their fields from December to AprilE using the growing
method as described aboDe. But the yield is as low as 20g and so is the
priceE :HB20 (GSD0.52)ZkgE with comparison with modern growing
methods. Figure 10. Straw mushroom growing
&ndoor cultiDation of straw mushroom is performed all through the year. in a simple way
Being a secondary saprophyte like button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)E
straw mushrooms grow well in organic compostE where the ingredients are partially decomposed or highly
degraded. ;hen the compost is completedE it is placed on the shelf and steam is blown into the house with the
temperature maintained at 60& for 4-6 hours. ;hen the room temperature cools gradually down to 35& with the
door closedE spawn is laid about 2cm deep into or on top of the compost. &ndoor cultiDation using compost
achieDes much the higher yield of 50-60g. Produced mushrooms are sold fresh in retail markets at :HB30
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide ""
(GSD0.77) or to canneries at :HB12-16 (GSD0.31-0.41)Zkg.

Straw mushroom growing is a handsome income source for rice growers as well as commercial straw mushroom
growers. A grower makes a net profit of about :HB5E000 (GSD129) permonthE greater than from other produce.
EDen betterE the mushroom has a short production cycleE which means a fast return on inDestment. FurtherE the
mushroom is rich in protein and can be grown with agro wastesE eDen on the spent mushroom substrate of inky capE
but the protein content of straw mushroom is much higher than that of inky cap.
Figure 11. Composting Figure 12. Straw mushroom on the shelf
Dutto1 >ushroo>
Button mushroom (A. bisporus) is not the second most grown mushroomE nor is it a tropical mushroom. :husE
production of button mushroom is seasonalE usually in the cooler season from _oDember to ànuary. As mentioned
aboDeE it reFuires organic compost and is grown on shelDes indoors. :he brick house (Fig. 9) is a typical button or
straw mushroom growing room. Button mushroom growing methods employed in :hailand are similar to
traditional button mushroom growing in other parts of the world and include outdoor composting (Phase &) (Fig.
13)E in situ pasteurieation (Phase &&)E spawningE spawn-run (Fig. 15)E and fruiting. ;ood logs or other fuel
resources are used as fuel for the boiler to steam the growing room with compost inside.
:his farm produces 1 ton of mushroom per year in the 2 rows of 4 tier shelDes with a total growing area of 144
(2 rows h 4 tiers h 2m wide h 9m long) sFuare meters. Another farm we Disited uses two 5-tier shelDes 9m longE
1.7m wide with a yield of 13kgZm2. :he farm produces 200kg per crop. Yields haDe not been isatisfactoryj yet.
Local mushroom demand from fast food restaurant chains like Pieea Hut and McDonaldfs are met by imported
mushrooms from Holland and Australia. And it sells at around :HB52 (GSD1.3) per kg. Farm sanitation practices
are reFuired for high yields of Fuality mushroom production.
Figure 13. Outdoor composting Figure 14. Filling Figure 15. Spawn run
(8 days after spawning)
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "'
Mushroo>s CultivBted i1 DBgs
Oyster mushroomE abalone mushroomE yanagi and shiitake are commonly cultiDated in bags in :hailand. Some
large farms are eFuipped with machines and tools like ribbon mixersE bagging machines and compacting machines
(Fig. 16)E steam boilers and Dentilation fans. :hey not only produce their mushrooms but also supply ready-to-fruit
mushroom bags to neighboring farms. Common bag preparation methods are as followsc
! Mix sawdust (rubber tree) k rice bran (20g) k other additiDes (gypsumE limeE calcium sulfate (CaSO4) or
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4))
! Ad2ust the water content of the mixture to 60-65g. (A rule of thumb is sFueeeing the mixture in the palm
of your hand. ;hen a droplet or two barely escapesE the mixture has a proper water content.)
! Fill the bags and compact
! Pasteuriee the bags in the cooker for 3-4 hours from the time temperature reaches 90-100&.
! Cool them to 25& and inoculate
:hey commonly use a plastic ring to make a ibottle neckj for easy handling. :hey put a plastic ring on the bag
endE pull out the bag end through the ringE fold down the pulled out partE tie it with a rubber band and plug with
cottonE paper or cotton-topped plastic plug (Fig. 17).
Figure 16. Compacting Machine Figure 17. Plugging
Figure 18. Traditional oil-drum sterilizer Figure 19. Metal grate for oil drum sterilizer
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "(
Substrate bags are sterilieed either in a commercial autoclaDe at 15-20 psi for 1 hour or in an oil drum sterilieer
(Fig. 1[E 19) around 100& or higher for 3-4 hours. How to use the oil drum sterilieer is as follows. :he sterilieer
is first filled with water a foot from the bottomE heated and maintained at 90-100& for 3-4 hours. Bags for
mushrooms with a long cultiDation period should be sterilieed aboDe 100& with pressure. ;hen the bags are
cooled to the ambient temperatureE inoculate them with spawn in a cleanE sterile if possibleE room (Fig. 20).
Sorghum seed is the most commonly used material for a spawn carrier in :hailand.
Figure 20. Inoculation Figure 21. Mushroom bags at incubation
'yster >ushroo> B1d BbBlo1e >ushroo>

Being easy to growE oyster mushroom is faDored by more and more growers in the worldE especially by those who
want simple growing. All the mushroom bags are stacked atop the other bags on the A-frame shelf.
:he farm we Disited produces oyster mushroom for 6 months per crop and sells them at :HB20 (GSD0.52)Zkg
in wholesale markets and :HB25 (GSD0.65)Zkg in retail markets. ;hen the fruiting startsE they harDest
mushrooms eDery day but not from all the bags. Urowers can harDest up to 500g from a high Fuality 1kg bag in a
crop. &n aDerageE they produce 200-300g from a bag. :hey also grow oyster mushrooms from HungaryE whose
spawn costs :HB2-3 (GSD0.05-0.0[) per kg bag.
Figure 22, 23. Oyster mushroom and abalone mushroom bags in the shelf
&n the meantimeE abalone mushrooms are harDested once a week and the production cycle takes a year. :he
aDerage yield is 500gZkg a year. :he mushrooms sell at :HB40 (GSD1.03)Zkg in wholesale markets and :HB50
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide ")
(GSD1.29)Zkg in retail markets. As a new itemE they fetch relatiDely high prices compared with oyster mushrooms.
But you should take a note of the productiDity. Each mushroom produces 500g from a 1kg bag in one crop. But the
crop span of oyster mushroom is half that of Abalone mushroom. :hat means productiDity of the latter is half of
that of oyster mushroomE while the price is the other way around. :he choice is up to growers.
Figure 24.25. Oyster mushroom in cold storage and in the market Figure 26. Packaging (Xanagi matsutake)
GB1Bgi >BtsutBHe
Yanagi matsutake (Agrocybe cylindraceae) is relatiDely easy to grow but less easy than oyster mushroomE since
the mushroom is said to be more prone to contamination and it reFuires a longer time before the first harDest (1-1
1Z2 months). :he mushroom (called Yanagi matsutake in :hailand) is a new item in :hai mushroom markets. &ts
high demandE thanks to their marketing and promotional effortsE brings a handsome income to growers. :he
mushroom sells at the price of :HB100-120 (GSD2.5[-3.10)Zkg. A mushroom growing bag made of sawdustE rice
bran (7.5-10g)E CaCO3 (2g)E sugar (1g) and gypsum (1g) costs :HB6 (GSD0.15) per kg bag. A production
cycle has ten flushesE lasts one year and produces 150-200gZkg in total. :he mushroom can be stored at 7& for 7
days.
$hiitBHe
As grown in relatiDely low temperaturesE shiitake (Lentinula edodes) can be cultiDated mostly in the highland
areas with cooler temperatures or at lower altitudes in the cool season. Shiitake is one of the most expensiDe edible
mushrooms in :hailand because there exist relatiDely unfaDorable conditions for cultiDation of those mushrooms.
:o proDide better conditionsE mushroom growers coDer the roof with a shade net and pour cold water through the
roof for eDaporatiDe cooling. :o induce fruitingE they use icy water. Gnlike other mushroomsE shiitake reFuire
cooler temperatures and are cultiDated on the ground. :he floor is limed to preDent fungal contaminationE
especially from green mould. A 1kg substrate bag costs :HB5-7 (GSD0.13-0.1[). Mushroom growers harDest 3-4
flushes or 7-9 flushes in a crop.
Figure 27. Mushroom growing bags at spawn run Figure 28. Shiitake grown on the floor
!
! Part & !us$roo's Chapter 2. !us$roo' )ro*ing for a 0i1ing 2orld*ide "*
WhBt Mushroo> (ro9i1g >eB1s to ,hBi peopleJs /iCe
Mushroom cultiDation in :hailand means much more than growing other commodity crops. Most of the farmers
inDolDed with mushroom cultiDation recycle agricultural wastes to cultiDate mushrooms. Some 70g of rice
farmers cultiDate straw mushroom by utilieing straw or hay they already haDe. :hey donMt need to buy basal
substrate material. &n a few yearsE straw mushroom cultiDation brings them more money than rice. &nspired by the
large income from mushroom growingE the :hai goDernment encourages poor rural people to grow mushrooms.
MoreoDerE mushroom growing proDides a Fuick return on inDestment. Straw mushroom cultiDation takes 2ust 3
weeks and other mushrooms like abaloneE oyster and ear mushroom 3-4 months to bring money to farmers. And
the 10-30g profit is high enough for farmers to continue growing.
Lately medicinal mushrooms such as reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) and lionMs mane (Hericium erinaceus) were
introduced to the country. :hat brought about a great interest not only in reishi but also other medicinal
mushroomsE eDen in :hai traditional medicines among :hai people. _ow Uanoderma mushroom and dried lionMs
mane fetch the highest prices eDerE :HB1E000-1E500 (GSD25.[-3[.7) and :HB1E000 (GSD25.[)ZkgE respectiDelyE
25-50 times the price of oyster mushroom. Urowing these medicinal mushrooms is like producing lgolden eggsM.
Figure 29. Prices of mushroom cultivated in Thailand
A : Abalone M. (1&e"r+t"0 %30t$,$+0"0) B : Button M. (!4ar$%"0 5$0p+r"0)

E : Enokitake (7&a.."&$*a 8e&"t$pe0) G : Glden Oyster M. (1&e"r+t"0 %$tr$*+p+&eat"0)
I : Inky Cap (C+pr$*"0 atra.e*tar$t0) K : King Oyster M. (1&e"r+t"0 er3*4$$)
O : Oyster M. (:re.e&&a ;"%$;+r.$0) P : Parasol M. (<a%r+&ep$+ta 4ra%$&e*ta)
Sh : Shiitake (=e*t$*"&a e,+,e0) Si : Silver Ear M. (:re.e&&a ;"%$;+r.$0)
St : Straw M. (>+&8ar$e&&a 8+&8a%ea) W : Wood Ear M. (!"r$%"&ar$a a"r$%"&a)
X : Xanagi (Black Poplar ) M. (!4r+%35e %3&$*,ra%ea)
!
! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide "#
Mushroo. Kro<ersL M":dbooD !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!"rt &. Mushroo.s
Chapter 2
Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide
M#S%&OOM P&OJ*CT -N S/0Z-L0N3

0 4overnment -nitiated Mushroom Bag 3istribution Center
Kyung Wha Choi

MushWorld
Jhrough the 6our "rti5les "bout Gep"lB Ni.b"b<eB &:di"B ":d Jh"il":dB it h"s bee: e.ph"si>ed ho<
pro6it"ble ":d "ppropri"te .ushroo. gro<i:g is 6or poverty "llevi"tio:. Mo<everB its "ppli5"tio: is ":other
story. Oet us h"ve " 5loser looD o: the di66i5ulties i: per6or.i:g .ushroo. pro3e5t.!
Mushroo. pro3e5ts 6or poverty "llevi"tio: h"ve bee: 5"rried out i: .":y 5ou:tries <ith support 6ro. v"rious
i:ter:"tio:"l ":d lo5"l org":i>"tio:s. ?"5h 5ou:try or regio: h"s 5o:du5ted its o<: .ushroo. pro3e5ts usi:g
di66ere:t .ethods or syste.s "55ordi:g to its p"rti5ul"r situ"tio:. &: so.e 5ou:tries the gover:.e:t h"s i:iti"ted
.ushroo. pro3e5ts by i:viti:g 5o:sult":ts 6ro. overse"s ":d "ttr"5ti:g 6u:ds 6ro. v"rious org":i>"tio:s
@government-initiated caseA. &: other 5ou:triesB sever"l pio:eer 6"r.ers h"ve produ5ed subst":ti"l pro6its 6ro.
their .ushroo. gro<i:g ":d there6ore .ushroo. gro<i:g h"s be5o.e popul"r ".o:g other 6"r.ers "s <ellB ":d
"t this poi:t the gover:.e:t h"s st"rted to p"y "tte:tio: to .ushroo. gro<i:g ":d support it @grower-initiated
caseA. Coth .odels h"ve their stro:g poi:ts ":d <e"D:esses.
Most .ushroo. pro3e5ts 5"rried out i: A6ri5": 5ou:tries 5": be 5"tegori>ed "s gover:.e:tFi:iti"ted pro3e5ts.
GeverthelessB they 5": be "lso divided i:to t<o types. Ho.e progr".s e.ph"si>e tr"i:i:g 6or e"5h gro<er ":d
6i:":5i"lly ":d te5h:i5"lly support the. to gro< .ushroo.s by the.selves. &: other 5"ses gover:.e:t "ge:5ies
per6or. Dey produ5tio: steps su5h "s sp"<:i:g ":d i:5ub"tio: i: order to .":"ge the pro3e5ts. &t <ould be
di66i5ult to s"y <hi5h is the better .ethodB but eI".i:"tio: o6 both 5"ses <ill help pro3e5t pl"::ers <he: they
5hoose the best .ethods 6or their o<: situ"tio:s. Jo help illustr"te this poi:tB " .ushroo. gro<i:g pro3e5t i:
H<">il":d <ill be des5ribed i: <hi5h the gover:.e:t i:iti"ted the pro3e5t ":d <"s i: 5o:trol o6 the Dey produ5tio:
syste.s. M":"ge.e:t te". o6 this pro3e5t per6or.ed rese"r5h to 6i:d the .ost suit"ble substr"te ."teri"lsB
supplied the. to gro<ersB produ5ed sp"<:Fi.preg:"ted b"gsB ":d edu5"ted 6"r.ers i: the .":"ge.e:t o6
gro<i:g houses.
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide "$
Kingdom of SwaHiland
H<">il":d @Pig. QA .ight :ot be " 6".ili"r 5ou:try to so.e re"ders. &t h"s "
short history "s " .oder: 5ou:tryB "s it o:ly be5".e i:depe:de:t 6ro.
?:gl":d i: QRST. &: ge:er"lB H<">il":d is " be"uti6ul 5ou:try <ith gree:
hills ":d .":y 5"ttle. Ho.e 5"ll it the UH<it>erl":d i: A6ri5"L @Pig. 2B VA.
Jhe 5li."te is .oder"teB r":gi:g 6ro. subtropi5"l to te.per"te depe:di:g
o: the "ltitude. As o:e 5": see 6ro. its 6or."l :".eB the Wi:gdo. o6
H<">il":dB the Di:g h"s " 6ir. grip o: the 5ou:try. Jhough people h"ve
the right to vote 6or o:e o6 the 5"bi:ets by ele5tio:B the Di:g "ppoi:ts the
!ri.e Mi:ister ":d t<oFthirds o6 the 5ou:tryLs p"rli".e:tB ":d so.e
i.port":t gover:.e:t positio:s "re "l<"ys 6illed by .e.bers o6 the Di:gLs
Figure 1. Kingdom of Swaziland
6".ilyB D:o<: "s the Xl".i:i.
Jhough H<">il":d is :ot 5"tegori>ed ".o:g the le"st developed 5ou:tries i: the <orldB the peoplesL st":d"rd o6
livi:g is Yuite lo<B espe5i"lly i: rur"l "re"s @Pig. ZA. Jhe KX! per 5"pit" <"s [HX4B200 i: the ye"r o6 200QB ":d
the ."3or i:dustries "re sug"rB .i:i:g @5o"l ":d "sbestosAB <ood pulpB "gri5ultureB ":d the produ5tio: o6 so6t dri:D
5o:5e:tr"tes. &t produ5es " l"rge ".ou:t o6 "gri5ultur"l <"stes su5h "s sug"r5":e b"g"sseB 5or:5obsB ":d other
5rop re6use. &t h"s sever"l 6"5tories i: M"ts"ph" ":d .ost o6 the i:vest.e:t 5"pit"l 5o.es 6ro. J"i<":.
OiDe other A6ri5": 5ou:triesB H<">il":d h"s " high per5e:t"ge o6 its popul"tio: livi:g <ith M&^FA&XHB ":d
eve: .ore su66eri:g 6ro. 5hro:i5 ."l:utritio:. Most you:g "dults live i: the 5itiesB h"vi:g le6t their p"re:ts ":d
you:g sibli:gs i: the rur"l "re"s <here st":d"rds o6 livi:g "re 6"r lo<er th": th"t o6 5ities.
Figure 2. Swaziland-‘Switzerland in Africa’ Figure 3. Traditional houses in Swaziland
Figure 4. Students after school Figure 5. A girl selling fruit on the street
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide %&
The Beginning of Mushroom ProJect
Jhis .ushroo. gro<i:g pro3e5t i: H<">il":d <"s i:iti"ted by the Di:g. Jhe Di:g h"d visited .ushroo. 6"r.s i:
Jh"il":d ":d de5ided i: 2000 to st"rt " .ushroo. pro3e5t i: H<">il":d. Jhe Di:g disp"t5hed 6ive perso:s to "
.ushroo. tr"i:i:g 5e:ter i: Jh"il":dB ":d i:vited Jh"i .ushroo. 5o:sult":t A:o: Auetr"gul to H<">il":d. A:o:
h"s h"d " gre"t de"l o6 5o:sulti:g eIperie:5e i: the l"st 20 ye"rs <ith .ushroo. pro3e5ts i: .":y Asi": ":d
A6ri5": 5ou:tries. A:o: st"yed i: H<">il":d 6or siI .o:ths ":d t"ught 5ultiv"tio: te5h:ology ":d produ5tio:
sDills to lo5"l .ushroo. gro<ers. Me helped per6or. the rese"r5h to 6i:d "ppropri"te substr"te ."teri"lsB
est"blished the distributio: 5e:ter 6or sp"<:Fi.preg:"ted b"gsB i:trodu5ed the .ushroo. gro<i:g syste. used i:
Jh"il":dB ":d "pplied it to the situ"tio: i: H<">il":d. Xuri:g the 5ourse o6 his st"y so.e lo5"l H<">il":d people
<ere tr"i:ed i: .ushroo. <orDshops th"t <ere held 6or 2 <eeDs i: Hh":gh"i ":d l"ter i: tr"i:i:g 5ourses held i:
G".ibi" ":d M"l"<i. Pro. 2000 to 2002B there <ere " v"riety o6 "5tivitiesB prep"r"tio:sB ":d i:vest.e:ts ."de i:
the lo5"l .ushroo. i:dustry.
M"lDer:s _ese"r5h Ht"tio: <"s the Dey 6"5ility 6or this pro3e5t. &t per6or.ed rese"r5h o: the prep"r"tio: o6
5ultures ":d produ5ed gr"i: sp"<: 6ro. the V "v"il"ble oyster .ushroo. str"i:s. M":y .ushroo. gro<i:g
rese"r5h pro3e5ts <ere st"rted. Jhe .ost i.port":t <ere eIperi.e:ts to 6i:d the .ost "ppropri"te substr"te
."teri"ls i: this 5ou:try. Jhey h"d i.ported rubber tree s"<dustB the ."i: substr"te ."teri"l i: Jh"il":d "s "
5o:trol substr"te ."teri"lB ":d eIperi.e:ted to ide:ti6y suit"ble lo5"l substr"te ."teri"ls ":d .iIes. Pive
pro.isi:g substr"te .iIes <ere sele5ted 6or 6urther observ"tio:B 6or "ll o6 <hi5h 6resh b"g"sse <"s the ."i:
substr"te 5o.po:e:t. Ce5"use b"g"sse is <"ste 6ro. the sug"r5":e 6"5toriesB the gro<ers 5ould get it 6or 6ree.
MalLerns &esearch StationMMushroom Bag 3istribution Center
As brie6ly .e:tio:ed "boveB the b"g distributio: 5e:ter is o:e o6 the .ost i.port":t 6e"tures o6 the .ushroo.
pro3e5t o6 H<">il":d. !rep"r"tio: o6 substr"teB b"ggi:gB sterili>"tio:B ":d i:5ub"tio: "re "ll do:e i: this
distributio: 5e:ter. A .iIer @Pig. À ":d " b"ggi:g ."5hi:e <ere i.ported 6ro. Jh"il":d be5"use it <ould h"ve
reYuired " gre"t de"l o6 ti.e to produ5e these ."5hi:es lo5"lly. J<o sterili>ers @Pig. RA <ere lo5"lly ."de <ithi: S
.o:ths.
3istribution Center of SpawnMimpregnated Bags
Figure 6. Place for preparation and mixing Figure 7. Imported mixer for substrate materials
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!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide %'
Figure 8. Mushroom bags after bagging Figure 9. Locally made sterilizers for bags
Figure 10. Inside sterilizer Figure 11. Inoculation room
Figure 12. Incubation room (temp. controlled)-various Figure 13. Various cultures in storage inside
Sizes of bags are incubated refrigerator
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide %(
Figure 14. Inside experimental growing house Figure 15. Oyster mushrooms on grass substrate
Figure 16, 17. shiitake and !anoder(a mushroom in experimental growing house
Figure 18, 19. Plants cultivated on spent substrate of oyster mushroom
Jhe .ushroo. b"g distributio: 5e:ter est"blished the 6ollo<i:g oyster .ushroo. produ5tio: syste.a the
substr"te ."teri"ls <ere .iIed usi:g the .iIer @Pig. À ":d the .iIed ."teri"l <"s put i:to b"gs @Pig. TA <ith the
b"ggi:g ."5hi:e. Jhe b"gs <ere "ll i.ported 6ro. Jh"il":dB ":d :eeded to be he"tFresist":t "s they <ere
sterili>ed i: sterili>ers "6ter b"ggi:g @Pig. RB Q0A. A6ter bei:g sterili>edB they <ere delivered to the i:o5ul"tio:
roo. @Pig. QQA. A6ter bei:g 5ooled do<:B the b"gs <ere 5"rried to the i:5ub"tio: roo. <here the te.per"ture <"s
5o:trolled by ": "ir 5o:ditio:er @Pig. Q2A. Xuri:g i:5ub"tio:B ":y 5o:t".i:"ted b"gs <ere destroyedB ":d 6i:"llyB
<ellFi:5ub"ted .ushroo. b"gs <ere distributed to 6"r.ers 6or 6ree. Jhe 6"r.ers the: <"tered the b"gs ":d
5o:trolled the e:viro:.e:ts o6 their gro<i:g houses ":d h"rvested .ushroo.s.
!
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! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide %"
Jhe distributio: 5e:ter "lso h"d its o<: gro<i:g house 6or rese"r5h @Pig. Q4A ":d stor"ge 6or substr"te ."teri"l.
Jhe 5e:ter distributed o:ly b"gs o6 oyster .ushroo.s @Pig. QZAB but they "re "lso gro<i:g shiit"De @Pig. QSA ":d
Ganoderma lucidum @Pig. QÀ o: ": eIperi.e:t"l s5"le. Jhey h"ve "lso do:e rese"r5h o: the use o6 spe:t
.ushroo. substr"te @HMHA. Hpe:t substr"te o6 oyster .ushroo. 5o:t"i:s " high ".ou:t o6 :utritio: i:
5o.p"riso: <ith other 6ertili>ers @see Ure5y5li:g o6 Hpe:t byster Mushroo. Hubstr"teL "t Ch"pter RA. &: 6ro:t o6
the gro<i:g houseB they <ere gro<i:g 5u5u.bersB spi:"5hB ":d eggpl":t o: the HMHF6ertili>ed 6ield @Pig. QTB QRA.
Two Pilot *xport Production Pillages (*PPs)
As sites 6or " pilot pro3e5tB t<o eIport produ5tio: vill"ges <ere sele5ted @Pig. 20AB e"5h <ith " di66ere:t
e:viro:.e:t ":d the: distributed .ushroo. b"gs to the 6"r.ers i: these regio:s 6or 6ree. b:e vill"ge is
Hipho6":e:i i: the ?"st <here they h"ve so.e<h"t dry <e"ther ":d the other is Mb":g<e:i @Pig. 2QA i: the HouthB
<here they h"ve " rel"tively high hu.idity. Jhe pro3e5t "i.ed to 6i:d the "ppropri"te gro<i:g .ethods 6or e"5h
regio: "s <ell "s the di66ere:5es bet<ee: the 6ruiti:g bodies o6 .ushroo.s produ5ed i: both regio:s. Jo begi:B
the distributio: 5e:ter supplied V00 .ushroo. b"gs to "bout Z0 6"r.ers i: e"5h vill"ge. Jhe 5e:ter beg": to
distribute sp"<:Fi.preg:"ted b"gs to 6"r.ers i: M"r5h 200QB ":d it h"d distributed "bout 20B000 b"gs by the e:d
o6 the ye"r 2002B i:5ludi:g 2B000 sp"<:Fi.preg:"ted b"gs i.ported 6ro. Jh"il":d.
Jhe re5ipie:ts o6 the b"gs <ere eIpe5ted to Deep " 5o.plete d"ily
re5ord o: :u.bers o6 supplied b"gsB <e"therB the ".ou:t o6 <"teri:g
":d h"rvesti:gB i:5o.eB ":d ":y other observ"tio:s ."de <ithi: their
gro<i:g houses. Ho.e o6 the 6"r.ers su55ess6ully .":"ged their
gro<i:g houses u:til their b"gs <ere eIh"usted "6ter V .o:ths. Ho.e o6
the substr"te .iIes tried did :ot give good results ":d produ5ed o:ly
.i:i."l h"rvests. b: "ver"geB " 6"r.er e"r:ed HNOdV00 @[HX4Z.ZÀ
per .o:th 6ro. the V00 b"gs supplied 6ro. the distributio: 5e:ter.
Jhough the :u.ber o6 supplied b"gs <"s li.ited to V00 b"gs per 6"r.erB
they 5o:sidered this i:5o.e re"so:"ble be5"use they got the b"gs 6or
Figure 20. Map of Swaziland
6ree. byster .ushroo. s".ples <ere distributed to GAMCbA_X
@G"tio:"l Agri5ultur"l M"rDeti:g Co"rd o6 the Di:gdo. o6 H<">il":dA
":d so.e 5"teri:g 5o.p":ies i: order to est"blish produ5t ."rDet "55ept":5eB ":d GAMCbA_X <"s i.pressed
by this .ushroo. produ5t. Mo<everB they 5ould:Lt 5re"te " 6or."l ."rDet 6or .ushroo.s be5"use o6 the li.ited
produ5tio: 5"p"5ity ":d err"ti5 supply. &:ste"d the 6"r.ers 5re"ted i:6or."l ."rDet 5h"::els by the.selves ":d
sold their .ushroo.s through those rel"tio:ships.
Wh"t the 6"r.ers "t Mb":g<e:i "55o.plished <"s p"rti5ul"rly :ote<orthy. Jhey est"blished ."rDets "t
Ghl":g":o ":d supplied .ushroo.s "t the pri5e o6 HNO20 @[HXV.04A per DgB <hi5h brought the. " 6"ir i:5o.e.
Jhey "re :o< i: ": "dv":5ed st"ge i: the 5o:stru5tio: o6 " .ushroo. 5e:ter <ith ": o66i5eB .ushroo. stor"ge
6"5ilitiesB " p"5Di:g roo. ":d " pro5essi:g roo. @Pig. 22A. ?:5our"ged by their su55essB the gover:.e:t provided
"dditio:"l tr"i:i:g i: busi:ess .":"ge.e:t 6or the Mb":g<e:i 6"r.ers.
[:6ortu:"telyB the 6"r.ers "t Hipho6":e:i h"d di66i5ulties i: .ushroo. gro<i:g due to their dry 5li."te ":d
u:6"vor"ble ."rDet 5o:ditio:s. &t <"s Yuite di66i5ult 6or the. to "55ess 5le": <"ter 6or use i: their .ushroo.
5ultiv"tio: "5tivities. ?:5our"gi:glyB eight o6 the 6"r.ers 6ro. the group .":"ged to i:st"ll piped <"ter syste.s
6or <"teri:g their .ushroo.s.
Xe.o:str"tio: .ushroo. 5roppi:g houses <ere i:iti"lly 5o:stru5ted ":d the: e"5h o6 the 6"r.ers 5o:stru5ted
* SZL (Swaziland Lilageni, SZL1!USD0.1519 in Feb. 2004)

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! !"rt & Mushrooms Chapter 2. Mushroom Growing for a Living Worldwide %%
their o<: houses by the.selves @Pig. 2VB 2ZA. Jhe gro<i:g houses <ere ."de o6 logs ":d th"t5hed gr"ss @Pig. 2SAB
but these gro<i:g houses <ere :ot su66i5ie:tly dur"ble. Jhey deterior"ted Yui5Dly ":d did :ot "llo< the 6"r.ers to
regul"te i.port":t gro<i:g p"r".eters su5h "s te.per"ture ":d hu.idity. Jhe use o6 .ore e66i5ie:t ":d dur"ble
."teri"ls su5h "s pl"sti5 sheeti:g ":d bri5Ds <ere re5o..e:ded. At Hipho6":e:i duri:g the dry <e"ther 5"ttle ":d
go"ts <ere very hu:gry due to l"5D o6 gr"ssesB so so.eti.es they "te the gr"sses o6 the gro<i:g housese Jhis <"s
the 6"te o6 the .ushroo. 6"r. th"t <e visited i: Hipho6":e:i. Jhe 6"r.er the: borro<ed " pl"sti5 sheet 6ro. his
6rie:d ":d surrou:ded the gro<i:g house @Pig. 2ZA. Me Dept " re5ord o6 :u.bers o6 supplied b"gsB <e"therB the
".ou:t o6 <"teri:g ":d h"rvesti:gB i:5o.eB ":d 5h":ges i: the gro<i:g house everyd"y @Pig. 2À u:til he
re5eived the l"st .ushroo. b"gs i: April o6 200V.
Mbangweni *PP in South
Figure 21. Mbangweni EPV Figure 22. Mushroom center for storage, packing,
processing (under construction)
Figure 23. Growing house at Mbangweni Figure 24. Oyster mushroom bags inside
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Siphofaneni *PP in *ast
Figure 25. Growing house with plastic sheet Figure 26. Inside growing room made by logs
-cattle ate grasses (the materials of the house) and grass-the roof!
Figure 27. Mushroom farmers with records book Figure 28. Inside the growing room-mushroom bags!
on her hand!
Problems of the Mushroom ProJect
Jhe "5tivities o6 the 6"r.ers i: this .ushroo. gro<i:g pro3e5t <ere hi:dered by u:eIpe5ted proble.sf
suspe:sio: o6 sug"r5":e b"g"sse supply ":d l"5D o6 6i:":5i"l support. Got"blyB the sug"r5":e .ills stopped
supplyi:g sug"r5":e b"g"sse i: l"te 2002. Hug"r5":e b"g"sse h"d bee: previously thro<: "<"y by the 6"5toryB so
the distributio: 5e:ter 5ould get the substr"te ."teri"l 6or 6ree. Mo<everB the 6"5tory h"d stopped disposi:g o6 the
b"g"sse "6ter they 6ou:d th"t their <"ste 5ould be utili>ed by the .ushroo. i:dustry. Jhis 5"used " serious
proble. 6or the pro3e5tB ":d the distributio: 5e:ter <"s :o lo:ger "ble to produ5e .ushroo. b"gs. Jhe 5e:ter the:
"sDed the 6"5tory to sell the. b"g"sseB ":d the 6"5tory replied th"t it <ould set the pri5e o6 b"g"sseB but i: the
.e":<hile it used "ll the "v"il"ble b"g"sse "s 6uel. Jhe 5e:ter h"d to 6i:d :e< substr"te ."teri"l to repl"5e
b"g"sseB ":d this reYuired "dditio:"l rese"r5h.
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Figure 29. Substitute material -grass Figure 30. Substitute material -corncobs
Figure 31. Farmers at Mbangweni maintain their Figure 32. Inside growing house in Mbangweni
growing-houses anticipating mushroom bags
At this poi:tB the 5e:ter 6"5ed " 5riti5"l l"5D o6 6u:di:g. [GX! H<">il":dB the 5ustodi": o6 the 6i:":5es 6or the
pro3e5tB :o< blo5Ded 6u:ds 6ro. the N?_& _egio:"l !ro3e5tB re6usi:g to support e:dless rese"r5h <ithout
5o:sider"ble results. Jhe 5e:ter <"s 6or5ed to stop the distributio: o6 .ushroo. b"gs i: April o6 200V ":d h"ve
si:5e produ5ed o:ly " s."ll ".ou:t o6 b"gs 6or substr"te substitute rese"r5h. b:e "lter:"tive substr"te .iI
i:5luded h"y 6ro. Cer.ud" gr"ss obt"i:ed 6ro. the MighveldB other .iIed gr"sses 6ro. the Oo<veld @Pig. 2RAB
<ith "dded 5or:5obs @Pig. V0A. A.o:g other s"d :e<sB the 5e:ter "lso :o< :eeds to est"blish :e< 6"5ilities to
preve:t the high 5o:t".i:"tio: r"te @20gA o6 b"gs. Jhey believe they 5ould lo<er the 5o:t".i:"tio: r"te i6 they
h"d better 6"5ilities ":d " te.per"ture 5o:trol syste. i: the i:o5ul"tio: roo. ":d "ll this reYuires 5o:sider"ble
:e< 6u:di:g.
Hi:5e the 5e:ter stopped distributi:g .ushroo. b"gsB the 6"r.ers h"ve bee: ."i:t"i:i:g their gro<i:g houses
":d <"iti:g 6or the distributio: o6 :e< b"gs @Pig. VQB V2A. With eIte:sio: <orDers <e visited Mb":g<e:iB o:e o6
the eIport produ5tio: vill"ges. Jhe 6"r.ers there <ere upset th"t the 5e:ter is :o lo:ger providi:g .ushroo. b"gs.
Most o6 the 6"r.ers "re very poor ":d st"rvi:g. Cut <ithout "dditio:"l 6u:di:g 6or the distributio: 5e:terB there
see.s to be :o <"y to resu.e its oper"tio:.
[GX! H<">il":dB <hi5h <it:essed " 5o:sider"ble ".ou:t o6 .o:ey bei:g used up <ith 6e< s"tis6"5tory resultsB
:o< h"s ":other ide" i: .i:dB so.ethi:g di66ere:t 6ro. " distributio: 5e:ter 5o:trolled by the gover:.e:t"l
se5tor. [GX! H<">il":d believes " .ushroo. pro3e5t "t the 6"r.erLs level <ould provide better resultsB "s
pro3e5ts do i: other A6ri5": 5ou:tries su5h "s [g":d". Jheir theory is th"t they :eed to edu5"te 6"r.ers ":d let
the. do the rese"r5h by the.selves to 6i:d "ppropri"te ":d e5o:o.i5"lly 6e"sible substr"te ."teri"ls. Jhe
"gri5ulture ":d e:viro:.e:t v"ries 6ro. regio: to regio:B so "ppropri"te substr"te ."teri"ls ":d e66i5ie:t gro<i:g
.ethods <ill "lso be di66ere:t "55ordi:g to regio:. P"r.ers <ould le"r: 6ro. othersL eIperie:5e "s <ell "s their
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o<:. MoreoverB they <ould be .ore "5tive i: 6i:di:g better gro<i:g .ethods be5"use they <ould be <orDi:g 6or
their o<: poverty "llevi"tio:. Go<B gro<ers i: H<">il":d "re helpless ":d 5": do :othi:g 6or the.selves <he:
6"5i:g di66i5ulties be5"use they h"ve very little D:o<ledge "bout .ushroo. gro<i:g. b:5e edu5"ted "bout the
6u:d".e:t"ls o6 .ushroo. gro<i:g ho<everB they <ould do <h"tever they 5ould i: ti.e o6 di66i5ulties i:ste"d o6
<"iti:g 6or .ushroo. b"gs helplessly. [GX! H<">il":d believes this botto.Fup syste. <ill ."De :e<
.ushroo. pro3e5ts .ore po<er6ul ":d e:ergeti5.
Mushroom ProJectS TopMdown vs. BottomMup
Although it 5ould be " 5o:troversi"l topi5 6or dis5ussio:B ":d <e h"ve .":y u:":s<ered Yuestio:sB <e 5": le"r: "
lot 6ro. this .ushroo. pro3e5t i: H<">il":d. &6 the b"gs "re <ell i:5ub"tedB 6ruiti:g ":d h"rvesti:g is :ot "
di66i5ult 3ob. Most te5h:iYues ":d D:o<Fho< "re 5o:5e:tr"ted i: the distributio: 5e:ter <hile the 6"r.ersL 3obs i:
this 5"se do:Lt reYuire .u5h sDill. Jhis syste. is .ore e66e5tive ":d produ5tive i6 the gover:.e:t .":"ges the
.ushroo. gro<i:g "s 6"r.ers h"ve little D:o<ledge "bout .ushroo. 5ultiv"tio:. [:liDe the situ"tio: i: Asi"B
<hi5h h"s " lo:g history o6 .ushroo. gro<i:g ":d 5o:su.ptio:B here i: A6ri5" the people h"ve very little
D:o<ledge "bout .ushroo. 5ultiv"tio:. Most people eve: do:Lt D:o< <h"t .ushroo.s "reB so it 5ould t"De "
rel"tively lo:g ti.e 6or 6"r.ers to le"r: the <hole pro5ess o6 .ushroo. gro<i:g. MoreoverB H<">il":d h"s
e:ough "gri5ultur"l eIte:sio: <orDers to support 6"r.ers i: pr"5ti5"l <"ys. Jhere6oreB the topFdo<: syste. 5ould
be the best 6or H<">il":d.
b: the other h":dB this top do<: syste. h"s " 5ru5i"l <e"D poi:t. &6 the 5e:ter stopsB everythi:g stopsB "s o:e
5": see i: the 5urre:t situ"tio: o6 H<">il":d. &6 they h"d 6o5used o: te"5hi:g 6"r.ers the <hole pro5ess o6
.ushroo. gro<i:gB they 5ould h"ve produ5ed .ushroo. b"gs by the.selves liDe .ushroo. 6"r.ers i: other
5ou:tries <he: 6"5ed <ith these Di:ds o6 di66i5ulties.
We "ll D:o< the gover:.e:t distributio: 5e:ter ":d [GX! H<">il":d h"ve both do:e their best. MoreoverB
they h"ve the s".e go"l o6 6"5ilit"ti:g .ushroo. gro<i:g "s " .e":s o6 poverty "llevi"tio:. We believe they
5ould 5ooper"te i: strivi:g 6or this go"l. &6 they didB the: H<">il":d 5ould try to e:5our"ge .ushroo. gro<i:g i:
t<o levels. Jhe distributio: 5e:ter 5ould be oper"ted by the gover:.e:tB ":d 5ould sell .ushroo. b"gs to
gro<ersB ":d the pro3e5t 5ould i:5lude " :e< str"tegy by i:vesti:g 6u:ds i: edu5"tio: "t the 6"r.ersL level. Jhe:
both sides 5ould 5ooper"teB <hi5h <ould 6urther pro.ote .ushroo. gro<i:g i: H<">il":d. Jhough they resu.e
the .ushroo. pro3e5t by 6o5usi:g edu5"tio: o: 6"r.ersB distributio: 5e:ter itsel6 ":d <h"t h"ve bee: "lre"dy
i:vested i:to it i:5ludi:g .o:eyB ti.eB rese"r5hB te".<orD should :ot be <"sted.
&: spite o6 the 5urre:t st"ll i: the situ"tio: i: H<">il":dB this .ushroo. pro3e5t h"s "ppre5i"ble i.pli5"tio:s 6or
their e66orts to<"rd poverty "llevi"tio:. &t is "lso eIpe5ted th"t their 5ooper"tive e66orts <ill hope6ully be"r 6ruit
eve: i6 the 6uture pro3e5t "dopts " di66ere:t str"tegy. We still believe th"t .ushroo. gro<i:g <ill be ": e66e5tive
str"tegy 6or poverty redu5tio: i: the :e"r 6uture o6 H<">il":d.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. -ntroduction to Oyster Mushroom !"
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Chapter (
-ntroduction to Oyster Mushroom
WHAT IS O+STER ./SHROO.
Seung 4oo 5ang

Mush2orld
The principles of oyster mushroom growing follow the general characteristics described in >2hat is Mushroom’ in
Chapter 1. In this article three main factors"spawn, substrate and environmental control"will be discussed again
focusing on oyster mushroom cultivation. As a fruitbody of an edible white rot fungus, oyster mushroom belongs
to Pleurotus, Pleurotaceae, Agaricales, Basidiomycota. In nature, oyster mushrooms appear in cluster on dead
trees from late fall to spring, and are distributed almost all around the world (Giyul Hee, 1II(). Oyster mushrooms
share all the fundamental characters of cultivated mushrooms.
Spawn
Four basidiospores form at the end of each basidum on the gill of a

fruitbody (Fig. 1). Lach spore has one nucleus. Spores germinate to
become primary mycelia, and then form secondary mycelia by
plasmogamy. Chances are 25P that a primary mycelium will meet with
a compatible one. Secondary mycelia of oyster mushroom can be
distinguished by the clamp connections and each cell has two nuclei.
Only secondary mycelia can produce fruitbodies under the proper
conditions. In the basidia of a mature fruitbody, the two nuclei fuse into
one, then pass through meiosis, and produce Q haploid nuclei. The four
haploid nuclei are then made into four new basidiospores.
Spawn suppliers usually make oyster mushroom spawn from isolated
secondary mycelia by tissue culture. Growers can also make their own
Figure 1. *ifecycle of oyster mushroom
spawn by incubating the spores or tissue of fruitbody specimen, but
highest level of sanitation is required. Tissue culture is recommended for mother culture production because
genetic characteristics of the mushroom are preserved to the isolated mycelia. On the other hand, spore culture
easily brings about variation of character manifestation due to recombination of genes. During spawn preparation,
the first isolated generation (called mother culture) is usually inoculated to substrate and incubated, which is the
second generation (called mother spawn). Fully colonized mother spawn is inoculated to another substrate and it
incubated to be the third generation (called mushroom spawn). By repeating inoculation and incubation, more
spawn can be produced from mother culture, but much repetition will lower the spawn’s vitality. Most growers
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. -ntroduction to Oyster Mushroom !4
utilize the third generation spawn.

During propagation and storage, growers must be faithful to the principles not to decrease the vigorosity or
increase the mutation or variations. There are several storage methods for mother culture including subcultures,
liquid nitrogen and paraffin sealing. Most common for oyster mushroom is grain and sawdust spawn. Detailed
information on characteristics of oyster mushroom strains and spawn production will be provided in chapter Q
(Spawn).
Su6strate
Substrate can be understood as soil for plant providing necessary nutrition. Substrate mixture of oyster mushroom
should supply specific nutrients required for oyster mushroom cultivation (Table 1).
7a89e :. <utritious materia9s for oyster mushroom
<utrients Materia9s
C-source cellulose humus materials such as wood, straw, leaf, etc.
organic hemicellulose !
N-source protein !
amino nitrogen !
inorganic K, P, Si, Fe, Mg, etc.
(Source\ ./ster mushroom1culti4ation technolog/ and management by Cha et al89 1II])
The main nutritional sources for oyster mushroom are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. C^N ratio is
important factor for optimal substrate composition for oyster mushroom. Oyster mushroom requires much carbon
and less nitrogen source than button mushroom (:garicus ;isporus) but most of main substrate materials such as
cereal straw, cotton waste, sawdust need supplementation of nitrogen source such as wheat and rice bran to reach
optimal C^N ratio for oyster mushroom. Inorganic materials are usually included in substrate materials and need
not additional supplement. And amino nitrogen is used during spawn run, but it is not fit for fruiting, therefore,
growers commonly do not need additional apply of amino nitrogen during mixing (Cha et al8, 1II]).
Oyster mushroom growers have wide range of substrate materials as oyster mushroom can utilize various agro-
wastes with its enzyme. That is to say, oyster mushroom is a white rot fungus that uses lignin and cellulose
together as its carbon source and turns the host into white. Therefore, any type of organic matters containing lignin
and cellulose can be used for oyster mushroom substrates, and this includes almost all agricultural wastes.
Possible substrate materials are sunflower seed hulls, rice^wheat straw, bean, sugarcane bagasse, rubber tree
sawdust, groundnut shells, cotton waste, cottonseed hulls, coco lumber sawdust, coffee pulp, corncobs, paper,
water hyacinth, water lily, cocoa shell waste, coir and others. Various utilizations of substrate materials for oyster
mushroom are introduced in Chapter 5 (Substrate).
It would be impossible to say the single best mixing formula of substrate that will perfectly satisfy all growers
since different materials are available at different prices in different regions. The same supplementation could
increase yield in temperate area but contamination in tropical area. Growers’ tastes also affect the selection of
substrate materials. Above all, it is strongly recommended that each grower find his own best substrate mixing
formula by trial and error based on standard substrate mixing formulae.
In choosing a growing method, growers should consider labor availability and the provision of substrate
materials. Mushrooms from log cultivation are commonly assumed to be of the best quality. But the recently
developed skills of shelf, bottle and bag cultivation seem to have bridged the quality gap. Hog cultivation takes a
long time for one flush and shows a low rate of productivity in spite of its intensive labor demand. As the most
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. -ntroduction to Oyster Mushroom ;<
widely performed method, bag cultivation provides stable yield with relatively few failures. Shelf cultivation
seems to be more risky than either bottle or bag cultivation because contamination once occurs, can rapidly spread
through the whole substrate mass on the shelf. Bottle cultivation can be automated and requires a high investment.
In choosing the ideal substrate material, growers should consider the long-term availability, expense and
productivity of the materials.
A. Bag culti7ation B. Shelf culti7ation C. Bottle culti7ation

Figure 2. Fruitbodies of oyster mushroom from 7arious culti7ation modes
En=ironment
Lnvironmental factors include temperature, relative humidity, light, carbon dioxide and acidity of substrate, which
alter together in their co-dependant relationships. As the growing room temperature is raised, relative humidity
decreases. A higher temperature promotes fruitbody metabolism, which in turn, increases their respiration rate and
results in high carbon dioxide production. Oyster mushrooms also need different environmental conditions at each
growing stage. During incubation, appropriate relative humidity is `5-]0P and water content of substrate is `5P.
Optimal temperature for mycelial growth is 20-25#, but some thermophilic strains reach optimal growth at 25-
(5#. Mushroom mycelia are quite durable to high concentration of carbon dioxide during incubation.
Upon the completion of incubation, pinning induction follows. Pinning induction is made by worsening the
environment in order that the mycelia cannot keep on with their vegetative growth and will therefore convert to a
reproductive growth mode, which initiates fruitbody formation. Pinning induction includes cold shock, watering
and lighting. Once the pins come out, growers stop pinning induction and maintain environmental conditions that
are favorable to fruiting. Carbon dioxide concentration should be less than 800 ppm in its reproductive growth
though the number differs according to strains. Fruitbody formation also requires high relative humidity up to 80-
I5P and lower temperature than optimal mycelial growth by 10#. In addition, some strains also need light of 50-
500 lux for primordial formation. Growers then harvest the resultant fruitbodies.
Growers can choose a suitable strain for their own natural environment. Lach Pleurotus species needs different
environmental conditions for fruitbody development (Table 2).
7a89e >. ?n@ironmenta9 Aarameters for fruiting of oyster mushrooms

SAecies 7emAerature Be9ati@e CO> Dight E9uFG
E#G humidity EHG EAAmG
P8 citrinopileatus (Golden Oyster Mushroom) 21-2I I0-I5 d 1,000 500-1,000
P8 c/stidiosus (Abalone Mushroom) 21-2] 85-I0 d 2,000 500-1,000
P8 d<amor (Pink Oyster Mushroom) 20-(0 85-I0 500-1,500 ]50-1,500
P8 er/ngii (King Oyster Mushroom) 15-21 85-I0 d 2,000 500-1,000
P8 euosmus (Tarragon Oyster Mushroom) 21-2] I0-I5 d 1,000 ]50-1,500
P8 ostreatus (Tree Oyster Mushroom) 10-21 85-I0 d 1,000 1,000-1,500 (2,000)
P8 pulmonarius (Phoenix or Indian Oyster Mushroom) 18-2Q 85-I0 Q00-800 1,000-1,500 (2,000)
P8 tu;erregium (King Tuber Oyster Mushroom) (0-(5 85-I0 d 2,000
(Source\ Stamets, 1II()
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. -ntroduction to Oyster Mushroom ;A
The other key component in environmental control is pest and disease management. The routines of pathogenic
invasion are evident. It is obvious that virus infected or bacteria contaminated spawn will cause problems to the
whole inoculated crop. Insufficient sterilization cannot remove all pathogenic organisms in the substrate. During
inoculation, pathogenic fungi and bacteria can invade via dirty tools, shoes, clothes and hands. During incubation,
they also come into the room through the door opening and windows.
It is not easy for even skillful growers to completely prevent contamination. But considering that mushroom
marketing emphasizes the nutritional and medicinal effects of mushrooms as a natural food, even when mushroom
diseases occur, growers should avoid using chemicals. This is of course totally up to the choice of the growers.
The best means of pest management are good preventative practices. Lnvironmental control and pest e disease
are discussed further in Chapter ` (Growing Houses) and Chapter 8 (Pest and Disease Management).
REFERENCES
! Cha, D. Y., G. S. Park, C. H. You, G. P. Kim, C. S. Geon, and D. 2. Hee. 1II8. Oyster mushroom
cultivation technology and management. =he >armers ?e@spaper (in Korean).
! Hee, Giyul. 1II(. Coloured Aorean Bushrooms C (in Korean).
! Shim, M. S. 1II(. The essence of mushroom cultivation - Fermentation of substrate. BushDorld (in
Korean) available at http\^^www.mushworld.com.
! Stamets, Paul. 1II(. Ero@ing Eourmet and Bedicinal Bushrooms.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms !"#$%&' (. Introduction to Oyster Mushroom "#
Mushroom Growers7 Handbook !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO OYSTER MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Seung Woo 5ang7 Hyun9ong 5won7 Byung Sik 5im
MushWorld
Part I. Bag Cultivation
!!! !!!!!!!! ! !
[Bagging] Fill the bags with substrate mi0ture and [Neck-making & Plugging] Put a plastic ring and pull
compress them with a stick8 Some growers bore a hole the bag top out through the ring8 Plug the mouth with
substrate8 a cotton ball or paper and a rubber band8
!!!!!! !!! !
[Sterilization] Put a metal rack in the oilFdrum [Pasteurization in bulk] Substrate mi0ture is
sterili@er8 Stack the filled bags on the linenFlined metal pasteuri@ed with li<e steam at CD$ for at least C
rack8 Linen pre<ents bags burning from the searing hours8 Euring this process> possible pathogenic fungi
heat in the sterili@er8 and bacteria in the substrate mi0ture are killed8
!!!!!!!!!!!! !
[Incubation] :noculated bags are stacked and [Fruiting] Fruiting bodies read; to har<est8 Fre=uent>
incubated8 When coloni@ation is completed> remo<e light watering is recommended to produce high
the cap for fruiting induction8 Bualit; mushrooms8
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms !"#$%&' (. Introduction to Oyster Mushroom "%
Part II. Shelf Cultivation
!!!
!!!!!!!!!!
[Outdoor fermentation] Substrate materials are [Pasteurization in bulk] Substrate mi0ture is
mi0ed and piled outdoors8 Euring this process> pasteuri@ed with li<e steam at CD$ for at least C
organic compounds are degraded into simple hours8 Euring this process> possible pathogenic fungi
substances> more absorbable b; mushroom m;celia8 and bacteria in the substrate mi0ture are killed8
!!! !
[Filling] When the mi0ture is cooled> fill the plastic [Spawning] Spawn can be distributed onl; on the
sheeted shel<es with the pasteuri@ed substrate8 Lfter surface or JDM of spawn can be mi0ed with substrate
spawning> the entire shelf is co<ered b; the plastic and the remaining NDM can be scattered on the for
sheet8 other disease and competitor fungi to take root8
!!!!!!!!!!!!
[Pinning] Oemo<e plastic co<er upon full [Fruiting] Fruiting bodies produced from the shelf
coloni@ation> and small pins will occur8 Phe; are so s;stem ha<e high =ualit; because of high spawning
delicate that hea<; watering should be a<oided8 rate and =uantit; of a<ailable nutrients8
H Eetails of these growing methods will be further discussed in Chapter J8 Culti<ation Kodes8
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !"
Mushroo1 TroEersZ ["7dbooB )
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!"rt &&. )yster Mushroo1s
Chapter 4
Spawn
D%SC()*T)O-S OF COMM%(C)0112
)M*O(T0-T !"#$%&'$( S*%C)%S
Won-Sik Kong
2ur"l 4evelop1e7t Ad1i7istr"tio7; <ore"
)ntroduction
)yster 1ushroo1s "re o7e o= the 1ost popul"r edible 1ushroo1s "7d belo7g to the ge7us Pleurotus "7d the
="1ily !leurot"@e"e. AiBe oyster 1ushroo1 CPleurotus ostreatusD; 1"7y o= Pleurotus 1ushroo1s "re pri1"ry
de@o1posers o= h"rdEood trees "7d "re =ou7d EorldEide. Fhe type spe@ies o= the ge7us Pleurotus CGr.D Huel. is P.
ostreatus CI"@J. et Gr.D <u11er. Fhis 1ushroo1 h"s b"sidi" Eith =our b"sidiospores "7d " tetr"pol"r 1"ti7g
syste1. &ts hyph"e h"ve @l"1p @o77e@tio7s "7d 1ost 1e1bers o= the ge7us; eK@epti7g " s1"ll 1i7ority; h"ve "
1o7o1iti@ hyph"l syste1.
Fo d"te "pproKi1"tely L0 spe@ies o= Pleurotus h"ve bee7 re@orded "7d 7eE spe@ies "re dis@overed 1ore or less
=reJue7tly "lthough so1e o= these "re @o7sidered ide7ti@"l Eith previously re@og7iNed spe@ies. 4eter1i7"tio7 o= "
spe@ies is di==i@ult be@"use o= the 1orphologi@"l si1il"rities "7d possible e7viro71e7t"l e==e@ts. M"ti7g
@o1p"tibility studies h"ve de1o7str"ted the eKiste7@e o= eleve7 dis@rete i7tersterility groups i7 Pleurotus CF"ble
OD to disti7guish o7e spe@ies =ro1 the others. Po1e reports i7di@"te p"rti"l @o1p"tibility betEee7 the1; i1plyi7g
the possibility =or the @re"tio7 o= "7other spe@ies.
Table 1. Established biological species within Pleurotus, their corresponding synonyms and/or taxa at a
subspecies level, and the respective intersterility groups.
Species Synonyms-subspecies taxa Intersterility groups

P. ostreatus P. columbinus, P. florida, P. salignus, P. spodoleucus "
P. pulmonarius P. sajor-caju, P. sapidus #
P. populinus $
P. cornucopiae P. citrinopileatus %
P. djamor P. flabellatus, P. ostreatoroseus, P. salmoneostramineus, P. euosmus &
P. eryngii P. ferulae, P. nebrodensis, P. hadamardii, P. fossulatus '
P. cystidiosus P. abalonus (
P. calyptratus )
P. dryinus *
P. purpureo-olivaceus +
P. tuber-regium Q&
CPour@eR A plur"listi@ "ppro"@h i7 the study o= Pleurotus spe@ies Eith e1ph"sis o7 @o1p"tibility
"7d physiology o= the Surope"7 1orphot"K" by Teorgios Uerv"Bis "7d Co7st"7ti7os W"lis; OXXYD
!
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! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !!
Wild Pleurotus 1ushroo1s "re distributed through out the Eorld "s shoE7 i7 F"ble 2. P. pulmonarius "7d P.
cystidiosus "re B7oE7 to be distributed i7 the tropi@"l "7d subtropi@"l regio7; Ehile P. eryngii "re @olle@ted i7
Surope; A=ri@" "7d 1ost o= Asi" eK@ept <ore" "7d I"p"7; Ehere the 1ushroo1 is @o11er@i"lly @ultiv"ted. P.
ostreatus; the 1ost i1port"7t @o11er@i"l 1ushroo1 Eithi7 the ge7us Pleurotus is Eidespre"d i7 te1per"te "re"s.
Fhe spe@ies is Juite "d"pt"ble to " r"7ge o= @li1"tes "7d substr"te 1"teri"ls; 1"Bi7g itsel= the se@o7d 1ost
@o11o7 1ushroo1 produ@ed EorldEide =olloEi7g butto7 1ushroo1.
Table 2. Established biological species of Pleurotus and their known world-distribution
Surope Asi" ^. A1eri@" P. A1eri@" A=ri@" Austr"l"si"

P. ostreatus o o o o o o
P. pulmonarius o o o _ _ o
P. populinus o _ o _ _ _
P. cornucopiae o o _ _ _ _
P. djamor _ o o o o o
P. eryngii o o _ _ o _
P. cystidiosus o o o _ o _
P. calyptratus o o _ _ _ _
P. dryinus o o o _ o o
P. purpureo-olivaceus _ _ _ _ _ o
P. tuber-regium _ o _ _ o o
CPour@e R A plur"listi@ "ppro"@h i7 the study o= Pleurotus spe@ies Eith e1ph"sis o7 @o1p"tibility
"7d physiology o= the Surope"7 1orphot"K" by Teorgios Uerv"Bis "7d Co7st"7ti7os W"lis; OXXYD
Characteristics of Commercially )mportant !leur-tu/ Mushrooms
P. ostreatus is the 1ost i1port"7t spe@ies i7 Ehi@h 1"7y @o11er@i"l str"i7s "re developed "7d @ultiv"ted. P.
florida 1ust be ge7er"lly reg"rded "s " subspe@ies o= P. ostreatus but it Eill be dis@ussed sep"r"tely be@"use its
1orphology "7d physiology "re very di==ere7t. &t is B7oE7 th"t @ultiv"tors "7d 1y@ologists h"ve 1ist"Be7ly
des@ribed " v"riety o= P. pulmonarius "s P. sajor-caju. Wut this t"Ko7 Eill be used =or e"sy u7derst"7di7g to
groEers. )ther @ultiv"ted oyster 1ushroo1s; i7@ludi7g P. eryngii; P. cystidiosus C`P. abalonusD; P. cornucopiae
Eill be eKpl"i7ed brie=ly. Although P. tuber-regium is bei7g studied =or use o= s@leroti" "7d b"sidio1"t"; it Eill be
eK@luded =ro1 this dis@ussio7 due to the l"@B o= perti7e7t d"t".
)pti1"l groEth te1per"tures "7d @h"r"@teristi@s o= the i1port"7t spe@ies "re prese7ted i7 F"ble a. Fhese
@h"r"@teristi@s v"ry Eith the groEth st"ges o= the spe@ies "7d eve7 the str"i7s; but ge7er"lly re1"i7 Eithi7 the
li1its o= the spe@ies. With the progress o= breedi7g studies "7d other e==orts to over@o1e the li1its; the g"ps
betEee7 so1e spe@ies "re getti7g s1"ller.
!
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! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !D
Table 3. Optimal growing conditions for different Pleurotus mushrooms
Species P+ ostreatus P+ florida P+ sa0or1ca0u P+ er3ngii P+ cornucopiae P+ c3stidiosus

Conditions
Pp"E7 ru7 C,D 2b 2b 2b 2b 2b_a0 2b_ab
!ri1ordi" O0_Ob O0_2b O0_2b O0_Ob 20_2b 20_2b
=or1"tio7 C,D
Gruiti7g body O0_OL Ob_2b Oc_2b Oa_Oc 20_a0 2b_a0
produ@tio7 C,D
C)2 @o7@. d O;000 d c00 400_c00 d 2;000 d O;000 d O;000
Cpp1D
)pti1u1 Autu17 Ppri7g; Ppri7g; Autu17 Pu11er Pu11er
se"so7 Pu11er
Applied Aog; Phel=; Phel=; Wottle; Phel=; WoK Wottle; W"g
@ultiv"tio7 Phel=; WoK; WoK WoK W"g
1ethods Wottle; W"g
Temperature during spawn run

Sve7 though there "re so1e v"ri"tio7s i7 groEth o= the 1y@eliu1 "@@ordi7g to the str"i7s i7 " spe@ies; P. ostreatus;
P. florida; P. sajor-caju "7d P. eryngii re"@h their opti1u1 groEth "t 2b,; Ehile P. cornucopiae "7d P.
cystidiosus re"@h their opti1u1 groEth "t 2b_ab,; Ehi@h suggests th"t they "re " good @hoi@e =or @ultiv"tio7 i7
both te1per"te "7d tropi@"l regio7s CGig. OD. Wut duri7g the 1y@eliu1 1"ss i7@ub"tio7 prior to @ultiv"tio7; the
i7@ub"tio7 roo1 1ust be 1"i7t"i7ed "t " te1per"ture a_b, loEer th"7 7or1"l opti1u1 te1per"tures be@"use o=
their respir"tio7 he"t.
Gigure O. S==e@t o= te1per"ture o7 1y@eli"l groEth o= di==ere7t Pleurotus spe@ies
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !G
Temperature during primordia formation

&7 the li=e @y@le o= Pleurotus 1ushroo1s there "re tEo st"gesR the veget"tive st"ge "7d the reprodu@tive groEth
st"ge. Te7er"lly; so1e Bi7ds o= sti1uli "re 7eeded =or the shi=t =ro1 1y@eli"l Cveget"tiveD groEth to the =ruitbody
=or1"tio7 Creprodu@tio7D ph"se. Fhese sti1uli i7@lude "brupt @h"7ges i7 te1per"ture; hu1idity; g"s @o7@e7tr"tio7;
light "7d 7utrie7t reserves; "7d physi@"l sti1uli. A1o7g the1; " sh"rp te1per"ture drop is the 1ost e==e@tive i7
=ruiti7g i7du@tio7 =or 1ost 1ushroo1s. Gruiti7g is i7du@ed by loE te1per"tures r"7gi7g =ro1 O0 to Ob, i7 P.
ostreatus "7d P. eryngii. [oEever; the =ruiti7g o= P. florida; P. sajor-caju; P. cornucopiae "7d P. cystidiosus is less
"==e@ted by te1per"ture CF"ble aD.
Temperature during fruiting body deIelopment

)pti1"l te1per"ture =or the produ@tio7 o= best Ju"lity oyster 1ushroo1s st"7ds betEee7 O0 "7d Oc, Ehile P.
eryngii produ@e best =ro1 Oa to Oc,; "7d P. florida "7d P. sajor-caju produ@e best "t Ob_2b,; " Eider
te1per"ture r"7ge. P. cornucopiae "7d P. cystidiosus @"7 produ@e good 1ushroo1s eve7 "t a0,. Fe1per"ture
duri7g =ruiti7g body develop1e7t "==e@ts the @olor o= @"ps. &7 order to produ@e d"rB @olored 1ushroo1s; groEers
1ight E"7t to loEer te1per"ture Eithi7 the re@o11e7ded groEi7g te1per"ture r"7ge.
2K.M! 2M.M! 1D.!! 1K.M! 1M.M!

Gigure 2. S==e@t o= te1per"ture o7 1ushroo1 @"p @olor o= P. ostreatus str"i7s
C!hoto @ourtesy o= Ch"7g_Pu7g Ihu7eD
CO2 concentration
TroEers 1ust @o7sider the C)2 g"s @o7@e7tr"tio7 i7 the substr"te @o7t"i7ers duri7g sp"E7 ru7 "7d the "1bie7t
C)2 @o7@e7tr"tio7 duri7g =ruitbody develop1e7t. 4uri7g 1y@eli"l groEth; C)2 @o7@e7tr"tio7s i7 the @o7t"i7ers
@ould rise up to 40e. My@eli"l groEth o= P. ostreatus "7d P. florida "re sti1ul"ted i7 the high C)2 @o7@e7tr"tio7s
up to 2ce "7d 22e; respe@tively. Fhe "1bie7t C)2 @o7@e7tr"tio7 i7 the groEi7g roo1; hoEever; should be
@o7trolled by ve7til"tio7; espe@i"lly duri7g =ruitbody =or1"tio7 "7d develop1e7t. f7der high C)2 levels or Eith
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !O
less =reJue7t ve7til"tio7; 1ushroo1s produ@e lo7g stipes Eith ti7y @"ps; Ehile they produ@e short stipes Eith
bro"d @"ps u7der loE C)2 levels or =reJue7t ve7til"tio7. &7 P. ostreatus; " C)2 @o7@e7tr"tio7 higher th"7 O;000
pp1 Eill produ@e stipes th"t "re too lo7g "7d result i7 1ushroo1s o= loEer Ju"lity CGig. aD.
"# $%&'()( *$+ ,-.,/.&01&'-. 2# " 3'&&3/ 4'54 *$+ ,-.,/.&01&'-.
*# 6'54 *$+ ,-.,/.&01&'-. 7# 8139-0(/: 90)'& ;-:'/< ).:/0 4'54 *$+ ,-.,/.&01&'-.
='5)0/ ># ?99/,& -9 *$+ ,-.,/.&01&'-. -. ()<40--( <41%/ -9 !. $%&r(a&u%
CultiIation methods
!roper @ultiv"tio7 1ethods v"ry by v"riety. A diversity o= @ultiv"tio7 1ethods utiliNi7g log; shel=; boK; b"g "7d
bottle h"ve bee7 developed "7d s"Edust; log "7d "gro_E"ste i7@ludi7g str"E "7d @otto7 E"ste serve "s " good
sour@e =or 1ushroo1 substr"te. Phel= "7d boK @ultiv"tio7 1ethods "re 1"i7ly "pplied to @ultiv"te P. florida; P.
sajor-caju "7d P. cornucopiae; Ehile b"g "7d bottle @ultiv"tio7s "re used =or P. eryngii "7d P. cystidiosus.
Pele@tio7 o= the right @ultiv"tio7 1ethods is b"sed o7 the 1ushroo1 v"riety; 1"rBet de1"7ds "7d ="r1ersZ
pre=ere7@es.
!
!"#$%&'()! +,,- .$ /01(2"%34 533 %&'()1 %616%7648
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn !P
"# @-5 ,)3&)0/ 2# A4/39 ,)3&)0/
*# 2-B ,)3&)0/ 7# 215 ,)3&)0/ ?# 2-&&3/ ,)3&)0/

='5)0/ C# D10'-)< 50-E'.5 (/&4-:< 9-0 -F<&/0 ()<40--( GH4-&- ,-)0&/<F -9 *41.5I6F). J-) 1.: J-).5I2-K J--L
Commercial !leur-tu/ species
Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.: Fr.) Kummer

P. ostreatus; " Eood_destroyi7g =u7gus; is Eidespre"d i7 the te1per"te No7es "7d =or1s =ruitbodies i7 rel"tively
@ool te1per"tures i7 @o1p"riso7 Eith other Pleurotus spe@ies. Fhis is the 1ost =reJue7tly @ultiv"ted spe@ies
"1o7g the ge7us Pleurotus. )7e o= the =e"tures o= this spe@ies is it reJuires " loE te1per"ture tre"t1e7t @"lled
g@old sho@Bh to i7iti"te pri1ordi" =or1"tio7.
TroEi7g te1per"tures =or the produ@tio7 o= =ruiti7g bodies is r"ther loE "t O0_2,. As o= 4e@e1ber 200a; YY
@o11er@i"l str"i7s "re "v"il"ble i7 <ore". 4i==ere7t str"i7s h"ve di==ere7t degrees o= he"t or @old toler"7@e. Po1e
str"i7s "re less "==e@ted by u7="vor"ble te1per"ture @o7ditio7s "t the l"tter =lush st"ges. &t is i1port"7t to sele@t
proper str"i7s =or the @ultiv"tio7 1ethod o= " p"rti@ul"r groEerZs @hoi@e. Curre7tly; @o11er@i"l str"i7s "re 1"i7ly
developed by i7trodu@tio7; 1"ti7g "7d sele@tio7 plus protopl"st =usio7 "7d 1ut"ge7esis.
='5)0/ M# H0-&-%31<& 9)<'-. 9'5)0/ N# 8)&15/./<'<

Pleurotus florida Eger
!
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! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn DM
P. florida is Eidespre"d i7 te1per"te; subtropi@"l "7d tropi@"l No7es. &t is

si1il"r i7 "ppe"r"7@e to "7d E"s @o7sidered "s subspe@ies o= P. ostreatus.
Po1e 1oder7 1y@ologists "re i7@li7ed to reg"rd it "s "7other spe@ies
Eith di==ere7t @olor "7d di==ere7t te1per"ture reJuire1e7ts. A@tu"lly;
there "re tEo groups i7 P. florida "t the subspe@ies level. )7e group is
seKu"lly @o1p"tible Eith P. ostreatus "7d the other Eith P. pulmonarius.
At loE te1per"tures; the @olor o= the @"ps is light broE7; but they tur7
p"le Eith i7@re"si7g te1per"ture. &t @ould be h"rvested i7 E"r1er
te1per"tures "s its =ruiti7g te1per"ture r"7ge is Eider th"7 other
='5)0/ Q# !. /l$ri.a Pleurotus 1ushroo1 "7d it does 7ot reJuire =ruiti7g i7du@tio7 C@old
sho@BD. Moreover; it shoEs the highest yield "1o7g the Pleurotus spe@ies.
Pleurotus er3ngii (DC.: Fr.) Quel
Wild P. eryngii "re usu"lly @olle@ted i7 souther7 Surope; ôrth A=ri@"
"7d @e7tr"l Asi". &t h"s 1"7y subspe@ies "7d si1il"r t"K" su@h "s P.
fuscus v"r. ferulae =ro1 Chi7". Fhis g<i7g )ysterh 1ushroo1 is
i7@re"si7g i7 popul"rity due to its u7iJue ="vor.
[oEever; Ehe7 o7e groEs this 1ushroo1; @loser "tte7tio7 should be
p"id to roo1 hu1idity "7d ve7til"tio7 duri7g =ruiti7g "7d 1ushroo1
develop1e7t; "7d spore lo"d =ro1 other 1ushroo1s "7d other dise"se or
Eeed =u7gi i7 the groEi7g roo1 "=ter h"rvest. Pi7@e P. eryngii is 1ore
='5)0/ R# !. (r,12ii
pro7e to dise"ses "7d 1ore se7sitive to groEi7g @o7ditio7s but groEs
sloEer th"7 P. ostreatus; 1ost groEers opt =or bottles or b"gs =illed Eith s"Edust. &t reJuires @old sho@B =or
pri1ordi" =or1"tio7 "7d =or1s =ruiti7g bodies "t Oa_Oc, Fhe @"p is @re"1 to grey_broE7 @olored "7d the stipe is
Ehitish "7d O0_O4@1 lo7g.
Pleurotus sa0or1ca0u Fr.: Fr.

&t is B7oE7 th"t P. pulmonarius E"s o7@e 1ist"Be7 =or P. sajor-caju. Fhe
1ushroo1 groEs Eild i7 subtropi@"l "7d tropi@"l regio7s liBe &7di". &t is
B7oE7 to be @o1p"tible Eith P. sapidus but they "re di==ere7t i7
"ppe"r"7@e. With its opti1"l te1per"ture r"7ge =or =ruitbody
develop1e7t rel"tively high; it is suit"ble =or groEi7g i7 subtropi@"l "7d
tropi@"l "re"s.
='5)0/ R# !. %a3$r4ca3u
Pleurotus c3stidiosus O.K. Mill.
(P+ abalonus Han, Chen & Cheng)
P. cystidiosus is Eidely distributed i7 subtropi@"l "7d tropi@"l regio7s.
Although it is 1"i7ly groE7 i7 subtropi@"l regio7; its produ@tivity is
rel"tively loE. Fhe u7iJue @h"r"@teristi@ th"t disti7guishes this
1ushroo1 =ro1 other Pleurotus spe@ies is the prese7@e o= @o7idi" o7
the 1y@eliu1. Co7idi" "re "seKu"l spores @o1posed o= Ehite @ore1i"
sur1ou7ted by bl"@B he"ds o= "rthro@o7idi"; Ehi@h o@@ur o7 the 1y@eli" ='5)0/ 1P# !. c,%&i.i$%u%
u7der light. Fhe bl"@B spots 1"Be the1 looB "s i= @o7t"1i7"ted but do
7ot "==e@t the 1y@eli"l groEth "7d =ruitbody =or1"tio7. Wottle "7d b"g @ultiv"tio7 1ethods "re ="vored =or 1"ture
1y@eli"l groEth.
!
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! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. Spawn D1
P+ cornucopiae (Paulet) Rolland

P. citrinopileatus is @o7sidered "s " subspe@ies o= P. cornucopiae by
re"so7 o= @o1p"tibility eve7 though it E"s reg"rded "s " sep"r"te
spe@ies "7d o@@urred o7ly the e"ster7 p"rt o= Asi" u7til re@e7tly. &t is
distributed i7 Asi" "7d throughout Surope "7d o@@urs o7 the stu1ps o=
bro"d_le"= trees =ro1 su11er through ="ll. Fhe @"p is yelloEish; 4_
O2@1 "7d the stipe is Ehite. &t h"s " Ehe"t =lour odor. We@"use it t"stes
good "7d h"s " pretty @olor; its @ultiv"tio7 is eKpe@ted to i7@re"se.
='5)0/ 11# !. c$r1uc$5ia(

Qreeding of !leur-tu/ spp.
&t is di==i@ult to "@@ur"tely des@ribe "ll the spe@ies "7d @o11er@i"l str"i7s o= Pleurotus. 4i==ere7t @ou7tries h"ve
di==ere7t Ee"ther "7d groEi7g @o7ditio7s; @ultiv"tio7 histories; 1ethods o= utiliNi7g 7"tive "gri@ultur"l E"stes; "7d
di==ere7t @o7su1er de1"7ds. Fhere=ore the spe@ies des@riptio7s "bove 1"y 7ot be de=i7itely true "7d "ppli@"ble to
"ll p"rts o= the Eorld. Wut it is 7e@ess"ry to u7derst"7d the b"si@ spe@ies_depe7d"7t @h"r"@teristi@s i7 order to groE
1ushroo1s su@@ess=ully. Fhe develop1e7t o= @o11er@i"l str"i7s th"t "re suit"ble to the groEi7g e7viro71e7t o=
e"@h regio7 "7d s"tis=y the v"rious @o7su1er de1"7ds 1ust be "@@o1plished. Fo this e7d; ge7eti@ resour@es =or
breedi7g h"ve bee7 @olle@ted; preserved "7d eK@h"7ged.
The following factors must be considered in breeding:
_ Morphologi@"l @h"r"@teristi@s _ !hysiologi@"l @h"r"@teristi@s

_ Cultiv"tio7 1ethods "7d te@h7iJues _ iield
_ 2esist"7@e to dise"se _ Co7su1er j pro@essor de1"7ds
_ Culi7"ry v"lue _ Ptor"ge li=e
Po1e spe@ies "re Eell studied "7d h"ve bee7 used to develop 1"7y @o11er@i"l str"i7s; Ehile others "re 7ot.
Fhe @re"tio7 o= 7eE str"i7s is "lE"ys reJuired to preserve ge7eti@ diversity "7d 1eet the ever_@h"7gi7g @o7su1er
de1"7ds.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "#
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Chapter 4
S.a0n
"O$ %O MA(E O*S%ER M-S"ROOM GRAIN SPA$N

IN A SIMPLE $A*
2drian Ogden 6 7atherine Pro0se

Gourmet Woodland Mushrooms 7td., U.K.
What did you begin with when you started mushroom growingI Some raw beginners might have started
with mushroom growing kits or so-called ready-to-fruit bags. From these bags they can harvest mushrooms
by just providing the proper conditions for mushroom growing. Others might have started with the organic
materials for mushroom growing, i.e. substrate and mushroom seed purchased from their local provider.
The former could see only fruiting but the latter could witness the two phases of mushroom life cycle,
mycelial or vegetative growth and fruiting, or reproductive growth.
Mushroom seed, commonly called “spawn” in the mushroom industry is a result of mycelial expansion.
Using the following guide, any of you familiar with sterile techniques or having specialized knowledge of
mushroom culture can make your own “mushroom starters” under sterile conditions, thereby reducing
production costs and even getting spawn of higher quality. The first part discusses the construction of a
clean room and the latter investigates spawn production. An understanding of the process will also provide
common growers with advanced knowledge of mushroom growing.!
"o4 to Build a Clean Room in a Simple $ay
A practical description of how to construct temporary building panels from polythene sheets and sawn timber,
which can be fixed together to form the basis of a sterile clean room. The clean room utilizes a sterile airflow from
a basic bench mounted HEPA filter/fan assembly, or laminar flow bench. The size of the clean room is directly
correlated to the cubic airflow capacity of the laminar flow bench.
Introduction
What is a clean room?
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "$
A hygienically clean, sterile enclosed air space where mushroom mycelium can be isolated from its normal
environment in which it must compete with a host of other organisms to survive.
How does it work?

All air in the clean room is Tcleaned’ by passing it through a High Efficiency Particulate (HEPA) filter to remove
the vast majority of airborne particles (living and dead), includingW skin, pollen, dust, mould, bacteria, and fungal
spores.
Why do mushroom growers need a clean room?

Mushroom spawn is expensive and can be difficult to find. It also does not travel over long distances well. A
grower who produces his/her mushroom spawn gains a greater knowledge and understanding of the mushroom
growing process.
ODerDie4
This simple clean room design owes its success due it being constructed with minimal mould growing, organic
biodegradable materials. High sterile airflow is achieved by placing a large cubic fan capacity in a small area; any
airborne contaminants that enter the clean room are quickly removed by the laminar flow bench.
The clean room can be used to inoculate agar plates with mushroom mycelium from culture slants or with tissue
samples taken from wild specimens. It can be used to conduct agar-to-agar, agar to grain, grain-to-grain, sawdust
to grain, and sawdust-to-sawdust transfers, using a standard domestic pressure cooker to sterilize the various
mediums.
The design is intended as a place to teach, learn and experiment with mushroom sterile culture. It is not capable
of withstanding the demands of commercial mushroom spawn production.
Constructing the clean room

Materials required
- 50 [ 2.5m roll clear polythene sheeting (120 gauge, 8 mil, 0.5mm thickness)
- 2 [ 1” (50 [ 25mm) sawn timber-preferably treated
- 2.5” (_0mm) length counter sunk wood screws, tacks or staples
- Silicone caulking sealant
The basic premise is that clear polythene lined wooden frames are made to a standard size. The frames are then
joined together to make an enclosed space that is entirely lined by the mould resistant, sterile polythene. Four
frames in total, one containing a door constructed in a similar manner. The room is best sited on a concrete base.
Other materials that can be used for a sterile floor are linoleum (lino), or butyl rubber
sheet.
Constructing the frames

Construct two side frames using 50[ 25mm sawn timber to the following dimensionsW
2m long ) 2m high with a bracing bar positioned at 1m (Fig. 1). The two upright
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lengths of timber should be positioned with the narrow edge facing outwards. 0,'12&-3'%00.'
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "%
The polythene is cut to length 2.5 [ length of the frame. Then folded back and tacked round the rear of one side,
thus creating a clear panel. A bead of sealant can be run down the timber to prevent the polythene from Tflapping’.
The two end frames are made to 2 [ 1m in size. An entry must be made in one of the end frames (Fig. 2, 3, 4). The
door is best constructed along the same design as the frames. Make sure the door fits well with as few gaps as
possible. Household window insulation foam makes a good seal round the doorway.
' ' ' ' ' ' !"#$%&'45'65'7)'E3+',%-.&/'0,'12&-3'%00.'
Joining the frames together

To make an airtight seal between the frames, first run a 10mm wide bead
of silicone sealantW 10mm from the edge of each frame, all the way round
the edge of each frame. The frames should then be positioned at right
angles to each other and secured with screws or nails (Fig. 5).
After securing the four frames, apply another bead of silicon along all
the joins, including the floor. Cut a 2.5 [ 1.5m piece of sheeting and
' ' ' !"#$%&'9)'!%-.&'1033&1:"03' secure this over the top of the structure in the same way as the frames
were made (a bracing bar may be necessary to add strength).
Equipping the clean room
When creating a sterile environment in the clean room a basic laminar flow bench is required. To be effective at
stopping contaminants to mushroom culture the air in the clean room must be passed over a HEPA filter (Fig. _, b)
once every _0-80 seconds. This is achieved by matching a fan with an output range of 400-500 cubic feet per
minute (CFM) with a HEPA filter that is no more than _ inches (15cm) in depth.
Off the face of the filter, an airflow range of 125-150 CFM will give the desired filtering capacity. The cubic air
capacity of the clean room is 141 cubic feet.
Work surfaces should be made from scratch resistant non-degradable materials such as steel, and positioned at
waist height.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "&
!"#$%&';5'<)'*".=2>'.-+&'HEPA',"2:&%'
OperationH cleaning and maintenance

The laminar flow bench should be left in continual operation. This will keep the room dry and free from mould
growth and other contamination. Cleaning is best carried out one hour before use. A 5% solution of domestic
bleach (sodium hydroxide) is used to clean all surfaces. All operatives should wear newly laundered clothes when
entering the clean room.
General maintenance should be carried out as wear and tear occurs. Any holes in the polythene should be
immediately sealed with adhesive tape, and the silicon sealant should be checked regularly (monthly) and remove
and replace as necessary. It is recommended that the HEPA filter be changed after 12 months of operation.
Production of Oyster Mushroom Grain Spa4n
Introduction
Mushroom growing using home grown spawn is a process of cellular expansion. Mushroom mycelium is initially
grown on a nutrified agar media. This is then used to make grain spawn. The grain spawn is subsequently used to
make the final fruiting substrate.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n ""
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "'
Preparing agar media

The starting point is a mushroom culture (usually in a test tube). This will either be from a clone that you have
taken yourself from a mushroom specimen, or purchased from a culture laboratory. Until you have gained
experience in cloning and assessing wild mushroom specimens, it is best to use a proven, productive strain from a
laboratory.
9ro0ing out your cu;ture

Mushroom mycelium needs nutrition to grow. In other words, it needs something to feed on. Agar agar (a
seaweed) contains almost no nutrition, but acts as a gelling agent when mixed with water, so that the mycelium
has a flat, solid surface to grow across. A combination of agar agar, water and one or more nutritional substances
gives a satisfactory method for growing out healthy mycelium.
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There are various grades of agar agarW food-grade for cooking and higher grades for the purpose of culturing. If
possible, it is best to use one of the higher grades, as these will contain fewer impurities and probably have better
gelling properties than the food-grade. It comes in dry powder form.
There are many different sources of nutrition that can be used in agar media, but probably the most commonly
used formula is Malt Extract Agar (MEA). The MEA formula that we use is as followsW
1 liter water
20 grams agar agar
30 grams barley malt extractd
2 grams nutritional yeast
It is actually called MEeA because of the addition of the yeast.
In addition, commercially prepared nutrified agar media can be purchased from mushroom cultivation
suppliers; this needs only water adding to it.
Preparing and pouring media

eou will need scales and a liter flask that can be used in a pressure cooker. A domestic pressure cooker is ok, but
will not form a vacuum when cooled (i.e. it will draw in contaminated air), and therefore should be placed in the
clean room environment for cooling. If possible, a proper pressure sterilizer with a pressure gauge is best to use.
For pouring the sterilized media, you will also need a supply of isopropyl alcohol and disposable paper towels.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "(
1. Weigh out your ingredients, add the correct amount of water (preferably non-chlorinated, sterile) and mix
together in the flask (Fig. 10).
2. Use non-absorbent cotton or aluminium foil to stop up the flask. Do not plug it tightly with a stopper, because
pressure built up inside the flask while sterilizing will cause it to fly off and the media boil too furiously (Fig.
11).
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3. Fill your pressure cooker/sterilizer with the correct amount of water (this will vary according to what model you
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n "*
are using-refer to manufacturer’s instructions).

4. Place the flask in the cooker. If you are using autoclavable glass petri dishes, these should be sterilized in the
cooker at the same time. If you are using disposable dishes, these are usually sterilized already, and the packet
should only be opened in the clean room.
5. Place cooker on heat source, bring it up to the correct temperature/pressure-250+ /15 psi and sterilize for 45
minutes. Try to keep the temperature/pressure constant, otherwise the media will not work as well (Fig. 12).
_. 7et the pressure reduce to zero-If using a domestic pressure cooker, place in the clean room for this time period.
b. In preparation for pouring your media, shower and put on freshly washed clothes. The aim is to reduce as much
as possible the quantities of contaminants, particularly bacteria and lower fungi, that stick to you and your
clothes and which could contaminate your dishes. It is impossible to remove them all-after all, humans are
naturally 10% bacteriag If you can put on clothes that have not been exposed to the outside air since being
washed, so much the better. Hair carries a lot of contamination-either wash it and tie it back (if long), or use a
hair net/clean hair covering.
8. As agar media solidifies before pouring, clean the work surface in front of your laminar flow cabinet with
isopropyl alcohol. Also, clean your own hands with the alcohol and continue to do this at intervals, until you
have finished. Pour the dishes that are closest to the filter surface first. The clean air coming off the filter will
pick up bacteria, skin fragments etc that are on you, and blow them away from the dishes. Do not put your
hands between the filter surface and the open dish, or the air will blow any contaminants from your hands on to
the surface of the media.
h. 7ift the dish lid with one hand and pour the media with the other. Do not let your fingers hang over the rim of
the dish or its lid, because skin fragments will cling and cause contamination. While the lid is raised, angle its
underside towards the filter so that it only has clean air blowing on to it. At all stages, try not to breathe over
the open dishes, as breath is laden with bacteria (Fig. 13).
10. When each dish has been poured, leave to cool and solidify. Don’t hang around in the clean room for longer
than you have to, as you are just potentially spreading contamination (Fig. 14, 15)g
Inoculating petri dishes

eou will need an alcohol lamp for sterilizing the scalpel. If laboratory film (e.g. parafilm) is available for sealing
the dishes, there is less chance of contamination. However, if the dishes are left in front of the laminar flow filters
until they are colonized with mycelium, film is not essential.
1. Heat the scalpel tip in the alcohol lamp until it is glowing red (Fig. 1_). Cool it by dipping it into the centre of
the dish that you are about to inoculate.
2. Take your culture (having already loosened the lid) and open it without letting your fingers hang inside (Fig. 1b).
With the scalpel, tease out a wedge of mycelium, lift the lid of the dish and quickly transfer the wedge to the
agar, immediately replacing the lid. This is more difficult than it sounds-the mycelial wedges have a huge
tendency to cling desperately to the sides of the test tube, while refusing to be picked up by your scalpelg So
don’t worry if it’s a bit of a mess to begin with, it just takes a bit of practice. The mycelial wedge is placed in
the centre of the dish so that growth can radiate away from it.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n ',
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3. If you are using laboratory film, immediately seal up the dish that you have just inoculated. If not, place it away
from the immediate area where you are working, but still in front of the filter.
4. Repeat the above steps until there is no mycelium left in the test tube. A standard test tube culture can usually
inoculate 2-3 dishes.
5. The dishes should be incubated at 24), or as close as possible. Oyster mushroom mycelium is usually quick to
start growing; you should see fuzziness, the first sign of growth, within 2-3 days. The mycelium is usually
white, and most strains should colonize the dish within 10 days (Fig. 18). If the uncolonized parts of the dish
develop areas of different coloring, this most likely indicates some form of contamination, perhaps blue-green
mould or yellow slime stuff. In this event, the affected dish should be discarded. If throwing it away is not an
option, you can try to leave the contaminant behind, by transferring squares of healthy mushroom mycelium
from the affected dish to a new, clean dish. But be warned that moulds in particular produce millions of spores,
and any disturbance can cause these to become air-borne and contaminate your healthy mycelium and clean
dish, or in a worst-case scenario, your whole clean-room. If this last happens, the only option is to empty the
whole room and clean every inch. Clean rooms with a high air flow are less susceptible to this, as any spores
are quickly drawn into the filters before they have a chance to settle.
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When your dishes are fully colonized (Fig. 1h), they can be used for 3 purposes W
- To inoculate further dishes of agar media. Follow the above procedures for making the media and pouring the
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n '-
dishes, but instead of using a test tube culture, cut squares of roughly 1cm out of a healthy colonized dish and
transfer one square to each new dish. 1 petri dish can easily inoculate at least 15 more dishes.
- To inoculate test tubes of agar media so that you have back ups of your strain
- To inoculate sterilized grain, resulting in grain spawn
Preparing Grain Spa4n
Grain
Many different types of grain can be used. We use rye grain, which is a relatively soft grain that cooks easily
without becoming too sticky and clump forming.
Spawn containers
Containers can be jars (glass or plastic) or plastic bags. It is essential that they are capable of withstanding
pressure sterilization. It is easier to thoroughly mix mycelial wedges from your dishes through jars. kars should be
fairly wide-mouthed, for ease of inoculation, and have tight-fitting lids with a 8mm hole drilled through them. If
filter discs are available, these should be fitted over the holes, on the underside of the lids. If not, you can cut out a
layer of cardboard the same diameter as the lid, and fit this into the lid. Filter discs should be soaked for at least 1
hour in a 5% household bleach solution; cardboard discs should also be soaked, but for not as long - otherwise
they will disintegrateg Soaking helps to dislodge hidden contaminants, which are then killed by the sterilization
process.
Bags, if used, should be custom-made with filter patches (Fig. 20). If these are
not available, it is best to use jars of some sort. Containers without a filter do not
work very well, for reasons explained below, and it is difficult to improvise an
effective filter for a plastic bag. Also, bags need to be sealed in some way after
inoculation - if you have access to a proper heat sealer this is no problem, otherwise
something else such as packing tape will have to be used, which is less effective.
The purpose of the filter discs/patches is to allow a low level of gaseous exchange.
Mushroom mycelium needs a supply of fresh oxygen while it is growing, otherwise
it will quickly become anaerobic (without oxygen) and contaminate, regardless of
how clean the environment and materials. The filters allow oxygen to enter, without
contaminants being drawn in. If filtration is a big problem for you, the only other
!"#$%&'4F)'!$22>' option (that we can think ofg) is to put a small hole in the top of whichever container
10203"M&+'#%-"3'/=-G3' you are using, and place it over a heat source. Hopefully, convection will keep gases
"3':E&'N-#' moving upwards and carry potential contaminants away, whilst giving the mycelium
access to oxygen.
Preparing the grain

1. Weigh out the amount of grain you require. The optimum moisture content of rye grain is roughly 50%, i.e. it
will double in weight when cooked. 500g or less of dry grain per container is a good quantity to use when you
are transferring mycelium from petri dishes to grain. Any more than this and it becomes difficult to mix the
mycelial wedges through properly.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n '#
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2. Grain will always contain hidden contaminants, no matter how fresh it is. Therefore, it needs to be pre-cooked,
to release these contaminants that are then destroyed by sterilization (Fig. 22). Bring water to the boil in a large
pan, and then add the dry grain. Simmer for around 30 minutes. It is properly cooked when still firm, but soft
enough to squash. Any longer than this and the grain kernels will swell so much that they will Texplode’, which
makes spawn more susceptible to contamination. Once you have done this a couple of times, it becomes very
easy to determine the correct consistency.
3. Drain the grain in colanders or something similar. If you are making large quantities of grain spawn, it is fairly
easy to improvise a draining container-we have used plastic dustbins with holes drilled in the bottom and sides,
and also, sheets of metal mesh rolled into a bin shape and attached on to a base. As long as the water can drain
off to some extent rather than collecting at the bottom of the container and forming a big grain mush, there
should not be a problem, as a lot of excess water is lost quickly to evaporation. Mixing the grain around at
intervals helps this evaporation process. If the grain starts to shrivel, it is drying out too muchg
4. If you have access to calcium sulfate (gypsum), the addition of this will help to stop grain kernels clumping
together after sterilization. Mix through at a rate of approximately 4g of gypsum to 1kg of dry grain.
5. Fill your chosen containers with the grain. If using jars, only fill to 3/4 of their
capacity. If using bags, fill to no more than 2/3 of their capacity (Fig. 23).
Animal feed scoops are useful for filling containers. eou can either use scales to
make sure each container is receiving the same amount of grain, or you can see
volumetric scoops.
_. Close each container. If using bags fold the excess plastic over the bag. 7oad the
containers into the pressure cookers. If you can space them apart to some extent,
sterilization will be more even and efficient. If you have to pack them tightly,
remember that it is more difficult for the steam to penetrate the centre of a
cooker full of densely-packed containers, and sterilization time may have to be
increased.
b. Fill the pressure cooker(s) with the correct amount of water (refer to
manufacturer’s instructions) and bring up to sterilization point.250+/15 psi. We !"#$%&'46)'R-%',"22&+'
use jars or bags that are filled with 1kg each of cooked grain, and sterilize these G":E':E&'/0%#E$.'/&&+'
for 105 minutes. Smaller quantities of grain in jars will require shorter sterilization times, e.g. 17 jars with 400g
of cooked grain will probably only need 1 hour. If you are using bags and they are very tightly packed, they
may need 3 hours. As this depends to some extent on your pressure cooker, you will have to experiment to find
the optimum sterilization time.
8. When sterilization is complete, let the cooker return to zero pressure (if it does not form a vacuum on cooling,
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n '$
place in the clean room for this). 7eave for at least 2 hours so that the jars/bags are cool enough to handle, then
unload and place in front of the laminar flow cabinet. It is very important to make sure that they are
sufficiently cool, as overly-hot grain will kill the mycelium you introduce. If in doubt, wait until they are cold.
Inoculating the grain

Each colonized petri dish can inoculate up to 20 cups of grain. The more you add to each container, the greater the
speed of colonization. We like to use 1/2 to 1 whole dish to 1 jar containing 1kg grain, as this results in very fast
colonization. The quicker the grain becomes fully colonized, the less chance there is of it becoming contaminated.
1. Clean the work surface in front of the laminar flow cabinet with alcohol. As always when working in the clean
room, you should have showered and be wearing clean clothes.
2. Take a petri dish and remove sealing film (if used). Heat scalpel tip in the alcohol lamp until it is glowing red.
7ift the dish’s lid and cut a criss-cross pattern of h or more wedges of mycelium. If you are not using
laboratory film to seal the dishes, it is a good idea to leave a 5mm strip of mycelium running round the edge of
the dish-this is in case contaminants have entered the dish from round the edge and fallen on to the outermost
mycelium.
3. Replace the dish’s lid and reheat your scalpel.
4. Get your container(s) ready for inoculation-if jars then loosen the lids, if bags then open out the mouth. Be
careful at all times not to let your fingers hang inside the container.
5. Remove the dish’s lid again, and, with the hot scalpel, pick up 1 or 2 wedges of mycelium. luickly drop into
the waiting container and repeat until the required amount of mycelium has been transferred.
_. Reheat the scalpel between each dish-if one of your dishes is contaminated, this will prevent the contamination
from spreading across all your containers.
b. If you are using jars, then they need to be thoroughly shaken, so that the mycelium travels through the grain,
resulting in even colonization. We find that a rolling and Tsee-sawing’ motion works well. Try not to let too
many wedges stick to the sides of the jar; this again improves with practice.
8. If you are using bags, try to trap some clean air in each bag before sealing. Do this by holding the bag open with
its mouth pointing toward the laminar filter, and then sealing. The trapped air helps the mycelium to colonize
the bags quickly and healthily. Once sealed, each bag should be
agitated so that the mycelial wedges move through the grain.
h. Incubate the containers at 24)/b5+, or as close as possible. eou
should see some signs of growth within 3 days. After b days, shake
the containers to distribute the colonized grain kernels evenly. The
grain is fully colonized when it is completely white or off-white. This
is the time when it is at its most vigorous, so use it as soon as
possibleg If it is left to grow further, it will quickly over-incubate,
forming a solid lump that is incredibly hard to break up (Fig. 24).
!"#$%&' 47)' *0%#E$.' /&&+HN-/&+'
/=-G3
eour grain spawn can now be used for 2 purposes.
- To inoculate further containers of grain.

1 jar of grain can inoculate 10 times its own mass, so it is very easy to quickly turn small amounts of spawn
into large amounts. As always, the more spawn you add, the faster the grain will colonize. (However, when
inoculating a container of grain, beware of adding more than 20% of its mass, as growing mycelium produces
heat and this will cause the grain to heat up too much and contaminate). Note that when using grain spawn
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 4. S.a0n '%
from a jar, it must be broken up first. If it is a glass jar, do not bang it against your hand in case of breakage
and injury-use something springy or semi-hard such as a thick padding of towels on a solid surface. Spawn in
bags must also be broken up, but this is easily done by squeezing and shaking.
- To inoculate the final bulk substrate, from which mushrooms will eventually be fruited.
!
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!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !"
Mushroo1 7ro@ersZ Y"3dbooF !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Chapter (
Substrate
Mushroo1 is "3 "ttr"=tive =rop to =ultiv"te i3 developi3g =ou3tries 6or 1"3y re"so3s. )3e o6 the 1ost
=h"r1i3g poi3ts @ould be th"t they "re gro@3 o3 "gri=ultur"l @"stes. &t e3"bles us to "=Suire substr"te
1"teri"ls "t lo@ pri=es or eve3 6or 6ree "3d to =o3serve our e3viro31e3t by re=y=li3g @"stes. Most o6 "ll8
oyster 1ushroo1s MPleurotus spp.N ="3 utiliTe v"rious Fi3ds o6 substr"te 1"teri"ls th"3 "3y other
1ushroo1s. Ghe 6irst "rti=le i3 this =h"pter8 " @orld@ide survey o3 possible substr"te 6or oyster 1ushroo18
@ill illustr"te oyster 1ushroo1 ="3 be gro@3 o3 U"l1ost "ll types o6 "v"il"ble @"stes.V Ghe38 3i3e
eW"1ples o6 substr"te 1"teri"ls 6or oyster 1ushroo1 "re i3trodu=ed i3 the rest p"rt o6 the =h"pter @ith
"3"lyses o3 e"=h 1"teri"l "3d det"iled gro@i3g 1ethods. Co3sideri3g the =o3=lusio3 o6 the 6ollo@i3g
@orld@ide survey th"t "bout 200 di66ere3t @"stes "re "v"il"ble "s oyster 1ushroo1 substr"te8 3i3e
1"teri"ls "re very 1u=h li1ited eW"1ples. Yo@ever8 1ore e1ph"sis "3d p"ges th"3 other =h"pters "re
provided to this =h"pter i3 this K00Hp"ged h"3dbooF. Mu=h e66ort is "lso 1"de to o66er pr"=ti="l eWperie3=e
o6 1ushroo1 gro@ers "s @ell "s s=hol"rsZ eWperi1e3t"l study o3 substr"te 1"teri"ls. Ghere6ore8 the "uthors
o6 this =h"pter h"ve v"rious edu="tio3"l8 pro6essio3"l8 =ultur"l "3d 3"tio3"l b"=Fgrou3ds "3d the Su"lity o6
e"=h "rti=le =ould be v"ryi3g. <o1e s=ie3tists 1ight e1ph"siTe "="de1i= poi3t o6 vie@ @hile so1e gro@ers
pr"=ti="l poi3t o6 vie@. Yo@ever8 re"ders @ill 6i3d th"t "3y o6 the1 ="33ot be 3egle=ted "3d e"=h "rti=le h"s
its o@3 v"lue.!
$%R'C)*+)R$* ,$S+ES $S S)/S+R$+ES

FOR O2S+ER M)S4ROOM
Jozef Poppe
23iversity o6 7e3t8 9elgiu1
<i3=e >???8 our over=ro@ded @orld ="3 =ou3t over B billio3 souls. Al1ost h"l6 o6 the1 "re poor8 hu3gry8 si=F or "t
@"r. Ghey 6ight 6or " p"r=el o6 be"3 soil8 =o66ee 6ield8 or ri=e terr"=e8 @hile i3 the s"1e vill"ge o3e ="3 s1ell
bur3i3g str"@ "3d 6orest 6ires or the rotti3g he"ps o6 org"3i= 6ield @"ste or other "gri=ultur"l byHprodu=ts.
Ghere is "3 e3or1ous "1ou3t o6 @"ste i3 the "groHi3dustry "3d the @ood i3dustry. )3ly usi3g 2(J o6 the
ye"rly volu1e o6 bur3ed =ere"l str"@s i3 the @orld =ould result i3 " 1ushroo1 yield o6 K>L 1illio3 1etri= to3s
MK>L billio3 FgN o6 6resh 1ushroo1s per ye"r8 MCh"3g P Miles8 >?Q?N. 9ut "t this 1o1e3t8 the ye"rly @orld
1ushroo1 produ=tio3 tot"l is o3ly B billio3 Fg. Ror B billio3 perso3s th"t eSu"ls >Fg per ye"r or Kg per d"y
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !5
MCourvoisier8 >???N.
&3 6"=t8 =o3sideri3g the ye"rly "v"il"ble @orld @"ste i3 "gri=ulture M(00 billio3 FgN "3d 6orestry M>00 billio3 FgN8
@e =ould e"sily gro@ KB0 billio3 Fg o6 6resh 1ushroo1s o3 the tot"l o6 B00 billio3 Fg o6 dry @"ste[[ Ghis @ould
produ=e "3 "33u"l 1ushroo1 =rop o6 B0Fg per he"d per ye"r8 "ll =o3t"i3i3g the 4J protei3 o6 6resh 1ushroo1s.
We F3o@ th"t the diet o6 K0J o6 the @orld popul"tio3 is protei3 de6i=ie3t8 "3d re=e3t "3"lysis h"s proved th"t
200g o6 1ushroo1s ="3 e66i=ie3tly repl"=e >00g o6 1e"t "s " protei3 sour=e. M<ou=i et al.8 >?L(H>?Q?N A1o3g
1ushroo1s8 Pleurotus Moyster 1ushroo1N ="3 1"Fe use o6 the l"rgest v"riety o6 @"ste substr"tes @ith its 6"st
1y=eli"l gro@th "3d its 1ultil"ter"l e3Ty1e syste1 th"t ="3 biodegr"des 3e"rly "ll types o6 "v"il"ble @"stes.
îsted belo@ "re the results o6 " @orld@ide survey o3 "groH6orestry @"ste th"t ="3 be used "s " substr"te i3 the
=ultiv"tio3 o6 oyster 1ushroo1s. All o6 the 6ollo@i3g @"stes h"ve bee3 used i3 the p"st or re=e3tly 6or s1"ll or
l"rgeHs="le oyster 1ushroo1 =ultiv"tio3. Most o6 these @"stes h"ve " C_` r"tio bet@ee3 K2 "3d B00 "3d " pY
bet@ee3 (.0 "3d L.( M!oppe8 2000N.
,or8d:ide Sur>ey o@ Oyster Mushroom Substrate
H Al"3gH"l"3g gr"ss8 Imperata cylindrica H "bu3d"3t herb i3 Asi"8 espe=i"lly i3 &3do3esi"8 used 6or Pleurotus
M!oppe et al.8 >??LN.
H Arti=hoFe @"ste8 use6ul "6ter dryi3g 6or di66ere3t 1ushroo1 substr"tes M<t"1ets8 >??KN
H AToll"8 " 6"st gro@i3g 6er3 i3 Asi"8 =lose to tropi="l rivers used 6or Agaricus8 Pleurotus "3d Collybia M!oppe8
>??(N.
H 9"3"3" le"ves8 dried >.4(J `8 very produ=tive i3 bulF 6or Pleurotus or i3 =o1bi3"tio3 6or Volvariella. MCh"3gH
Yo >?L?a 9h"v"3i et al.8 >?Q?N M"uthorN.
H 9"3"3" pseudoste1s8 =hopped8 g"ve better results 6or Pleurotus =o1p"red to s"@dust or ri=e str"@. Mb"3d"iF et
al.8 >?LBN. b"3d"iF @"s the 6irst 1y=ologist to use this substr"te 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u.
H 9"rley str"@8 Hordeum vulgare8 h"s " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 ?BJ 6or
Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N8 Ch"3g P Miles M>?Q?Nc 0.B4J `8
0.>?J !8 >.0LJ d8 4LJ C8 C_` e L2. A==ordi3g to fel1"s M>?Q?N c
>J protei38 >4J lig3i38 KBJ he1i=ellulose8 4KJ =ellulose8 suit"ble 6or
Agaricus8 Pleurotus8 Volvariella8 "3d Stropharia.
H 9e"3 pods8 " substr"te =o1po3e3t or i3 bulF 6or Pleurotus M!oppe et al.8
>??(N.
H 9e"3 str"@8 di66ere3t ge3er"8 6or Agaricus "3d "s " substr"te =o1po3e3t8
6or Pleurotus8 it ="3 "lso be used "s " b"si= substr"te M!oppe et al.8
>??(N.
Figure 1. Banana and its leaves
H 9r"ssi="Hh"ul1s8 6or Pleurotus M<ohi et al.8 >?Q?N8 str"@ o6 Brassica
napus8 r"pe8 =o3t"i3s 22.LJ lig3i38 C_` e L08 used 6or Agrocybe
aegerita Mg"dr"Til8 >?Q?N. )3 Brassica =rop residues liFe r"pe "3d
1ust"rd8 i3 &3di"8 the highest yields @ere obt"i3ed @ith (0J Brassica
h (0J ri=e str"@ 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u M!"3i et al.8 >??QN.
H 9u=F@he"t str"@8 Polygonum fagopyrum8 6or Pleurotus M"uthorN.
H C"=tus8 Ag"ve "3d iu==" c dryHresist"3t pl"3ts use6ul "s " =o1po3e3t o6
1ushroo1 substr"tes M<t"1ets8 >??KN.
H C"rd"1o3 pulp8 Elettaria cardamomum8 h"s " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6
>>KJ 6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N.
H Ci33"1o3 le"ves8 Cinnamon zeylanicum8 biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 Q2J Figure 2. Bean pods
6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N.
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !!
H Citrus 6ruit peels8 Citrus unshiu8 dried8 re"so3"ble Pleurotus produ=tio3 MioshiF"@" et al.8 >?L?a dh"3 et al.8
>?Q>N.
H Co=o3ut 6iber pith "3d =oir c ="3 be =o1posted "3d the3 used 6or =ultiv"tio3 o6 Pleurotus or Volvariella i3 &3di"
MGher"di M"3i8 >??2N.
H Co=o3ut husFs8 used 6or Pleurotus cystidiosus i3 &3di" M9eig et al.8 >?Q?N8 used "lso 6or Volvariella i3 &3di"
M9h"v"3i8 >?Q?a 7urj"r et al.8 >??(N.
H Co66ee p"r=h1e3t8 p"r=he de ="6k8 suit"ble @ith or @ithout p"steuriT"tio3 6or Pleurotus M!oppe8 >??(N.
H Co66ee pulp8 su3dried8 stored8 l"ter rehydr"ted 6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer" >?Q?N. 7ood produ=tio3 i3
MeWi=o 6or Auricularia @he3 1iWed @ith sug"r="3e pulp "3d =or3H=obs M<"3=heT et al.8 >??(N.
H Co66ee s"@dustc e66i=ie3t 6or Pleurotus @he3 1iWed @ith ipilHipil po@der M<"3=heT et al.8 >??(N.
H Coleseed8 Brassica napus8 i3 =o1bi3"tio3 @ith str"@ or h"y8 it is " use6ul substr"te 6or di66ere3t 1ushroo1s
M<tei3e=F8 >?Q>N. Co3te3tsc 2J protei38 >>J lig3i38 2QJ he1i=ellulose8 4LJ =ellulose.
H Cor3 6iberc &3 b"p"38 this @"ste produ=t o6 =or3st"r=h 1"3u6"=ture i3=re"sed
the yield very 3oti=e"bly @he3 "dded to s"@dust h ri=e br"38 6or Pleurotus
ostreatus8 Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u8 Pholiota nameko "3d Hypsizygus marmoreus
MGer"shit" et al.8 >??LN.
H Cor3=obs8 h"11er 1illed or =rushed8 tested 6irst i3 Yu3g"ry i3 >?(B8 g"ve
v"ri"ble results 6or Agaricus. 7e3er"lly used 6or Pleurotus "3d shiit"Fe.
Co3t"i3s 40J =ellulose8 >(J lig3i38 0.4J tot"l `8 0.>J !2)(8 0.2(J d2)8
0.(J <i)28 pY L8 C_` >2? MYelt"y >?(La Yelt"y et al.8 >?B0N MAt le"st 40
"uthor re6ere3=esN.
H Cor3 stipes8 =or3=obs8 =or3 le"ves8 =or3 stover8 Cea maysc (J protei38 >?J
lig3i38 K>J he1i=ellulose8 >QJ =ellulose Mfel1"s8 >?Q?N8 =hopped use 6or
Pleurotus "3d shiit"Fe.
H Cor3 st"lFs8 Cea mays8 =hopped "s " =o1po3e3t o6 Agaricus substr"te MCh"puis Figure 3. Corn
et al.8 >?(>N. Also use6ul 6or Pleurotus. &t =o3t"i3sc 4QJ =ellulose8 >BJ lig3i38
0.QJ tot"l `8 0.K(J !2)(8 0.4J d2)8 >.QJ <i)28 pY L.28 C_` e BK MYelt"y et al.8 >?B0 M< 4N. &3 Ch"3g P
Miles M>?Q?N8 the tot"l ` is 0.(J8 0.KJ !2)(8 >.LJ d8 C_` e ?L.
H Cor3 stoverc =o3t"i3i3g B(J polys"==h"rides h K0J lig3i38 used 6or Pleurotus M9"ssous et al.8 >?Q?N.
H Cor3 @"stec 3ot o3ly =or3=obs but "lso the postHshelli3g dust8 the =le"3i3g 6iber "3d the broFe3 pith "re use6ul
6or Pleurotus =ultiv"tio3 @ith s"tis6"=tory yields Mdh"3 et al.8 >?Q?N.
H Cotto3seed hulls8 Gossypium hirsitumc >J à @ere the best substr"te 6or =ultiv"tio3 o6 Pleurotus @ithout "3y
ther1i= tre"t1e3t M<u3 !eiHbi8 >?Q?N.
H Cotto3 str"@ sil"ge8 =hopped i3to p"rti=les o6 K=1 "3d stored i3 silos o6 4(0 to3s sto=F 6or Pleurotus =ultiv"tio3
i3 &sr"el Mf"3"i et al.8 >?Q?N.
Figure 4. Mixture of corn waste Figure 5. Watered mixture of corn waste

!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !G
Figure 6. Dried cottonseed hulls Figure 7. Cottonseed hulls and fiber
H Cotto3 @"stesc =otto3 1ill droppi3gs8 =otto3 b"ll lo=ules8 =otto3 husFs8
gi3 @"ste8 =otto3seed hullsc best substr"te 6or Volvariella8 used si3gle
or =o1posted i3 =o1bi3"tio3 @ith ri=e str"@ MYu8 >?LBN. Cotto3 "lso
gives " produ=tive @"ste 6or Pleurotus8 eve3 si1ply hu1idi6ied
@ithout "3y ther1i= tre"t1e3t M!oppe perso3"lN.
Cotto3 @"ste =o3t"i3s @idely v"ri"ble "1ou3ts o6 tot"l 3itroge3 6ro1
0.2(H>.4(J MCh"3gHYo et al.8 >?L?N. Ghe gi3 @"ste is " byHprodu=t o6
the =otto3 puri6i="tio3 1"=hi3e Mdh"3 et al.8 >?Q>a Cho et al.8 >?Q>N
M1ore th"3 (0 "uthorsN. Cotto3 @"ste h"s " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 (BH Figure 8. Commercial waste cotton
QBJ 6or Pleurotus. piles!
H lleph"3t gr"ss8 Pennisetum purpureum8 6or Pleurotus8 tested i3
C"1eroo3 by !oppe i3 >?QL @ith s"tis6"=tory results. &3 g"1bi"8 it is
used 6or Agaricus =o1post M"uthorN.
H Euphorbia rayleana8 =hopped br"3=hes =ould be su==ess6ully used 6or
Pleurotus florida i3 &3di" Mdh"33" et al.8 >?Q>N.
H 7r"sses8 @ild gr"sses8 mKJ protei38 m>2J lig3i38 m2KJ he1i=ellulose8
m>QJ =ellulose. &t should be dried 6or h"y be6ore usi3g8 see "lso h"y.
2p to 3o@8 3ot e3ough rese"r=h h"s bee3 do3e i3 order to 1"Fe use6ul
the e3dless "1ou3ts o6 l"@3 gr"ss. 2sed i3 &3di"8 dried "3d =ut8 6or
Pleurotus s"pidus Mdir"3 et al.8 >?Q?N.
Figure 9. Various wild grasses
H Rer3 high8 6er3 lo@8 6er3 FuFotc h"ve bee3 tried i3 Asi" 6or Pleurotus
@ith se1iHs"tis6"=tory results M!oppe et al.8 >??LN.
H Rl"W str"@8 Linum usitatissimum8 si3gle or i3 =o1bi3"tio3 @ith 6l"W to@8
6or Volvariella P Pleurotus "3d Auricularia MCh"3g8 >?LBa Ch"3g P
Y"yes8 >?LQN.
H Rre3=h be"3Hh"ul1s8 Pleurotus M<ohi et al.8 >?Q?N.
H 7rou3d3ut shellsc su==ess6ully used 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u i3 A6ri="8
"dditive o6 >0J @"ter hy"=i3th i3=re"sed the produ=tio3 by 22J
MG"g@ir" et al.8 >???N.
H 7u1H@ood s"@dust @"s 6irst used by 9lo=F et al.8M>?B0N 6or the
=ultiv"tio3 o6 Pleurotus ostreatus.
H ê1o3 gr"ss le"ves8 Cymbopogon citratus8 biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 Figure 10. Groundnut
>>KJ 6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N.
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !H
H êgu1e str"@s8 1ostly ri=h i3 `8 suit"ble "s Pleurotus substr"tes M!oppe8 >??(N.
H M"iTe str"@c resulted i3 &3di" i3 " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 (2J 6or Pleurotus sa:or- ca:u M!"3i et al.8 >??LN.
H M"3io= stipes "3d le"ves8 Cassava manihotis8 =hopped 6or Pleurotus8 or 6or Agaricus i6 6er1e3ted Mfel="ire8
>?Q>N.
H Melilotus haulms8 6or Pleurotus M<ohi et al.8 >?Q?N.
H Mentha st"lFsc "6ter eWtr"=tio3 o6 the oil it ="3 be used 6or Pleurotus8 Agaricus "3d Volvariella i3 =o1bi3"tio3
@ith =ere"l str"@ M7"r=h" et al.8 >?Q>N.
H Must"rd8 yello@ 1ust"rd str"@8 use6ul 6or Pleurotus M"uthorN.
H è@sp"pers8 shredded8 @he3 =o1bi3ed @ith ri=e br"3 or @ith s"@dust 6or Pleurotus MY"shi1oto8 >?LBN. Also
use6ul 6or Stropharia. )"F s"@dust8 supple1e3ted @ith >0J 1illet @"s i3 C"3"d" the best p"steuriTed or
steriliTed substr"te 6or shiit"Fe Mni3Fer8 >??>N.
H )"t str"@8 Avena sativa8 2J protei38 >LJ lig3i38 K2J he1i=ellulose8 40J =ellulose8 Agaricus8 Pleurotus8
Stropharia Mfel1"s8 >?Q?N.
H !"per pulp byHprodu=tc used i3 <outh A6ri=" "s substr"te =o1po3e3t 6or sever"l 1ushroo1s Mli=Fer et al.8 >?Q>N.
H !"per @"stec shredded p"per8 used 6or Pleurotus8 Stropharia M!oppe8 >??(N.
H !"pyrus pl"3ts8 "Su"ti= "bu3d"3t8 to be dried 6or Pleurotus M!oppe8 >??(N.
H !e" h"ul1s8 Pleurotus M<ohi et al.8 >?Q?N.
H !e" str"@8 Pisum sp.c " substr"te =o1po3e3t 6or Agaricus "3d " b"si= substr"te 6or Pleurotus. Co3te3ts 4KJ
=ellulose8 >(J lig3i3e8 0.?J `8 0.>( !2)(8 0.K d2)8 >.>J <i)28 pY B.Q8 C_` 4( MYelt"y et al.8 >?B0N.
H !epper le"ves8 Piper nigrum8 biologi="l e66i=ie3=y 6or Pleurotus is (LJ M M"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N.
H !opulus @ood logsc g"ve " little bit lo@er Pleurotus ostreatus
produ=tio3 =o1p"red to <"liW @ood logs MA3sel1i 8 >?L?N.
H !ot"to 6oli"gec use6ul 6or Stropharia "3d Pleurotus M"uthorN.
H oui3o" pl"3t8 dried8 i3 9olivi" used "s substr"te 6or Pleurotus M!oppe8
>??(N.
H n"gi str"@8 Eleucena coracana8 e3ri=hed @ith =otto3seed 1e"l8 6or
Pleurotus flabellatus i3 &3di" M9"3o8 >?L?N.
H need8 Phragmites communis8 =hopped8 20J lig3i38 C_` e (08 "s "
=o1po3e3t o6 substr"te 6or Agaricus MCh"puis et al.8 >?(>N. Also
use6ul 6or Pleurotus "3d Agrocybe aegerita.
Figure 11. Potato field
H ni=e str"@8 Oryza sativa8 i11e3se 1"sses "re bur3ed every ye"r or
le6t rotti3g i3 the 1oiste3ed 6ields8 i3te3sively used 6or Volvariella "3d
Pleurotus8 but "lso used "s " =hie6 =o1po3e3t o6 sy3theti= Agaricus
=o1post. &t =o3t"i3s 4>J =ellulose8 >KJ lig3i38 0.QJ tot"l `8 0.2(J
!2)(8 0.KJ d2)8 BJ <i)28 pY B.?8 C_` e (Q MYelt"y et al.8 >?B0N. ni=e
str"@ =rushed8 is "lso used 6or Pleurotus i3 Asi" MY"3 et al.8 >?LBN. <o1e
&3di"3 "uthors 3ote >4J lig3i38 KLJ =ellulose8 0.4J !2)(8 0.((J tot"l `
>.BJ d2)8 >2J <i)2 "3d C_` e L0 Md"ul et al.8 >?Q>N M"lso 3u1erous
other "uthorsN.
H no"dside gr"ssesc di66ere3t ge3er" "3d spe=ies8 should be used 6or
Pleurotus8 Agaricus "3d Stropharia M"uthorN.
H <"liW @ood logs e @illo@ stu1ps8 g"ve " little bit higher Pleurotus
ostreatus produ=tio3 =o1p"red to popl"r stu1ps MA3sel1i et al.8 >?L?N.
Figure 12. Reed
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate GI
Figure 13. Rice straw Figure 14. Oyster mushroom cultivated on rice straw
(Photo courtesy of Chang-Hyun You)
H <"@dust8 ge3er"l8 ="3 be used i3 Agaricus =o1post "s " =o1po3e3t M1ore th"3 (JN or "s "3 "dditive Mless th"3
(JN @ith str"@8 but it ="3 be used "lso "s si3gle substr"te 6or Pleurotus8 Auricularia8 Flammulina8 Tremella8
Pholiota8 Hericium8 1ostly steriliTed. Ghe s"@dust o6 bee=h "3d o"Fc 44J =ellulose8 2BJ lig3i38 0.2J tot"l `8
0.0> !2)(8 0.0K d2)8 0.? <i)28 pY B.Q8 C_` e 244. MYelt"y et al.8 >?B0a 7r"1ss8 >?L?N.
!!! !!!! !
Figure 15. Rubber tree sawdust Figure 16. Oyster Mushroom cultivated
on sawdust substrate
H <=rubs i3 &3di"c disturbi3g "3i1"l gr"Ti3g8 di66ere3t "ssort1e3ts o6 these proli6i= s=rubs @ere =ut "t the b"se so
th"t gr"ss ="3 gro@ 6or "3i1"ls. Ghe s=rubs @ere dried "3d l"ter p"steuriTed 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u M<i3gh et
al.8 >?Q?N.
H <es"1e ste1sc @ere i3 &3di" " s"tis6"=tory substr"te 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u @ith biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 B0J
M!"3i et al.8 >??LN.
H <orghu1 stoverc " sele=ted substr"te 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u i3 A6ri=" used "lo3e or i3 =o1bi3"tio3 @ith =otto3
@"ste MG"g@ir" et al.8 >???N.
H <oybe"3 ste1sc @ere i3 &3di" the best substr"te 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u @ith LLJ biologi="l e66i=ie3=y M!"3i et
al.8 >??LN. <oybe"3 husFs "3d soybe"3 str"@ @ere " good substr"te 6or Pleurotus ostreatus i3 iugosl"vi"
M9ug"rsFi et al.8 >??LN.
H <pe3t Pleurotus substr"te8 suggested by so1e "uthors "s " substr"te 6or the di3g Stropharia M!oppe8 >??(N.
H <pe3t substr"te ="3 be used to gro@ su==essive =rops o6 1ushroo1s8 liFe spe3t Agaricus =o1post "1e3ded @ith
=otto3 @"ste 6or s"tis6"=tory =ultiv"tio3 o6 Volvariella. )ei M>??>N re6ers to oui1io @ho 1"de e66i=ie3t
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate GJ
Pleurotus substr"te 1iWi3g h"l6 spe3t Volvariella substr"te @ith 20J

ri=e br"3.
H <pe3t Volvariella =o1postc dried "3d reHused 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u
@ith biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 Q0J MCh"3g P Miles8 >?Q?N.
H <tr"@ e =ere"l str"@8 0.(J tot"l `8 KQJ =ellulose8 >(J lig3i38 C_` e
?0 Md"ul et al.8 >?Q>N8 b"si= substr"te 6or 3e"rly "ll =ultiv"ted
1ushroo1s8 ="3 be e3ri=hed @ith "t le"st K0 di66ere3t supple1e3t
@"stes. <tr"@ is espe=i"lly use6ul 6or Agaricus. Co1post8 =hopped 6or
Pleurotus "3d Stropharia Mhu3dred "uthor re6ere3=esN.
H <ubtropi="l 6orest de"d le"ves8 Platanus spp. h"s " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y Figure 17. Dry sugarcane bagasse
o6 K(J 6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N. (Photo courtesy of Dewraj
H <ug"r="3e b"g"sse8 Saccharum officinarum8 sug"r ="3e rubbish8 ="3e Taurachand)
tr"sh8 0.LJ `8 "s bulF i3gredie3t i3 1ushroo1 =o1post resulted i3 3or1"l Agaricus yield "s @ell "s horse
1"3ure Md3eebo3e P M"so38 >?L2N. 7ood produ=tio3 @"s "lso obt"i3ed 6or Pleurotus. Ror Pleurotus8 the
biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 the pure b"g"sse is >(J. Ghis is rel"tively lo@ =o1p"red to 1"3y other substr"tes
MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N. Alu1 "3d dh"3 M>?Q?N obt"i3ed good results @ith Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u MferFs8 >??KN.
H <u36lo@er husFs e <u36lo@er peelsc the su36lo@er seeds "re peeled be6ore the i3ter3"l seed p"rts ="3 be pressed
6or oil. 2p to 3o@8 "ll the pre=ious @"ste @"s bur3ed8 1illio3s o6 Filos per ye"r. pery use6ul 6or Pleurotus
@ithout p"steuriT"tio3 "3d "lso 1oder"te produ=tio3 6or Stropharia i3 ope3 6ield M!oppe et al.8 >??(N.
Cultiv"ti3g Pleurotus ostreatus i3 iugosl"vi"8 the su36lo@er husFs "s " supple1e3t o3 str"@ or 1"iTe st"lF
resulted i3 QJ higher yields M9ug"rsFi et al.8 >??LN.
H <u36lo@er stipes "3d he"ds8 =hopped8 very suit"ble 6or Pleurotus "3d
6or sy3theti= Agaricus =o1post =o1po3e3t M!oppe et al.8 >??(N.
H Ge" le"vesc p"rti"l or i3tegr"l substr"te 6or di66ere3t Asi"3 1ushroo1s
M<t"1ets8 >??Ka !oppe P Yq6te8 >??(N.
H GeSuil" b"g"sse8 Agave tequilanac h"s " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 B0J
6or Pleurotus MM"rti3eTHC"rrer"8 >?Q?N.
H GeWtile i3dustry @"stec ="rd s@eepi3g8 ="rd drops8 blo@ gutter8 =hi13ey8
testi3gHh"rd @"ste8 reeli3gHh"rd @"ste8 spooli3gHh"rd @"ste8 @e"vi3gH
h"rd @"ste 6or Pleurotus Mdh"3 et al.8 >?Q?N.
H Greeb"rF8 =hoppedc ="3 be used "lo3e or i3 =o1bi3"tio3 @ith @he"t Figure 18. Tea plantation
str"@8 =or3=obs "3d 6e"ther 1e"l 6or Pleurotus M&1ber3o3 et al.8 >?LBN
or "s " 6er1e3ted bulF substr"te 6or Agaricus M!oppe et al.8 >?L4N. Ghe origi3 o6 1ost tree b"rF is 6ro1 the
=ellulose p"per 1"3u6"=turers @here trees "re deb"rFed be6ore =hoppi3g "3d pulp prep"r"tio3. fel1"s M>?Q?N
used it "s " substr"te 6or Pholiota8 Flammulina "3d Schizophyllum.
H 23=ru1pled ri=e str"@c @"s i3 &3di" the ide"l substr"te 6or Pleurotus
sa:or-ca:u @ith " biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 Q(J M!"3i et al.8 >??LN.
H 2sed te" le"vesc lo@ biologi="l e66i=ie3=y 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u i3
&3di" M!"3i et al.8 >??LN.
H peget"ble bio1"ssc 6ro1 bitter gourd8 =hili8 =o@pe"8 Rre3=h be"3s8
@i3ged be"38 pu1pFi38 to1"to "3d oFr" g"ve good results @ith
Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u i3 &3di" M7"3esh"3 et al.8 >?Q?N.
H W"ter hy"=i3th8 Eichhornia crassipes8 6e"red bo"t propeller disturbera
this proli6i= "Su"ti= @eed h"s g"i3ed pro1i3e3=e "s " 6ood sour=e Figure 19. Water hyacinth
through =ultiv"tio3 o6 edible 1ushroo1s liFe Pleurotus "3d Volvariella. (Photo courtesy of Keto E. Mshigeni)
Abu3d"3t i3 the !hilippi3es8 &3do3esi"8 A6ri=" "3d 9"3gl"desh8 should
!
!opyr&'()! +,,- .y /01(2or34 533 r&'()1 re1er7e48
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate GK
be dried be6ore use. &3 &3di" the biologi="l e66i=ie3=y o6 @"ter hy"=i3th 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u @"s (0J
M7ujr"l et al.8 >?Q?N.
H W"ter spi3"=h8 Ipomoea aquatica8 used i3 &3di" 6or Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u M7ujr"l et al.8 >?Q?N.
H Whe"t str"@8 Triticum aestivum8 1"i3 b"si= =o1po3e3t o6 6er1e3ted Agaricus =o1post8 i3 di66ere3t per=e3t"ges8
up to ?0Ja @he"t str"@ =o3t"i3s >J protei38 >KJ lig3i38 K?J he1i=ellulose8 40J =ellulose. &t @"s bur3ed i3
volu1i3ous "1ou3ts u3til >?BK i3 Rr"3=e. <i3=e it ="3 be used 6or Pleurotus8 the pri=e is 2<f0.>H0.2 per Fg.
<tr"@ 6or Pleurotus is o3ly p"steuriTed "3d r"rely 6er1e3ted Mfel1"s8 >?Q?N. Whe"t str"@ ="3 "lso be used 6or
Volvariella8 it =o3t"i3s 4QJ =ellulose8 20J lig3i38 0.(J tot"l `8 0.04 !2)(8 0.>J d2)8 4.>J <i)28 pY B.?8 C_`
e r"tio >04 MYelt"y et al.8 >?B0N. Mù1erous other "uthorsN
H Wood logsc very produ=tive 6or Pleurotus quebeca M)l"h et al.8 >?L?N8 but @ood logs o6 "t le"st L( h"rd @ood
spe=ies ="3 be used 6or Pleurotus8 "3d "t le"st te3 spe=ies "re " suit"ble substr"te 6or shiit"Fe. &3 the booF o6
<t"1ets P Chilto3 M>?QKN8 @e 6i3d "3"lysis o6 @ood =o1p"red to @he"t str"@ i3 "ver"ge per=e3t"ges.
!i3e "3d spru=ec 0.0QJ `8 0.02J !2)(8 0.>J d2)8 >>J he1i=ellulose8 (BJ =ellulose8 2LJ lig3i38 resi3 mKJ.
9ee=hc 0.>KJ `8 0.02J !2)(8 0.2J d2)8 >>J he1i=ellulose8 (KJ =ellulose8 22J lig3i38 >.LJ resi3 Mbir=h is
3e"rly the s"1eN. Mù1erous "uthor re6ere3=esN
H Wood sh"vi3gs8 0.KJ `8 use6ul 6or Pleurotus8 Pholiota8 Flammulina8 Auricularia8 Hericium M!oppe8 >??(N.
H Wood @"stesc " list o6 m>40 tree spe=ies is give3 i3 <t"1ets M>??KN.
Co@L8usio@
A==ordi3g to this @orld@ide survey8 "bout ?0 Fi3ds o6 @"stes h"ve bee3 prove3 to be use6ul 6or oyster 1ushroo1
gro@i3g8 but so1e listed @"stes su=h "s =ere"l str"@8 s"@dust8 "3d @ood logs ="3 be reHdivided i3to "t le"st >00
i3dividu"l types o6 @"ste li3Fed to di66ere3t pl"3t spe=ies. &t 1e"3s th"t i3 6"=t " r"3ge o6 "bout 200 di66ere3t
@"stes is "v"il"ble "s oyster 1ushroo1 substr"tes. <o8 every gro@er produ=i3g oyster 1ushroo1s ="3 1"Fe their
o@3 best substr"te =hoi=e 6ro1 "1o3g "ll those ge3er" or spe=ies h"vi3g bee3 =ited i3 the substr"te list.
We 1ust 3ot be "t "ll surprised th"t the ev"lu"tio3 o6 "ll these Fi3ds o6 di66ere3t @"stes le"ds us to " re3e@ed
"ppre=i"tio3 6or @h"t is ="lled " @"ste. 7ro@i3g 1ushroo1s gives so 1u=h s"tis6"=tio3 "3d produ=es so 1u=h
6ood "3d i3=o1e th"t 6urther use o6 this pr"=ti=e ="3 result i3 " gre"t =o1plete =o3te3t1e3t o6 6"1ilies "3d
vill"ges[
ACd`)W^lf7lMl`Gc to f. fo1o3do3 6or her help i3 se"r=hi3g "3d typi3g "ll these 3u1erous U@"steH6orH
1ushroo1V =it"tio3s.
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produ=tio3 o6 oyster 1ushroo1. Orissa Journal Horticulture 2(M>NcKBHK?.
H !"3i8 9.8 <. !"3d"8 "3d <. f"s. >??Q. !rodu=tio3 o6 Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u 6ro1 Brassica =rop residues. Orissa
Journal of Horticulture. 2BM>Nc44H4B.
H !oppe8 b. >??(. Cultivation of Edible mushrooms on tropical agricultural wastes. 9ie33i"l Gr"i3i3g =ourse8
A9)< P p^&n8 23iversity 7e3t.
H !oppe b. 2000. 2se o6 "gri=ultur"l @"ste 1"teri"ls i3 the =ultiv"tio3 o6 1ushroo1s. &3c ^. p"3 7rie3sve3 edc
Proceedings 15th International Congress on Science and Cultivation of Edible Fungi8 9"lFe1" notterd"18 KH2K.
H !oppe8 b.8 "3d M. Yq6te. >??(. G@e3ty @"stes 6or t@e3ty =ultiv"ted 1ushroo1s. Mushroom Science >4M>Nc >L>H
>L?.
H !oppe8 b.8 "3d n"1o38 b.>??L. Growing edible mushrooms on forest margin wastes. neport o3 6orest 6ire
preve3tio3. lurope"3 23io3 "3d &3do3esi"3 Rorest <e=tor <upport.
H <e3y"h8 b.8 n. nobi3so38 "3d b. <1ith. >?Q?. Ghe =ultiv"tio3 o6 the oyster 1ushroo18 Pleurotus ostreatus o3
=o=o" shell @"ste. Mushroom Science >2M2Nc20LH2>Q.
H <i3ger8 n.>?B>. Mushrooms and truffles. è@ iorFc &3ters=ie3=e publishers.
H <i3gh8 A.8 !. p"sudev"38 "3d M. M"d"3. >?Q?. l66e=t o6 1ushroo1 =ultiv"tio38 Pleurotus sa:or-ca:u8 o3 t@o 3o3
=o3ve3tio3"l pl"3ts8 Adhatoda vasica "3d Ipomoea fistulosa. Mushroom Science >2M2NcLH>K.
H <ohi8 Y.8 "3d n. 2p"dhy"y. >?Q?. l66e=t o6 te1per"ture o3 1y=eli"l gro@th o6 Pleurotus "3d their yield o3
sele=ted substr"tes. Mushroom Science >2M2Nc4?H(B.
H <ou=i <.W.8 W. R"=h1"3 "3d Y. dr"3t M>?L(H>?Q?N. Food Composition and Nutrition Tables. Wisse3s=h"6tli=he
perl"gsgesells=h"6t 1bh8 <tuttg"rt.
H <t"1ets8 !. >??K. Growing gourmet and medicinal mushroom. Yo3g do3gc Ge3 speed press8 9erFeley.
H <t"1ets8 !.8 "3d b. Chilto3. >?QK. The mushroom cultivator. )ly1pi"c Ag"riFo3 !ress.
H <u38 !eiHbi8 "3d bi"3Hbu3 iu. >?Q?. Ghe =ultiv"tio3 o6 Pleurotus 1ushroo1s o3 steriliTed substr"te i3 the 6ield.
Mushroom Science >2M2Nc2>?H22Q.
H G"g@ir"8 M. >???. l66e=t o6 supple1e3ti3g substr"tes @ith @"ter hy"=i3th 6or 1ushroo1 produ=tio3.
Proceedings of the Fourth Annual World Congress on Ceri Emissions.
H Ger"shit"8 G.8 M. 21ed"8 n. <"F"1oto8 "3d `. Ar"i. >??L. l66e=t o6 =or3 6iber o3 the 6ruit body prod. o6 edible
1ushroo1s. Nippon Kingakukai b"p"38 QM4Nc24KH24Q.
H Gher"di8 M. >??2. Cultiv"tio3 o6 Pleurotus "3d Volvariella o3 =o=o3ut @"ste i3 &3di". Mushroom Research, buly8
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! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate G"
2LHK>.
H ioshiF"@"8 d.8 "3d `. Gsuet"Fi. >?L?. 2tiliT"tio3 o6 Citrus unshiu peels @"stes "s pri1"ry substr"te 6or edible
1ushroo1 =ultiv"tio3. Hakkokogaku Kaishi (LMBNc4BLH4BQ.
H g"dr"Til8 R. >?Q?. Cultiv"tio3 o6 Agrocybe aegerita o3 lig3o=ellulose @"ste. Mushroom Science >2M2NcK(LHKQB.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate "#
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Chapter 5
Substrate
CEREAL STRAW AND CORNCOBS
Viziteu Gabriel
Romania
Oyster mushrooms have the ability to utilize cellulose, hemicelluloses and a large or small quantity of lignin
thanks to their enzymes. Oyster mushrooms need substrates abundant in polysaccharides (cellulose and
hemicelluloses) and lignin for their growth. The mycelial growth of oyster mushrooms makes use of soluble
carbohydrates, glucose, molasses, organic nitrogen sources like wheat bran, barley, oat, maize, soybean crust and
sunflowers, as well as mineral sources such as ammonium sulphate.
Nutritious substances for oyster mushroom can be categorized into two categories: staples, which are the base
nutritional materials, and additives, which are protein and nitrogen sources.
A. Staples that are rich in cellulose and hemicelluloses: wheat straw (Fig. 1), barley, hardwood chips (Fig. 2) or
corncobs (Fig. 3).
Figure 1. Wheat straw Figure 2. Hardwood chips
These can be utilized alone, as is done in 90-98% of the cases, or mixed with other materials, as in the example
of 55% wheat straw and 38% corn cobs. Table 1 shows the nutritional values of each staple substrate material.
B. Additives as protein and nitrogen sources: wheat bran, barley, oats, maize; soybean crust, and sunflowers.
These materials are only used in 2-10% of the cases. However, it is recommended to add only a small quantity
of them (max. 5%) because they can cause an increase of temperature in substrates during incubation that may
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate "$
cause the death of mycelium as a result. According to my personal

experience, supplementation with additives didn’t increase productivity
significantly, but did accelerate mycelial growth by increasing substrate
temperature. Table 2 shows the chemical analysis of the substrate in
different phases of growth.
Figure 3. Corncobs and rice bran
Table 1. Nutritious substance contents of staples
Material Nitrogen(%) Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin

Total Assimilable (%) (%) (%)
Wheat straw 0.36 0.07 30.0 41.0 15.0
Barley straw 0.52 0.10 31.3 44.4 5.8
Hardwood chips 0.57 0.04 15.4 16.7 26.0
(of poplar, beech, ashen)
Corncobs 0.49 0.06 38.0 28.0 11.0
Table 2. Physio-chemical trend of substrate in each stage
Substance After soakage with water After thermal disinfection After second flush
Nitrogen 0.80 0.72 0.79
Hemicelluloses 24.3 20.1 14.6
Cellulose 33.1 33.5 22.8
Lignin 5.8 7.0 6.5
Phosphor (total) 0.06 0.05 0.04
Calcium (total) 6.64 7.40 8.95
Potassium (total) 0.46 0.49 0.27
pH 6.6 7.5 4.8
Water (fresh material) 73.8 72.4 71.3
According to Table 2, oyster mushrooms consume significant amounts of cellulose and hemicelluloses as their
main nourishment source. On the other hand, lignin is rarely used, so any fermentation process, which causes an
accumulation of lignin, should be avoided. Calcium serves the function of a catalytic buffer and nitrogen is
consumed only during the incubation process. If the pH of the substrate falls to an acidic value, this indicates that
it is time to end the harvest.
pH of Substrate (Supplementation with Gypsum)
The optimal substrate pH value for mycelial growth is 5-6.5, though mycelium can survive between pH 4.2 and
7.5. The mycelium grows slowly as the pH lowers and stops growing at pH 4. If the pH is higher than the optimal
value, mycelial growth accelerates but produces an abnormal structure. Optimal pH for primordial induction and
fruiting is 5-5.5 though it is possible at 5.5-7.8. The pH of the substrate can be adjusted by the addition of gypsum
or lime.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""
Preparation of the Substrate Material
Staples such as straw of wheat, barley, or hardwood chips must be crushed or chopped into fragments of 1-2.5cm.
Corncobs must be ground into fragments of 0.5-1cm. These staples should be stored in a dry condition. If green,
black, or white mildew is found, growers should never use the material. Using substrate materials infected by
mould, bacteria or insects will considerably reduce crop yield, and will sometimes spoil the whole mushroom crop.
To prevent contamination, make sure not to allow contact between substrate materials and remnants from previous
crops. Considering that oyster mushrooms can utilize cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and soluble carbohydrates
such as glucose and saccharine, it is recommended to add about 2-3% of soybeans, barley or oat meal to accelerate
mycelial growth and obtain higher yields.
Watering Substrate Material
Water is one of the very important factors in mushroom growing. Suitable amounts of water should be maintained
in the substrate during the whole process of cultivation. During preparation the substrate materials are soaked in a
pool or a large container for 12-24 hours in order to achieve a water content of 65-70 percent. The soaking time
varies according to the season. In summer 12 hours is required. Generally, 100kg of dry straw turns to 300kg of
wet straw after soaking. After removing the excess water, the water content must be verified by squeezing strongly
with the hand. The palm has to be wet with water drops at the base of the fingers. Appropriate water content for
substrates is between 65 and 75 percent. If the water content is too low, mycelia won’t grow in the substrate. If the
water content is over 78 percent, the substrate becomes anaerobic and mycelia within the substrate die.
Thermal Disinfections - Pasteurization
The harmful bacteria or microorganisms in the substrate can be destroyed through thermal disinfection. After
pasteurization, the substrate should have a nice scent and be of a similar color to the initial material. The substrate
is usually pasteurized at 60% with hot water or steam.
Pasteurization with hot water: Submerge the substrate in a metallic basin and heat it up to 60-65%. Keep the
water temperature at 60-65% for 2 hours. Then leave the substrate overnight to cool down to 25%.
Disinfections with steam: After soaking into the water for 12 hours, move the substrate to the pasteurization
room. Heat up the room temperature to 60% and maintain the temperature for 2-3 hours by steam injection. Cool
down the substrate temperature with the same method above. Cooling can be accomplished by injecting cool air if
faster cooling is required.
Mixing of Substrate Materials
After cooling the temperature of substrate to 25% and removing the excess water, the pasteurized substrate is put
in a pool or on a concrete floor that has been disinfected with a 10% lime solution and 3-5% blue vitriol. Generally,
several materials are added, including 5-10% pulverized fungicide, 2% lime powder, 4-6% fodder chalk, or 3-4%
gypsum. The additives should be thoroughly mixed with the whole substrate.
Before entering the mixing area, all workers have to step in a powder lime solution outside the area. It is
recommended that all workers wear clean clothes and rubber boots and they should not leave the area until they
finish bagging. All the necessary materials should be accessible within the mixing area.
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate "&
Bagging and Spawning

The bags are made of polyethylene with a
thickness of 0.05-0.1cm and have a 25cm
diameter and are 80-100cm in length.
At first, the bags are perforated with an
arch punch that makes holes 1.0-1.2cm in
diameter at intervals of 10cm both
horizontally and vertically (Fig. 4). The
bottom of the bag should also have 2-3
Figure 4. The holes punched in smaller perforations in order to easily drain
bag excess water.
The quality of spawn is a key element in the production of high yields of
mushroom. The grain spawn should have a nice scent and the grain should be
Figure 5. A bag after
thoroughly colonized. In Europe, the most popular strains of oyster mushrooms are filling with substrate
from Italy, France, Holland and Hungary.
After mixing substrate materials, bagging and spawning is done simultaneously. Growers put a layer of
substrate into a bag and sprinkle the grain spawn over the layer. They then put in another layer of substrate and
again sprinkle spawn. They repeat this until the bag is full. The last layer spawn is covered with very shallow layer
of substrate. They pack the bag well without empty space and tie the bag’s opening tightly (Fig. 5). The weight of
a bag is about 18-20kg, so the amount of spawn inoculated is about 550-600g per bag.
Spawn Run (Incubation)
After inoculation, the bags are incubated in specially arranged rooms where the microclimate factors such as light,
temperature, humidity, and ventilation are strictly controlled. Light should be absent, the temperature should be
maintained between 20 and 22%, humidity should be between 75 and 85%, and ventilation should be done
through air filters in such a way as to exchange all of the air in the incubation room 1-2 times a day. The bags
should be placed with a distance of 5-8cm between them (Fig. 7).
Figure 6. Bags in incubation Figure 7. The arranged bags in incubation room
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! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate &'
Figure 8. Pinning of oyster mushrooms Figure 9. Oyster mushrooms from cereal straw
If procedures are followed carefully, the mycelia will colonize the whole substrate within 20-21 days, but this
time can be shorter or longer according to the species and strains cultivated. If the temperature inside the
incubation room is lower than optimal temperature, the incubation process can be extended up to 40-50 days. If
the temperature is over 25-26%, the bags can become overheated and the mycelia will die as a result. When the
room temperature is over 26%, the temperature measured inside the bags in the first 10-12 days can be higher
than the room temperature by 4-5% and sometimes by 7-8% The bags should be arranged on the floor or on
shelves, with some space between them to prevent overheating. These parameters should be checked daily along
with rigorous pest control.
!!!!!! !!!!!!!
Figure 10. An oyster mushroom bag Figure 11. The author and oyster mushrooms
When the mycelia colonize the whole substrate thoroughly, the bags are carried to the fruiting room for fruiting
induction, or they can be left in the same place, depending on the farm’s arrangement.
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! !art II' Oyster Mushrooms !hapter (' Substrate "#
Mushroom GrowersM HandbooP !
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!art II' Oyster Mushrooms
!hapter (
Substrate
COCO $UMB(R SAWDUST
J. Christopher D. Custodio
Bataan State College8 the !hilippines
Oyster Mushrooms ;)leurotus spp'< are saprophytic as they obtain there nutrients by decomposing various
agricultural byAproducts' This mushroom has been cultivated worldwide because of its taste and low maintenance
technology' There are different substrates that have already been identified that can be utiliEed for the cultivation
of oyster mushroom' The possible substrates include rice straw8 coffee pulps8 sawdust8 and even paper' Most of
these are types of lowAvalue lignocellulosic wastes that are primarily derived from agricultural practices or the
agroAindustry' ;J'A' Buswell et. al.8 HIIJ< The bioconversion of these wastes is one reason why the cultivation of
edible mushrooms is an appropriate practice for a society that depends on its agriculture'
In the early HIIKs8 Lcoco lumberM was given a great attention in the
province as a substitute for hardwood' Sawmills producing lumber from
coconut trees bloomed in reaction to the increasing demand for this low
cost constructional material' Though beginners in mushroom cultivation
are usually persuaded not to use sawdust from softwoods8 sawdust from
coco lumber ;Nig' H< is another possible substrate for ). ostreatus and has
shown great results' Growers living near a coco lumber sawmill can maPe
use of this waste product in order to start their own cultivation of oyster
mushroom species'
Figure 1. Coco lumber sawdust
Coco $umber Sawdust as a Substrate of Oyster Mushroom
Oyster mushroom is one eQample of edible mushrooms that can utiliEe lignocellulosic materials as a substrate'
This capability of the oyster mushroom' is due to the presence of its lignocellulolytic enEymes8 which help it
convert cellulose and lignin into useful carbohydrates such as glucose8 that can be used as an energy source for the
fungi' Any agricultural waste that contains cellulose and lignin is a possible substrate for growing this fungus'
Cellulose and lignin are both structural carbohydrates that give rigidity to a plant' Lignin gives the plant its
wood characteristic while cellulose is the basic component or structure of the cell wall' Once sugar is associated
with cellulose or with any structural carbohydrates in a plant body8 the plant can no longer utiliEe the sugar as a
!
Co#yrigh)! +,,- by MushWorld All righ)s reserved.
! !art II' Oyster Mushrooms !hapter (' Substrate "$
source of energy' Therefore8 the potential energy source is not used by the plant and is preserved for the future use
by mushrooms' Hardwoods liPe mahogany or narra contain much higher amounts of these structural
carbohydrates than softwood trees liPe coconuts' This means that hardwoods have more nutrients that can be used
by mushrooms than softwoods do' This is why beginners in mushroom growing technology classes in the
!hilippines are told to maPe use of sawdust from hardwood or good lumber rather than sawdust from coco lumber'
Organic supplements are usually added to substrates to provide organic sources of nitrogen ;R'C' Upadhyay
VKKW<' Some freXuently used organic supplements are rice straw and rice bran' Rice bran is commonly used to
provide nitrogen8 especially during the formation of fruiting bodies'
Oyster Mushroom Growing with Coco $umber Sawdust
Figure 2. Removing impurities from Figure 3. Sawdust : rice bran=3:1 Figure 4. Stirring until a change in
sawdust. color is observed
We have tried coco lumber sawdust for cultivation of ). ostreatus by bag cultivation' The system followed the
normal basic method of all substrate preparation using sawdust' The preparation of the substrate starts with the
physical removal of impurities liPe chips of wood8 plastics8 leaves of plants8 and other organic substances that
might cause contamination ;Nig' V<'
Afterwards8 rice bran will be added to the sawdust'
The total volume of the rice bran is V(Z of the whole
substrate ;sawdust [ rice bran \ W [ H<;Nig' W<' The
materials will be miQed until a light change in color of
substrate materials is observed8 but stirring should
continue until no lumps of rice bran are found ;Nig' ]<'
Once the sawdust and rice bran is thoroughly miQed8
lime will be added eXual to HZ of the total volume of
rice bran and sawdust miQture ;Nig' (<' Lime neutraliEes
the acidity of the substrate' The miQture is again stirred
until no lime is visible' Then8 sugar is added eXual to HZ
of the miQture' Sugar can temporarily provide glucose to Figure 5. Lime is added Figure 6. Sugar is
the mycelia while the cellulose and lignin are being for pH control! dissolved before being
added to the mixture.
converted into useful forms of carbohydrates' It is more
practical to separately dissolve both the sugar and the !
lime in water before adding them to the miQture ;Nig' J<'
After the addition of sugar8 water will then be added to the miQture of sawdust and rice bran' A simple way to
determine the water content of the miQture is to get a handful of the substrate and sXueeEe it' A drop of water
indicates that the amount of water added is enough while more than a drop shows that too much water was added
!
! !art II' Oyster Mushrooms !hapter (' Substrate "%
to the miQture' Before doing so8 maPe sure that the substrate is
thoroughly miQed' Another way to add an appropriate amount of water is
simply adding H'( parts of water to W parts of sawdust' But sometimes
this amount is not enough due to the dryness of the sawdust'
When the substrate is evenly miQed8 it is then transferred to
polypropylene bags that are Jcm wide and HVcm long ;Nig' ^<' When too
much water is added to the substrate it is better to sXueeEe the eQcess
water away before it is pacPed into the polypropylene bags' The height of
the substrate inside each polypropylene bag is _AI inches' The rest part of Figure 7. The substrate is then
the plastic bag is fitted with a pvc necP which will serve as the opening transferred to pp bags.
of the bags ;Nig' _<' After the pvc necP is placed8 the opening is covered
with a cotton plug and wrapped with paper to prevent the entry of insects' After they are filled with the prepared
substrate8 the bags are steriliEed at VK psi for about one hour ;Nig' I<' After steriliEation8 the bags are left for
cooling and then inoculated with the prepared planting spawn of ). ostreatus ;Nig' HK<' When inoculation is done8
the bags are then marPed with the date and species used' HKAVKg of spawn is inoculated to H'WPg bag8 so spawning
rate reaches K'_AH'(Z of wet weight of substrate'
Figure 8. PVC neckplacing Figure 9. Sterilization Figure 10. Spawn Figure 11. Marking bags
at 20 psi for 1 hour inoculation
Feasibility of Coco $umber Sawdust as an Alternative Substrate
After the inoculation8 the bags are then stored in a stocP room with
indirect sunlight and with a temperature of VJ& Mycelial growth ;Nig'
HV< is observed after one weeP' The bags are completely coloniEed
after ]AJ weePs of incubation'
After mycelia have completely coloniEed the bags8 the bags are then
opened to trigger fructification ;Nig' HW<' A single bag may have ]AJ
flushes and the maQimum yield is up to _KKg of fresh oyster
mushrooms per bag ;H'WPg<' Nlushes will occur for JA_ weePs
Figure 12. Three weeks of incubation
depending on the humidity and temperature of the room ;Nig' H]<'
Compared to other substrates8 the yield of mushrooms grown on coco lumber sawdust is lower' ;A'`' Gibriel et
al.8 HIIJ< A trial was also performed to identify the growth rate of mycelia and fruit bodies in the absence of rice
bran in the substrate' The result was poor performance of the growing fungi in terms of mycelial growth and
!
! !art II' Oyster Mushrooms !hapter (' Substrate "'
fructification of ). ostreatus' !oor steriliEation processes also resulted in a higher rate of contamination' Thus8 the
oneAhour steriliEation at VK psi should be strictly followed'
Infestation of Sciarid flies and mites has also been observed on growing mushrooms' Green molds are also
visible especially after its second flush' The infected bags are removed to prevent second contamination to other
bags' The chemical or biological control against infection was not performed because the trial only aimed to
observe the efficacy of coco lumber sawdust as a substrate for )leurotus ostreatus cultivation'
auring or in between flushes8 basic maintenance of stocP was followed ;e'g' watering of the incubation room to
lower temperature and increase humidity<' Nlypapers were also placed to reduce sciarid numbers'
Figure 13. Open bags for fruiting induction Figure 14. Oyster mushrooms on coco lumber sawdust
Conclusion and Recommendation
Sawdust from coco lumber is a possible substrate for the cultivation of ). ostreatus' Although the amount of yield
is lower than with hardwood sawdust8 growers with no available material other than coco lumber sawdust can
maPe use of this agroAindustry waste for oyster mushroom growing'
Nurther study should also be done to determine the amount of lignin and cellulose on coco lumber together with
the effect of other organic nitrogen supplemented with the sawdust on the oyster mushroom cultivation'
The effect of biological and chemical pest control should also be noted' The newly introduced chemical called
baimilinc ;dflubenEuron< is now being used to reduce Sciarid infestation8 but it was noted that when used at a
normal rate it causes a reduction in yield of Â_Z' ;L' Staunton et al.8 VKKV<
REFERENCES
A Buswell8 John A'8 ì Jin Cai8 and ShuATing Chang' HIIJ' Ligninolytic enEyme production and secretion in edible
mushroom fungi' )roceedings of 5nd 6nternational !onference of Mushroom 9iology and Mushroom )roducts.
A Upadhyay8 R'C'8 R'N' Verma8 S'f' Singh8 and M'C' àdav' VKKW' Effect of organic nitrogen supplementation in
)leurotus species8 National Research Centre for Mushroom8 Chambaghat8 Solan8 India8 Mushworld
A Gibriel8 A'`'8 M' Ahmed8 N' Rasmy8 I' RiEP8 and N'S' Abdelrehem' HIIJ' Cultivation of oyster mushroom[
evaluations of different media and organic substrate8 )roceedings of 5nd 6nternational !onference of Mushroom
9iology and Mushroom )roducts'
A Staunton8 L'8 R'M' aunne8 T' Cornican8 and M' aonovan' VKKV' !hemical and 9iological !ontrol of Mushroom
)ests and <iseases'
!
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! Chapter (' Substrate "#
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Chapter (
Substrate
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N.R. Curvetto5 R. Gonzalez Matute5 D. ;iglas and S. Delmastro

2ni5er+idad 7acional del :ur; <r=entina
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<n important portion o? the ener=* in5e+ted in producin= plant +eed+

i+ directed to the +eed coatin=+' @he+e are hi=hl* +taAle in nature a+
Bould Ae eCpected ?rom their ?unction o? protectin= +eed+ a=ain+t
Bater; pro5idin= thermal i+olation; +er5in= a+ a line o? de?en+e a=ain+t
patho=en+' @he coatin= or hull o? the +un?loBer +eed DEi=' FG i+ an
aAundant and cheap li=nocellulo+ic re+idue o? the local D<r=entineG
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Figure 1. Sunflower whole seeds and u+ed in human nutrition; ::I compo+ition in or=anic and mineral
hulls (Average size of hulls is 12mm.)
+uA+tance+ could theoreticall* +uppl* a +ource ?or other nutritional
purpo+e+; Aut the pre+ence o? a hi=h content o? li=nin render+ hull+ unmarJetaAle a+ a dietar* +upplement ?or
animal ?eedin= or other 5aluaAle u+e+' :o; ::I remain+ an aAundant +ide product o? +carce economical 5alue that
i+ u+uall* Aurned or le?t in the ?ield+; either o? practice+ that po+e an en5ironmental pollution proAlem'
Kurin= the oil eCtraction procedure raB +un?loBer +eed+ are tran+?ormed into oil and ?lour; and +eed hull+ are
produced a+ a A*Hproduct' ::I con+titute aAout FLHMNO o? the raB +eed+' @he main or=anic macroHnutrient+ o?
::I are lipid+; carAoh*drate+ and protein+; Bith the hi=he+t percenta=e o? the content Aein= in the li=nin and
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Seduced +u=ar+ are al+o an important part o? the +eed coatin=; amountin= to aAout M(O' Tipid+ and protein content
are around (O and UO re+pecti5el*; and almo+t VO o? the lipid+ are BaCe+ DCancalon; FQRFG' @hi+ chemical
compo+ition maJe+ ::I an attracti5e material ?or =roBin= microor=ani+m+'
@he hi=h li=nin content; hoBe5er; limit+ the po++iAilit*

o? rapid Aiode=radation' @he Bhite rot ?un=i;
Aa+idiom*cete+; are con+idered a+ the primar* a=ent+ in
nature ?or li=nin de=radation DXu+Bell and )ider; FQLRY
Zadra[il and Sein=er; FQLLG'
Figure 2. Sunflower field

!
! !art &&' O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (' Substrate "4
=968; !65789:34 !33; ,6881 >3 "13; 794 =68/0?./095 97 Pleurotus ostreatus<
:un?loBer +eed hull+ compo+ition in or=anic macronutrient+ DUO protein; (O lipid+ and (NO carAoh*drate+G i+ a+
appropriate a+ that o? other +uA+trate+ commonl* u+ed ?or the culti5ation o? o*+ter mu+hroom+; +uch a+ cereal
+traB+; corn hu+J+; u+ed tea lea5e+ and cotton Ba+te+ DMH(O protein+; N'UHM'MO lipid+ and VMHVRO carAoh*drate+G'
)*+ter mu+hroom+ DPleutorus +pp'G po++e++ an eCtracellular en[*me+ +*+tem and a +trate=* 5ia ?ree radical+ that
maJe them aAle to de=rade li=nocellulo+ic material o? ::I a+ Bell a+ other+; thu+ eChiAitin= a =reat adaptaAilit* to
di??erent Jind o? li=nocellulo+ic material+'
]e initiall* te+ted Bhether ::I contain Bater eCtractaAle compound+
Bhich could a??ect m*celial =roBth o? P. ostreatus; and ?ound that
aûeou+ +un?loBer +eed hull eCtract did not a??ect it+ m*celial =roBth in
culture medium' )n the contrar*; Bhen the inoculated m*celium ha+
Aeen pre5iou+l* =roBn in a medium Bith a moiet* o? hull aûeou+
eCtract; m*celial =roBth +i=ni?icantl* increa+ed it+ rate' ]e concluded
that under adeûate condition+ +un?loBer +eed hull+ could Ae u+ed ?or
m*celial =roBth; and that the phenomenon o? m*celial =roBth
+timulation; in re+pon+e to the pre+ence o? +ome +uA+tance+ comin= ?rom
Figure 3. Oyster mushroom
the +uA+trate in a=ar medium; need+ to Ae ?urther eCamined DKar_ania et cultivated on sunflower seed hull
al.; FQQRG +ince it could pro5ide a u+e?ul tool ?or an ad5anta=eou+ substrate
adaptation o? mu+hroom to a particular +uA+trate DChan=; FQRLG'
Eor culti5ation o? P. ostreatus; the mo+t common +upplement added to the endH+uA+trate i+ cereal Aran; a
proteinHrich +uA+tance; Bhich i+ JnoBn to Ae an additi5e that +timulate+ m*celial =roBth and mu+hroom *ield
D:iddiûi and `han; FQLQY ìnu=aBa et al.; FQQUG' )n the ::I +uA+trate +upplemented Bith cereal Aran; the
m*celial =roBth o? P. ostreatus Ba+ not increa+ed' &ncrea+ed percenta=e+ o? Bheat Aran to the endH+uA+trate did
not marJedl* in?luence the rate o? +uA+trate coloni[ation' -oreo5er; +uA+trate coloni[ation Ba+ +uppre++ed A* the
pre+ence o? (NO Bheat Aran or more' <t thi+ time; re+ult+ +u==e+ted that nonH+upplemented +un?loBer +eed hull+
could Ae con+idered a+ a complete nutriti5e +uA+trate to Ae coloni[ed A* P. ostreatus DKar_ania et al.; FQQRG'
'-./ .>96/ /-3 !0@3 97 /-3 ,688<
-*celial =roBth did not +hoB an* +i=ni?icant di??erence+ Bhen the +un?loBer +eed hull+ Bere u+ed in three
particle +i[e+ a5era=in= R; FN and FMmm; Bith the hi=her Aein= the Ba+te +i[e ?rom oilH+eed ?actorie+' Complete
+uA+trate coloni[ation A* P. ostreatus Ba+ oA+er5ed a?ter FL da*+ o? +paBn runnin= in all Aa=+' IoBe5er; there
Bere marJed di??erence+ in ?ruitin= and crop *ield' &n the+e te+t+ mu+hroom+ =reB Aetter on +uA+trate+ o? the
hi=he+t hull +i[e; =i5in= ri+e to aAout a(O Aiolo=ical e??icienc* DX'b'; J= ?re+h mu+hroom Bei=htcJ= dr* +uA+trate
Bei=ht C FNNG at the F+t ?lu+h; and repre+ented aAout L(O o? the total accumulated X'b' at the Vrd ?lu+h' &t Ba+
concluded that particle +i[e did not a??ect the coloni[ation rate o? thi+ mu+hroom and that additional hull choppin=;
Bhich implie+ an eCtra co+t; i+ unnece++ar* DKar_ania et al.; FQQRG'
A43 !65789:34 !33; ,6881 .5 A;3B6./3 !6>1/4./3<
@he+e ?ir+t approache+ to introduce thi+ neB +uA+trate indicated that ::I; a+ comin= ?rom oilH+eed ?actorie+ and
Bithout an* nutritional +upplementation; could Ae u+ed a+ an adeûate +uA+trate ?or culti5ation o? o*+ter
mu+hroom+; a+ Aiolo=ical e??icienc* ?or the ?ir+t ?lu+h Ba+ Bithin the commerciall* acceptaAle ran=e' <n increa+e
o? aAout F(O in X'b' Ba+ accumulated ?olloBin= the +econd and the third ?lu+he+' @hu+; a prolon=ation o?
croppin= did not produce a remarJaAle increa+e in the X'b'; thu+ loBerin= the *ield production c*cle o? P.
!
ostreatus' @here?ore; ?or thi+ Jind o? 5er* loB co+t +uA+trate; it doe+ not +eem economicall* rea+onaAle to Jeep P.
ostreatus culti5ation ?or more than F ?lu+h; mainl* due to the hi=h co+t o? electric ener=* re+ultin= ?rom the
heatin= and coolin= eûipment needed to maintain control o? the en5ironmental condition+' IoBe5er; the
production c*cle can Ae eCtended to M ?lu+he+ in UNH(N da*+; A* u+in= optimi[ed ?ormula+ containin= =roBth
limitin= mineral nutrient+ +uch a+ 7itro=en Da+ ammonia +ul?ateG and -an=ane+e D&&G Dman=ane+e D&&G +ul?ate; a coH
?actor ?or the li=nolitic acti5it* o? +ome peroCida+e en[*me+G; Bhich re+ulted; ?or each P. ostreatus +train u+ed in
thi+ +tud*; in a marJed *ield increa+edup to FNNOdo5er the corre+pondin= control DCur5etto; et al.; MNNMG' &n
practical term+ and ?or the+e P. ostreatus +train+ the production Ba+ in the ran=e o? FHF'LJ= DaNHFFMO X'b'G
mu+hroom+ per UJ= +uA+trate Aa=+'
In summar"
FG :un?loBer +eed hull+ can Ae u+ed a+ a +uA+trate ?or the culti5ation o? Pleurotus ostreatusY u+in= a +imple
?ormula containin= VR'(O ::I; MO calcium +ul?ate DCa:)UG; N'(O calcium carAonate DCaC)VG; aNO Bater
DIM)G and pI a'
MG 2nder ?a5oraAle condition+ ?or m*celium =roBth a+ de+criAed here; addition o? Bheat Aran i+ not needed'
VG @he lar=e+t particle +i[e corre+pondin= to +un?loBer +eed coatin=+ a+ the* come ?rom the local ediAle oilH+eed
indu+tr* produced maCimum X'b' in ?ructi?ication; in compari+on Bith +maller particle +i[e+'
UG Eir+t ?lu+h produce+ aAout L(O o? the total X'b' accumulated throu=h V ?lu+he+'
&/-34 C61-499D1
]e ?ound that ::IHAa+ed +uA+trate i+ al+o adeûate to =roB other ?un=i' Eor Lentinula edodes; the Aa+al ?ormula
DVR'(O ::I; N'(O CaC)V; MO Ca:)U; aNO BaterG produced MJ= +hiitaJecFNNJ= dr* +uA+trate per da* ?or a ((
da*+ production c*cle Bith an accumulated Aiolo=ical e??icienc* o? FNLO DCur5etto et al.; MNNMAG; a hi=her *ield
o? +hiitaJe in a +horter c*cle o? production than i+ reported Bith other +uA+trate+' Good re+ult+ Bere al+o oAtained
?or Ganoderma lucidum on ::IHAa+ed +uA+trate+ +upplemented Bith M'( or ('NO Bheat Aran or ('NO malt; and
the producti5it* Ba+ +imilar or e5en hi=her than the one reported in literature DGon[ale[ -atute et al.; MNNMG' <t
pre+ent; Be are de5elopin= protocol+ to u+e ::I ?or the production o? Trametes versicolor; Hericium erinaceus;
Stropharia rugoso-annulata; Coprinus comatus; Flammulina velutipes; and AroBn Agaricus bisporus'
A !0DE83 F49;6G/095 F49/9G98 794 Pleurotus ostreatus 95 !!,H>.13; !6>1/4./3
H @hi+ loBHco+t method i+ +u==e+ted A* the author+' Ketailed eCplanation on

each eûipment and each +tep i+ pro5ided on Xa= Culti5ation in Chapter R'
!E.:5 E49;6G/095
]e prepare =rain +paBn in thermore+i+tant pla+tic Aa=+ or in FT Aottle+ u+in=
Bheat DTriticum durumG =rain miCed Bith N'FO DBcBG CaC)V ; N'LO DBcBG
Ca:)U; and UNO Bater DFJ= Bheat; M= CaC)V ; Fa= Ca:)U and N'RT BaterG'
Calcium +alt+ are u+ed to ad_u+t and Au??er the pI o? the +uA+trate near a'
<dditionall*; the+e +alt+ a5oid the ?ormation o? clump+ either o? the =rain+
u+ed ?or +paBnin= or o? the +un?loBer +eed coatin=+ u+ed ?or the mu+hroom
+uA+trate' )therBi+e; tho+e +alt+ pro5ide +ul?ur and calcium Bhich are
e++ential mineral macronutient+' @he miCture i+ +terili[ed at F( p+i ?or F'( Figure 4. !. ostre)tus spawn
prepared on wheat grain in 1L
hour+' bach Aa= or Aottle i+ then inoculated under a+eptic condition+ Bith bottle or small plastic bag
o*+ter mu+hroom m*celium DtBo Bed=e+ per Aa= or AottleG DEi=' UG; and
!
incuAated at M(fF7 in darJne++ ?or F(HMN da*+; Bith periodical +haJin= o? the Aa=+ or Aottle+ to maCimi[e
coloni[ation and minimi[e =rain clumpin='
!6>1/4./3 E43E.4./095 .5; ;3G95/.D05./095
Eor a VaJ= +uA+trate ma++ Bith a ?inal compo+ition o? VR'(O ::I; MO Ca:)U; N'(O CaC)V and aNO tap Bater;
the+e component+ are introduced into the drum a+ ?olloB+ g FV'(J= ::I; then FNT Bater containin= RMN= Ca:)U
and FLN= CaC)V ; and ?inall* FF'aT Bater DEi=' (G' @he decontamination proce++ i+ alBa*+ initiated Bith the =a+
heater on and the drum in a +tationar* po+ition; durin= the ?ir+t F( minute+' Ieatin= i+ pro5ided ?or M'( hour+ Bith
the drum alternatel* rotatin= ?or ?i?teen minute+ and then +toppin= ?or ?i?teen minute+'
Figure 5. Introduction of sunflower Figure 6. Spawning the Figure 7. Filling the bags
seed hull into drum decontaminated substrate after cooling
!E.:505I .5; 1E.:5 465505I
! !!!!!!!! !
Figure 8. Puncture of bags for an adequate gas exchange Figure 9. Colonization of substrate bags
3, 8, and14 days after spawning
@he temperature o? the +uA+trate i+ alloBed to ?all to V(HUN7; Bith the drum rotatin= ?or aAout M hour+' @he +paBn
i+ then added to the +uA+trate at a rate o? (HLO DBcBG DEi=' aG; and Jeepin= the open end o? the drum co5ered;
rotation i+ continued durin= F(HMN minute+ until homo=eneou+ miCin= o? +paBned +uA+trate i+ oAtained' ]ith care
!
! !art &&' O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (' Substrate ""
and decontaminated ruAAer =lo5e+ on; the operator ?ill+ pla+tic Aa=+ o? N'M(m diameter Bith +uA+trate to maJe
AlocJ+ o? UHFNJ= DEi=' RG' @he +uA+trate i+ compre++ed A* repeatedl* tappin= the Aa= on the ?loor thu+ oAtainin= a
den+it* o? aAout N'(J=cT and then; the Aa= i+ ti=htl* clo+ed' @o a++ure an adeûate )M and C)M concentration+ and
=a+ eCchan=e; the* are a+epticall* punctured on the Bhole +ur?ace u+in= a rod Bith +harp pointed nail+ DBe
recommend an ad hoc de5ice Bith pin+ DEi=' LG that ?inall* =i5e+ approCimatel* R;NNN microHhole+ per +ûare
meter; each one +eparated A* F'Mcm ?rom the +urroundin= miniHhole+G' @he Aa=+ are placed in a =roBin= room at
MUfF7; and a?ter F(HFL da*+ the +uA+trate Aecome+ completel* coloni[ed A* the m*celium DEi=' QG' Kurin= thi+
+ta=e; the Aa=+ are dail* oA+er5ed ?or po++iAle contamination'
$460/05I
)nce the +uA+trate in the Aa=+ i+ completel* coloni[ed A* m*celia; the AlocJ+ are tran+?erred to a ?ruitin= room
and the pla+tic co5er+ are e5enl* punctured u+in= a de5ice Bith attached archer* Aroadhead+ DEi=' FNG D:tamet+;
FQQVG to eCpo+e a ?ructi?ication +ur?ace o? ca' FO o? the total Aa= +ur?ace to the ?olloBin= en5ironmental
condition+g MNfF7; LNHQNO S'I'; and FMHhour photoperiod DF(NHMNN luCG' )A+er5ation+ ?or po++iAle
contamination are al+o done' !innin= DEi=' FFG and +uA+eûent =roBth o? ?ruitin= Aodie+ in a ?ir+t ?lu+h DEi=' FMG
occurred F(HMN da*+ a?ter +paBnin=' < +econd crop i+ oAtained AetBeen FNHF( da*+ a?ter the ?ir+t one; and u+uall*
?or thi+ +econd ?lu+h a neB +et o? puncture+ on the +ur?ace o? the Aa=+ i+ needed'
Figure 10. A device with attached Figure 11. Pinning of Figure 12. !. ostre)tus on sunflower
arrowhead to expose substrate oyster mushroom seed hull
surface for fruiting
RE;ERENCES
H Xu+Bell; h'<'; and )' )ider' FQLR' Ti=nin Aiode=radation' Crit' Se5' Xiotechnol' agFHaN'
H Cancalon; !' FQRF' Chemical compo+ition o? +un?loBer +eed hull+' h' <mer' )il' Chem' :oc' ULgaMQHaVM'
H Chan=; :'@' FQRL' @he Aiolo=* and culti5ation o? ediAle mu+hroom+' 7eB iorJ; 2':'<'g <cademic !re++' LFQ pp'
H Cur5etto; 7'S'; :'b' Kelma+tro; S'h' Ke5ali+; and K' Ei=la+' FQQR' < loB co+t method ?or decontaminatin=
+un?loBer +eed hullHAa+ed +uA+trate in the culti5ation o? Pleurotus ediAle mu+hroom' -u+hroom Se+ agM(HML'
H Cur5etto; 7'S'; K' Ei=la+; S'h' Ke5ali+; and :'b' Kelma+tro' MNNMa' GroBth and producti5it* o? di??erent
Pleurotus ostreatus +train+ on +un?loBer +eed hull+ +uA+trate +upplemented Bith 7H7IUj andcor -nD&&G'
Xiore+ource @echnolo=* LUDMGgFRFHFRa'
H Cur5etto; 7'S'; K' Ei=la+; S'h' Ke5ali+; and :'b' Kelma+tro' MNNMA' :un?loBer +eed hull+ a+ +uA+trate ?or the
culti5ation o? +hiitaJe DLentinula edodesG mu+hroom+' Iort@echnolo=* FMDUGga(MHa(('
H Kar_ania; T'; 7'h Cur5etto; -' :chapiro; K' Ei=la+; and K' Cur5etto' FQQR' :un?loBer +eed hull+ a+ a +uA+trate ?or
culti5ation o? Pleurotus ostreatus ' -u+hroom 7eB+ U(gaHFN'
H Korrel; K'G'; and X'<' PicJ' FQQR' !ropertie+ and proce++ o? oil+eed +un?loBer' &ng <'<' :chneiter Ded'G'
:un?loBer technolk=* and production' <=ron' -ono=r' V(gRNQHRU('
!
! !art &&' O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (' Substrate 899
H Kuncan; `']' FQQR' <n ecoph*+iolo=ical approach to the e5aluation; modi?ication and production o? mu+hroom
=roBin= media' -u+hroom 7eB+ U(gFMHMR'
H baranna; 7'; and `':' :hett*' FQQU' 7ational :*mpo+ium on -u+hroom+' -u+hroom :ociet* o? &ndia and
7ational Centre ?or -u+hroom Se+earch and @rainin=; :olan'
H Gon[lle[ -atute; S'; K' Ei=la+; S'h' Ke5ali+; :'b' Kelma+tro; and 7'h' Cur5etto' MNNM' :un?loBer +eed hull+ a+ a
main nutrient +ource ?or culti5atin= Ganoderma lucidum' -icolo=ia <plicada &nternational FUDMGgFQHMU'
H àal; b'b'h'; h'<' Eield; and @']' ho*ce' FQQ(' &ncrea+in= li=ninol*tic en[*me acti5itie+ in +e5eral BhiteHrot
Aa+idiom*cete+ A* nitro=enH+u??icient media' Xiore+ource @echnol (VgFVVHFVQ'
H ìnu=aBa; `'; ]' !hu+aBan=; :' ChinAen_aphol; :' EuJada; b' @ane+aJa; -' )Jada; and I' @+ut+ui' FQQU'
!ro=re++ Seport DFQQFHFQQVG o? _oint re+earch pro=ram o? ìnJi and Chian= -ai 2ni5er+itie+ on the promotion
o? mu+hroom re+earch' -em Eac <=r ìnJi 2ni5 MRgQVHFFV'
H Telle*; h'&'; and <' hanmen' FQQVa' !roducti5it* impro5ement o? o*+ter mu+hroom +uA+trate Bith a controlled
relea+e o? nutrient' -u+hroom 7eB+ UFgaHFV'
H Telle*; h'&'; and <' hanmen' FQQVA' &nteraction+ AetBeen +upplementation; ?ructi?icationH+ur?ace and producti5it*
o? the +uA+trate o? Pleurotus +pp' &ng Chan=; :'@'; h'<' Xu+Bell; :']' Chiu Ded+G' -u+hroom Xiolo=* and
-u+hroom !roduct+' Ion= òn=g @he Chine+e 2ni5er+it* !re++' Chapter Q'
H :iddiûi; -'<'; and :'-' `han' FQLQ' :ome +tudie+ on the culti5ation o? o*+ter mu+hroom DPleurotus +pp'G on
li=noHcellulo+ic A*Hproduct+ o? teCtile indu+tr*' !roceedin=+ o? the FMth &nternational Con=re++ on the :cience
and Culti5ation o? bdiAle Eun=i' Xraun+chBei=; German*' FMFHFML'
H :tamet+; !' FQQV' GroBin= Gourmet and -edicinal -u+hroom+' XerJele*; C<g @en :peed !re++ Ttd' V(MHVaQ'
H Zadra[il; E'; and S' Sein=er' FQLL' @reatment o? Ti=nocellulo+ic+ Bith ]hite Sot Eun=i' Tondon; bn=landg
bl+e5ier <pplied :cience'
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#"
-.+hr001 Yr0Der+T Pa9>?00S 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art &&' )*+ter -.+hr001+
Chapter (
Su.strate
!"A$$ &'()CAO,
0han2i Lin
234C6) 7e+ear8h &9+t:t.te; Ch:9a
<ra9+=ae> ?* @09A1e: B:9
'()CAO &$%, - 'un&$, means fungi and Cao&%, means grass in Chinese.
2.98a0 te8h9:C.e+ Dere :9Ee9te> :9 Ch:9a :9 FGHI ?* !r0Je++0r Kha9L: B:9; >:re8t0r 0J M.N:a9 6Ar:8.=t.re O
M0re+tr* 39:Eer+:t* a9> 234C6) 7e+ear8h &9+t:t.te' Pe .+e> her?a8e0.+ p=a9t+ +.8h a+ Musa nana; Miscanthus
sinensis; Dicranopteris dichotoma; Miscanthus floridulus a+ 9eD 8.=t:Eat:09 +.?+trate+ t0 rep=a8e +.8h tra>:t:09a=
+.?+trate+ a+ +aD>.+t; Dheat ?ra9 a9> r:8e ?ra9' ReJ0re 2.98a0 te8h9:C.e+ Dere :9Ee9te>; 1a9* +pe8:e+ 0J e>:?=e
J.9A: a9> 1e>:8:9a= J.9A:; +.8h a+ +h::taSe a9> D00>T+ ear; Dere 1a:9=* 8.=t:Eate> 09 +aD>.+t 0r =0A+' <he re8e9t
eLpa9+:09 0J 1.+hr001 pr0>.8t:09; h0DeEer; re+.=te> :9 the 0EerUeLp=0:tat:09 0J the ?r0a>U=eaJ tree+ re+0.r8e a9>
8a.+e> a +h0rtaAe 0J raD +.?+trate 1ater:a=+' -aN0r 1.+hr001 Ar0D:9A 80.9tr:e+ =:Se 2apa9 a9> Ch:9a
e980.9tere> +.8h pr0?=e1+; Dh:8h ha> re+tr:8te> the J.rther >eEe=0p1e9t 0J =arAeU+8a=e 1.+hr001 pr0>.8t:09'
<he :9Ee9t:09 0J 2.98a0 te8h9:C.e+ ha+ +0=Ee> the 809J=:8t ?etDee9 the :98rea+e 0J J.9A: pr0>.8t:09 a9> the
pr0te8t:09 0J e80=0A:8a= e9E:r091e9t; a9> e9a?=e> Ja+t a9> +.+ta:9a?=e >eEe=0p1e9t 0J 1.+hr001 pr0>.8t:09'
<efinition of 'uncao Technology
2.98a0 :+ >eJ:9e> a+ the her?a8e0.+ p=a9t+ that are +.:ta?=e J0r 8.=t:Eat:9A e>:?=e a9> 1e>:8:9a= J.9A:' 2.98a0
<e8h90=0A* :+ >eJ:9e> a+ a +er:e+ 0J 801prehe9+:Ee te8h9:C.e+ t0 8.=t:Eate e>:?=e a9> 1e>:8:9a= J.9A: a9> pr0>.8e
1*8e=:.1 pr0te:9 J0raAe D:th 2.98a0' <he 2.98a0 &9>.+tr* :+ >eJ:9e> a+ the :9>.+tr* .t:=:V:9A 2.98a0 te8h90=0A*
a9> 0ther re=at:Ee te8h9:C.e+'
<he 809Eer+:09 rate 0J +0=ar e9erA* :9t0 2.98a0 Ara++e+ :+ WUH t:1e+ h:Aher tha9 that J0r ?r0a>U=eaJ tree+' X:th
2.98a0 te8h9:C.e+; FSA 0J >r* Ara++ 8a9 ?e 809Eerte> :9t0 a?0.t FSA 0J Jre+h 1.+hr001+' <h:+ te8h90=0A*
801?:9e+ e80=0A:8a=; e80901:8a= a9> +08:a= ?e9eJ:t+' <hereJ0re; the 2.98a0 &9>.+tr* :+ a 9eD e80=0A:8a= :9>.+tr*
that p0++e++e+ the a>Ea9taAe+ 0J a h:Ah .t:=:Vat:09 rate 0J 9at.ra= re+0.r8e+ a9> Areat p0te9t:a= J0r 809t:9.a=
>eEe=0p1e9t'
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#&
'uncao $Becies as $ubstrate Material for Mushrooms
Mr01 FGHI t0 Z[[I; I\ 2.98a0 +pe8:e+ haEe ?ee9 +e=e8te> Dh:8h are +.:ta?=e J0r 1.+hr001 8.=t:Eat:09 .+:9A the
threeU+taAe +e=e8t:09 1eth0> ]<a?=e F^'
<he te+t re+.=t+ 0J the M.N:a9 6Ar:8.=t.re 39:Eer+:t* Ce9tra= Ba?0rat0r* +h0D that the 9.tr:e9t+ 809te9t+ 0J 10+t
2.98a0 +pe8:e+ are r:8her tha9 th0+e 0J +aD>.+t ]<a?=e Z^' <he 809te9t+ 0J pr0te:9; 9:tr0Ae9; Jat; ph0+ph0r.+;
p0ta++:.1; a9> 1aA9e+:.1 :9 2.98a0 are h:Aher tha9 th0+e :9 +aD>.+t 0J ?r0a>U=eaJ tree+' 6109A the1; the
pr0te:9 809te9t 0J D:=> Dicranopteris dichotoma, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Saccharum arundinaceum, Phragmites
communis, Miscanthus floridulus a9> Themeda gigantea :+ ZU_ t:1e+ a+ 1.8h a+ that 0J +aD>.+t' <he:r Jat;
9:tr0Ae9; ph0+ph0r.+; p0ta++:.1 a9> 1aA9e+:.1 809te9t+ are re+pe8t:Ee=* F[FUZFW`; ZIZUI(I`; ZZ(UWH(`; I_WU
G[H`; a9> FGFUI[I` 0J th0+e 0J +aD>.+t'
Ta.le 18 9uncao species suita.le for mushroom cultivation
Pennisetum pupureum a8h.1' Arundo donax B'

Pennisetum sinense -eV Triticum aestivum B'
Pennisetum alopecuroides ate.>' Oryza sativa B'
Phragmites communis <r:9'b!' a.+tra=:+ ]CaE'^ ate.>e= Achnatherum splendens ]<r:9'^ 4eE+S:
Neyraudia reynaudiana ]c.9th^ ce9A eL P:t8h808S Arundinella hirta <a9aSa
Miscanthus floridulus Xar?' dL c' a8h.1' O Ba.ter?' Arundinella nepalensis <r:9'
Miscanthus sacchaiflorus Pa8S' ]bA. brasiliensis 7a>>:^
Miscanthus sinensis 69>er++' Spartina anglica C'd'P.??'
Saccharum arundinaceum 7etV' Musa nana B0.r'
Saccharum sinense 70L?' Setaria anceps atapJ eL -a++e*
Saccharum robustum Rra9>e+ O 2:e+D' eL Yra++= Eichhornia crassipes a0=1+
Themeda gigantea ]CaE'^ Pa8S' eL @.th:e Ear' E:==0+a ]bE. speciosa c.9th^
Themeda gigantea Pa8S' eL @.th:e Ear' 8a.>ata Y0++*p:.1 h:r+.t.1 B'
Paspalum wettsteinii Pa8S' ]bG.. herbaceum B'^
Paspalum dilatatum <r:9' Medicago sativa B'
(=P. dasypleurum c.9Ve eL @e+E'^ Helianthus annuus B'
Vetiveria zizanioides atapJ Ferula sinkiangensis c'-;ahe9
Sorghum propinquum ]c.9th^ P:t8h808S Dicranopteris dichotoma ]B'^MarD'
Sorghum sudanense atapJ Dryopteris ampla c.9tVe
Cymbopogon citrates atapJ
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#'
Ta.le >8 Nutrients contents of 9uncao @AB

Nutrients Contents @AB Protein Ei.er Eat N P F Ca Mg
aaD>.+t F'FG H_'HZ ['GI ['FG ['[Z ['FF ['ZZ ['[I
Dicranopteris dicnotoma I'\( \Z'F[ Z'[F ['W[ ['[G ['I\ ['ZZ ['[H
Neyraudia reynaudiana _'_Z (H'H[ F'\Z ['W\ ['F_ ['GW e ['[G
Saccharum arundinaceum Z'\( WZ'([ ['GG e e ['\W ['F\ ['[G
Phragmitas communis I'FG \Z'([ ['G_ ['(F ['[H ['H( ['F_ ['[W
Miscanthus floridulus I'(W (('F[ F'__ ['(\ ['[H ['G[ ['I[ ['F[
Themeda gigantea I'H( (F'F F'IH ['WF ['[( ['\Z ['FG ['[H
Pennisetum purpureum ('GF WH'HH e e ['FH ['\H ['_[ ['Z_
Spartina atierniflora G'G[ ZI'(H Z'GW e e e e e
Sorghum propinquum _'F\ _G'_\ e e ['[H ['_W ['__ ['F\
Medicinal and Edible Fungi $Becies Cultivated with 'uncao

_( J.9A: +pe8:e+ haEe ?ee9 +e=e8te> Dh:8h are +.:ta?=e t0 ?e 8.=t:Eate> D:th 2.98a0 a+ the 8.=t:Eat:09 +.?+trate+
]<a?=e I^'
Ta.le H8 Mushroom species suita.le to .e cultivated with 9uncao
Agaricus bisporus ]2'd'Ba9A^ !:=Oaa8.teft Oudemansiella radicata ]7e=ha9^ a:9Aer

Agaricus blazei -.r:== (=Xerula radicata ]7e=ha9^Mr'^
Coprinus comatus ])'M'-O.91=f=='^Yra* Stropharia rugosoannulata Mar=' eL -.rr:==
Dictyophora rubrovolvata -'Ka9A; @'Y'2: O g'g B:. Pholiota nameko ]<' &tO08:r8fâ'&t0 O a' &1a:
Dictyphora duplicate ]R0+8^d' M:+8h' Volvariella volvacea ]R.=='^ a:9Aer
Pleurotus ostreatus ]2a8C'^ h.Oea8.tef=' Agrocybe cylindracea ]@C'^ Y:==et
Pleurotus sapidus ]a8h.=Ver^ aa88' Pholiota aegerita ]i' Rr:A'^ h.Oea8.tef='
Pleurotus rhodophyllus Rre+' (=Agrocybe aegerita ]i' Rr:A'^ a:9Aer^
Pleurotus sajor-caju]Mr'^ a:9Aer Hericium erinaceus ]R.==^ !er+'
Pleurotus citrinopileatus a:9Aer+ Poria cocos (a8hDe:9') M'6' X0=J
Pleurotus cystidiosus )'c'-:==' (=Wolfporia extensa ]!e8S^ Y:99+^
Pleurotus abalones j'P'Pa9; c'-'Che9 O a'Che9A Ganoderma lucidum ]C.rt:+^ ! car+t'
Pleurotus eryngii ]@'C'^ Y:==et Ganoderma sinense 2'@'Ka0; B'j'P+.Og'h'Kha9A
Pleurotus tuber-regium ]7.1ph'eL Mr'^ a:9Aer Coriolus versicolor ]B'^ h.Oea8.tef=
(=Lentinus tuber-regium ]Mr'^Mr'^ (=Trametes versicolor ]B'^ B&0*>^
Armillariella mellea ]iah=^ !' car+t' Grifola frondosa ]@:8S+'^ Yar*
(=Armillaria mellea ]iah=^ !'c.11'^ Grifola albicans &1aVeS:
Armillariella tabescens ]a80p'^ a:9Aer Auricularia auricula ]P00S' J'^39>erD'
(=Armillaria tabescens ]a80p'^ d1e='^ (=Auricularia auricula-N.>ea ]Mrâ8hrO0.1=ft^
Lentinus edodes ]RerS'^ a:9Aer Auricularia cornea dhre9?'
(=Lentinula edodes ]RerS'^ !eA=er^ Auricularia polytricha ]-09t'^ aa88'
Collybia velutipes ]C.rt:+^ !'c.11' Auricularia peltata B&0*>
(=Flammulina velutipes ]C.rt:+^ a:9Aer^ Auricularia delicate ]Mr'^ Pe99'
Tricholoma giganteum -a++ee Auricularia mesenterica ]@:8S'^ !er+'
(=Macrocybe gigantea ]-a++ee^ !eA=er O B0>eA^ Tremella fuciformis RerS'
Hypsizygus mamoreus ]!e8S^ P'd' R:Ae=0D Tremella aurantia a8hDe:9'
Tremella cinnabarina R.=='
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#(
Oyster Mushroom &!leurotus ostre*tus, Cultivation with 'uncao
)*+ter -.+hr001 ]P. ostreatus^ 8a9 .t:=:Ve a D:>e ra9Ae 0J the aEa:=a?=e 8.=t.re 1ater:a=+ >.e t0 :t+ Areat
a>apta?:=:t*' &9 a>>:t:09; :t :+ ea+* t0 8.=t:Eate D:th +:1p=e te8h90=0A* a9> ha+ a +h0rt Ar0Dth 8*8=e' 6 =arAe Ear:et*
0J 2.98a0 a9> 8r0p +ta=S+ are +.:ta?=e J0r the 8.=t.re 1e>:.1 J0r 1.+hr001+' 39>er 8erta:9 +.:ta?=e 809>:t:09+; _U
( DeeS+ are e90.Ah Jr01 +paD9:9A t0 harEe+t:9A' @.e t0 the+e a>Ea9taAe+; P. ostreatus D:== ?e 09e 0J the 10+t
:1p0rta9t 1.+hr001 +pe8:e+ a9> D:== 1aSe a Areat 809tr:?.t:09 t0Dar>+ +0=E:9A the pr0?=e1 0J the =a8S 0J pr0te:9
:9 >eEe=0p:9A 80.9tr:e+'
)utrition
P. ostreatus :+ 8=a++:J:e> a+ a D00>U+apr0ph*t:8 J.9A.+' &9 9at.re; :t Ar0D+ 09 the >ea> ?ra98he+ 0J ?r0a>U=eaJ tree+;
+.8h a+ p0p=ar; D:==0D; e=1; 1ap=e; ?ee8h a9> Ch:9e+e :=eL' &9 art:J:8:a= 8.=t:Eat:09; e:ther =0A+ 0r +aD>.+t 8a9 ?e
.+e> a+ the 8.=t.re +.?+trate' 6 pr0per a10.9t 0J r:8e ?ra9 a9> +.Aar 8a9 ?e a>>e> :9 0r>er t0 pr010te the 1*8e=:a
Ar0Dth a9> Jr.:t ?0>* J0r1at:09 Dh:=e 8.=t:Eat:9A D:th +aD>.+t' &9 2apa9; the a10.9t 0J r:8e ?ra9 a>>e> :+ .p t0
IWU_[` :9 P. ostreatus 8.=t:Eat:09 D:th +aD>.+t'
<he re+ear8h >09e :9 FGHW >:+80Eere> that 234C6); +.8h a+ Neyraudia reynaudiana; Miscanthus floridulus;
Saccharum arundinaceum; Themeda gigantea; Miscanthus sinensis; Spartina anglica; Pennisetum purpureum a9>
Sorghum propinquum; are h:Ah C.a=:t* 8.=t.re 1ater:a=+ J0r P. ostreatus 8.=t:Eat:09' <he* 8a9 ?e .+e> a+
+.?+t:t.te+ J0r +aD>.+t a9> part:a==* a+ +.?+t:t.te+ J0r r:8e ?ra9' -0re0Eer; P. ostreatus 8a9 a=+0 ?e 8.=t:Eate> D:th
80r980?; Dheat +traD; ?aAa++e; Musa nana; Pistia strationtes; r:8e +traD a9> 0ther 8r0p +ta=S+'
TemBerature
<he appr0pr:ate te1perat.re ra9Ae J0r +p0re Aer1:9at:09 :+ Z_UZH)' -*8e=:a 8a9 Ar0D pr0per=* at \UI(); Dh:=e
the ?e+t ra9Ae :+ Z[UZ()' <he +.:ta?=e te1perat.re ra9Ae J0r Jr.:t ?0>* Ar0Dth :+ F[UZH) Ear*:9A a109A the
>:JJere9t +tra:9+' &9 a880r>a98e D:th the +.:ta?=e Jr.:t:9A te1perat.re; +tra:9+ are 8=a++:J:e> :9t0 p+*8hr0ph:=:8 ]FZU
F()^; 1e+0ph:=:8 ]FWUZZ)^ a9> ther10ph:=:8 ]Z[UZW)^ t*pe+' P. ostreatus Ar0D:9A :9 the =0Der p0rt:09 0J the
+.:ta?=e te1perat.re ra9Ae Ae9era==* are 0J a h:Aher C.a=:t*'
Iumidity
<he Dater 809te9t 0J +.?+trate +.:ta?=e J0r 1*8e=:a= Ar0Dth :+ a?0.t W(`' -*8e=:a= Ar0Dth :+ :9h:?:te> :J the Dater
809te9t :+ =e++ tha9 ([`' &9 ?0tt=e 8.=t:Eat:09 0J P. ostreatus; 1*8e=:a 8a9 Ar0D pr0per=* .9>er 809>:t:09+ Dhere
the a:r h.1:>:t* :+ W(U\[`' @.r:9A the Jr.:t:9A per:0>; the +.:ta?=e a:r re=at:Ee h.1:>:t* 8a9 ?e a+ h:Ah a+ H(UG[`'
&J the re=at:Ee h.1:>:t* :+ =e++ tha9 H(`; the Ar0Dth 0J Jr.:t ?0>:e+ D:== ?e +=0De> >0D9' <he 1.+hr001 C.a=:t*
D:== a=+0 ?e 9eAat:Ee=* aJJe8te> :J the re=at:Ee h.1:>:t* :+ h:Aher tha9 G(`'
Jentilation
P. ostreatus :+ a9 aer0?:8 J.9A.+' &t+ Jr.:t?0>:e+ 8a990t Ar0D 90r1a==* D:th0.t Jre+h a:r' 6=th0.Ah Ja:r=* h:Ah
8098e9trat:09+ 0J 8ar?09 >:0L:>e D:== 90t aJJe8t the Ar0Dth 0J 1*8e=:a; +.8h :+ 90t the 8a+e J0r that 0J the
Jr.:t?0>:e+' Xhe9 the 8098e9trat:09 0J 8ar?09 >:0L:>e :+ h:Aher tha9 W[[ pp1; the +t:pe+ e=09Aate a9> 8ap Ar0Dth
:+ :9h:?:te>' @.e t0 the =a8S 0J 0L*Ae9; Jr.:t?0>:e+ 8a990t J0r1; 0r the* ?e801e 1a=J0r1e>'
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#*
Kllumination
6=th0.Ah 1*8e=:a 8a9 Ar0D pr0per=* eEe9 :9 t0ta= >arS9e++; the pr:10r>:a J0r1at:09 a9> Jr.:tU?0>* Ar0Dth
reC.:re a 8erta:9 a10.9t 0J =:Aht' !r:10r>:a J0r1at:09 :+ 09=* p0++:?=e aJter FZU h0.r :==.1:9at:09 D:th a9 :9te9+:t*
0J Z[[ =.L' M0r the pr0per Ar0Dth 0J Jr.:t?0>:e+; the =:Aht :9te9+:t* +h0.=> ?e D:th:9 ([U([[ =.L' <he 80=0r 0J the
8ap+ :+ a=+0 re=ate> t0 the =:Aht :9te9+:t*; +0 :9+.JJ:8:e9t a10.9t+ 0J :==.1:9at:09 D:== =ea> t0 pa=e 80=0re> 8ap+'
BI value
-*8e=:a 8a9 Ar0D pr0per=* Dhe9 the pP Ea=.e :+ ?etDee9 _ a9> \'(; Dherea+ the 10+t +.:ta?=e ra9Ae :+ pP ('(UW'['
Cultivation $teBs of Oyster Mushroom with 'uncao
'uncao Bretreatment
Re8a.+e 0J the:r >:JJere9t ?:0=0A:8a= 8hara8ter+; the harEe+t:9A; pr08e++:9A a9> +t0raAe 0J 2.98a0 :+ >:JJere9t Jr01
that 0J +aD>.+t' a.88e++J.==* .9>ertaS:9A the three +tep+ ?e=0D D:== he=p Ar0Der+ rea=:Ve the J.== p0te9t:a= 0J
2.98a0T+ 9.tr:t:09a= Ea=.e'
Juncao harvesting
@.e t0 the h:Ah 9:tr0Ae9 809te9t 0J Dicranopteris dichotoma; Neyraudia reynaudiana a9> 0ther 2.98a0; the
harEe+t:9A +ea+09 a9> Deather 1.+t ?e 8areJ.==* 8h0+e9' &J harEe+t:9A taSe+ p=a8e >.r:9A ra:9* >a*+; >r*:9A a9>
pr08e++:9A D:== ?e801e 10re >:JJ:8.=t a9> th:+ D:== re+.=t :9 1:=>eD a9> =0Der .t:=:Vat:09 rate+ 0J the 2.98a0'
<hereJ0re; harEe+t:9A 1.+t ?e arra9Ae> :9 (U\ >a*+ that are +.99*' ParEe+t:9A t:1e >epe9>+ 09 the >:JJere9t
+pe8:e+ 0J 2.98a0 a9> 8.=t:Eate> J.9A:' M0r eLa1p=e; Dicranopteris dichotoma 8a9 ?e 8r0ppe> :9 the Dh0=e *ear;
?.t :+ ?e+t harEe+te> Jr01 -a* t0 2.=*' Neyraudia reynaudiana; Miscanthus floridulus a9> 0ther 2.98a0 0J Ara++
Ja1:=* are ?e+t 8r0ppe> :9 J=0Der:9A a9> hea>:9A +taAe+' Neyraudia reynaudiana .+e> J0r 8.=t:Eat:09 0J +h::taSe
]Lentinus edodes^; Auricularia peltata a9> Auricularia polytricha +h0.=> ?e 8r0ppe> aJter hea>:9A a9> aA:9A;
Dherea+ th0+e .+e> J0r 8.=t:Eat:09 0J e90S:taSe ]Flammulina velutipes^; atraD 1.+hr001 ]Volvariella volvacea^;
Pholiota nameko a9> Pleurotus sajor-caju +h0.=> ?e 8r0ppe> N.+t ?eJ0re hea>:9A'
Juncao drying
6Jter 8r0pp:9A; Ara++e+ 1.+t ?e p=a8e> :9 the +.9=:Aht t0 >r* th0r0.Ah=*; a pr08e++ that :+ a=Da*+ aJJe8te> ?* the
Deather' <h.+; Ar0Der+ +h0.=> tr* t0 +t0re 2.98a0 ?eJ0re the ra:9* +ea+09' <D0 +t0raAe 1eth0>+ are 801109=*
e1p=0*e>k :9>00r +t0raAe :9 >r* r001+ a9> 0.t>00r ha*+ta8S +t0raAe' M0r 0.t>00r +t0raAe; Daterpr00J 80Eer:9A+
are :1p0rta9t' M0r ?0th 1eth0>+; Areat 8are 1.+t ?e taSe9 J0r J:reUpreEe9t:09' B00+e Ara++e+ 90r1a==* 088.p*
=arAe +pa8e+ :9>00r+; a9> the* are ea+:=* >a1pe9e> 0.t>00r+; +0 :t :+ 9e8e++ar* t0 pr08e++ the1 :9t0 p0D>er
:11e>:ate=* aJter >r*:9A' 2.98a0 p0D>er D:th a +1a== E0=.1e :+ 809Ee9:e9t J0r ?0th +t0raAe a9> =09A >:+ta98e
tra9+p0rt'
Juncao processing
!r08e++:9A 0J 2.98a0 :+ Eer* >:JJere9t Jr01 that 0J +aD>.+t a9> r:8e +traD ?e8a.+e 0J the ph*+:8a= +tr.8t.re a9>
9.tr:t:09a= >:JJere98e+' ape8:a= 2.98a0 Ar:9>er+ are 9e8e++ar*' <he +:Ve 0J the Ar:9>er +:eEe a=+0 >epe9>+ .p09 the
>:JJere9t +pe8:e+ 0J 2.98a0' M0r eLa1p=e; a +:eEe Dh0+e h0=e+ are 0J >:a1eter a?0.t Z'(11 :+ .+e> J0r
Dicranopteris dichotoma Dh:=e a +:eEe D:th h0=e+ 0J a >:a1eter 0J I'[UI'(11 :+ .+.a==* +.:ta?=e J0r Neyraudia
reynaudiana'
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#+
Juncao powder storage

2.98a0 p0D>er 1.+t ?e +t0re> :9 >r* r001+' )therD:+e; :t D:== ?e801e 1:=>eDe> 0r ?=08Se>; Dh:8h D:== eLha.+t
the 9.tr:e9t+ a9> =0Der the 9.tr:t:09a= Ea=.e 0J 2.98a0'
$ubstrate formula
a01e +.?+trate J0r1.=a+ J0r P. ostreatus 8.=t:Eat:09 are =:+te> ?e=0D'
F' Miscanthus floridulus W[`; Sorghum propinquum F[`; Pennisetum purpureum W`; Dheat ?ra9 F\`; r:8e ?ra9
(`; A*p+.1 p0D>er F'(`; +.Aar ['(`'
Z' Miscanthus floridulus \Z`; Pennisetum purpureum (`; Dheat ?ra9 F(`; r:8e ?ra9 (`; 8a=8:.1 8ar?09ate Z`;
+.Aar F`'
I' Miscanthus floridulus _G'(`; Sorghum propinquum Z[`; Dheat ?ra9 Z[`; r:8e ?ra9 H`; 8a=8:.1 8ar?09ate Z`;
+.Aar ['(`'
_' Miscanthus floridulus _I`; Neyraudia reynaudiana II`; Dheat ?ra9 FW`; r:8e ?ra9 W`; 8a=8:.1 8ar?09ate
F'(`; +.Aar ['(`'
(' Pennisetum purpureum \(`; !hraA1:te+ 8011.9:+ W`; Dheat ?ra9 F[`; r:8e ?ra9 W`; 8a=8:.1 8ar?09ate Z`;
+.Aar F`'
Mixing substrate materials

Yr0Der+ +h0.=> De:Ah a== the raD 1ater:a=+ a880r>:9A t0 the +.?+trate J0r1.=a+; +t:r the 2.98a0 p0D>er; Dheat
?ra9 a9> r:8e ?ra9 eEe9=*; a9> the9 p0.r the1 :9t0 the 1:Ler' <he* +h0.=> J:r+t a>> a>>:t:09a= 9.tr:e9t+ :9t0 the
Dater; J0==0De> ?* 8a=8:.1 8ar?09ate 0r A*p+.1 p0D>er' <he* +h0.=> p.t the 1:Lt.re :9t0 a 1:Ler aJter :t ha+
?ee9 +t:rre> th0r0.Ah=* J0r I[U_[ 1:9.te+' 40te that the Dater 809te9t 0J +.?+trate +h0.=> ?e WZUW(` a9> the pP
Ea=.e +h0.=> ?e ('(UW'('
Filling substrate into container

&9 the 8a+e 0J ?0tt=e 8.=t:Eat:09; Ar0Der+ +h0.=> .+e H([1B p=a+t:8 ?0tt=e+ a9> p.t ([[U(([A 0J Det 1ater:a=+ :9
the ?0tt=e+' &9 8a+e 0J ?aA 8.=t:Eat:09; the* +h0.=> .+e Z_ L __81 p=a+t:8 ?aA+ a9> p.t F'HUZ'ZSA 0J Det 1ater:a=+ :9
ea8h ?aA' -:Le> 1ater:a=+ +h0.=> ?e pa8Se> t:Aht :9 809ta:9er+ a+ +009 a+ 1:L:9A :+ >09e' Yr0Der+ +h0.=> 1aSe
+.re t0 8=ea9 the +.rJa8e 0J ?0tt=e+ 0r ?aA+'
$terilization
&9 the 8a+e 0J h:AhUte1perat.re +ter:=:Vat:09; Ar0Der+ 9ee> t0 Seep the te1perat.re 0J the +ter:=:Vat:09 r001 at
FZF) J0r Z h0.r+ Dh:=e the* 9ee> t0 1a:9ta:9 the 801p0+t at a te1perat.re 0J F[[) J0r W h0.r+ J0r 90r1a=U
te1perat.re +ter:=:Vat:09' Yr0Der+ 9ee> t0 1aSe +.re t0 re80r> the te1perat.re 0J ?0th the r001 a9> 801p0+t at
+8he>.=e> t:1e+' Xhe9 +ter:=:Vat:09 :+ J:9:+he>; the* +h0.=> =0Der the te1perat.re +=0D=*' <he* +h0.=> 0pe9 the
eLha.+t Ea=Ee 09=* aJter the te1perat.re :+ =0Der tha9 H[) 0r the pre++.re Ja==+ t0 ['(SAe81Z'
Knoculation
<he te1perat.re 0J the +.?+trate +h0.=> ?e 800=e> >0D9 t0 FHUZ() ?eJ0re :908.=at:09' Yr0Der+ +h0.=> Seep the
r001 te1perat.re ?etDee9 H a9> F() a9> the h.1:>:t* =e++ tha9 W[`' Yr0Der+ 9ee> t0 1aSe +.re t0 :908.=ate
a880r>:9A t0 the 1:8r0U0rAa9:+1 a9> ?a8ter:aUJree pr08e++:9A r.=e+' <he* +h0.=> 90t .+e 0=> +paD9 a9> +h0.=> Aet
r:> 0J 0=> +paD9 09 the +.rJa8e 0J +paD9 ?0tt=e+ ?eJ0re :908.=at:09'
!
! !art &&' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Su.strate "#,
Mycelia culture
R0tt=e+ a9> ?aA+ +h0.=> ?e +ter:=:Ve> ?* .+:9A .=traE:0=et =:Aht a9> 1e>:8a= =:C.:>+ ?eJ0re ?e:9A 10Ee> :9t0 the
8.=t.re r001' <he appr0pr:ate r001 te1perat.re J0r 1*8e=:a= Ar0Dth :+ Z[UZ_) a9> the appr0pr:ate re=at:Ee
h.1:>:t* :+ W(U\[`' Yr0Der+ are a>E:+e> t0 Ee9t:=ate D:th Jre+h a:r ?.t 90 =:Aht :+ reC.:re>' Yr0Der+ +h0.=>
0?+erEe the te1perat.re Ear:at:09+ a9> 1*8e=:a Ar0Dth +:t.at:09 JreC.e9t=*' &t taSe+ a?0.t FHUZ_ >a*+ .9t:= the
+.?+trate :+ J.==* 80=09:Ve>'
Nrimordia formation
&9 the 8a+e 0J ?0tt=e 8.=t:Eat:09; Ar0Der+ are a>E:+e> t0 +8rat8h the +.rJa8e 0J the ?0tt=e J0r pr:10r>:a= :9>.8t:09'
<0 :9>.8e Jr.:t:9A; the Dater 809te9t 0J +.?+trate +h0.=> ?e :98rea+e>' Yr0Der+ 8a9 a>> F[UF(1B Dater :9t0 ea8h
H([1B ?0tt=e; p0.r 0.t the Dater a9> p=a8e the ?0tt=e+ .p+:>e >0D9 09 the 8.=t.re +he=Ee+' 6Jter Z[UI[ 1:9.te+ 0r
Dhe9 90 10re Dater >r:p+; the* +h0.=> the9 t.r9 the1 r:Aht +:>e .p aAa:9' 69 a=ter9at:Ee Da* :+ N.+t t0 =et the
801p0+t >r* 9at.ra==* aJter a>>:9A Dater' 69 appr0pr:ate r001 te1perat.re :+ FIUF_) a9> a9 appr0pr:ate r001
10:+t.re :+ H(UG(`' 6>eC.ate Ee9t:=at:09 :+ reC.:re>' R.tt09+ appear :9 WUH >a*+'
Fruiting and croBBing

6880r>:9A t0 the +tra:9 t*pe .+e>; appr0pr:ate r001 te1perat.re+ Ear*k FZUF() ]p+*8hr0ph:=:8^; FWUZZ)
]1e+0ph:=:8^ 0r Z[UZW) ]ther10ph:=:8^' Yr0Der+ 9ee> t0 Seep r001 10:+t.re at G[UG(`' <he* +h0.=> :98rea+e
the a:r J=0D ?* t.r9:9A 09 the eLha.+t J0r I[U([ +e809>+ per ha=J h0.r' 6 8erta:9 a10.9t 0J +8attere> =:Aht :+
reC.:re>' &t taSe+ a?0.t 09e DeeS J0r J.== Jr.:t:9A' &J the 8r0p :+ harEe+te> Dhe9 the 8ap+ are 9ear=* 0pe9 a9> J=at; a
h:Ah *:e=> D:== ?e Aa:9e>' )9 the 0ther ha9>; 1.+hr001+ 8a9 ?e pre+erEe> J0r a =09A per:0> :J the* are harEe+te>
?eJ0re the 8ap +prea>+ 0.t'
Culture of second mycelia generation

6Jter harEe+t:9A the J:r+t J=.+h 0J 1.+hr001+; Ar0Der+ +h0.=> Seep the r001 te1perat.re at Z[UZ_) a9> the r001
10:+t.re at W[U\[` :9 0r>er t0 :9>.8e a +e809> J=.+h' <he* +h0.=> 1aSe +.re t0 8=ea9 the ra8S+ 0J 0=> +paD9 aJter
8r0pp:9A a9> =eEe= the +.rJa8e 0J the ?0tt=e+' 6t th:+ p0:9t 90 =:Aht :+ reC.:re>; ?.t Jre+h a:r :+ 9e8e++ar*' <he
+e809> J=.+h +h0.=> +tart HUF[ >a*+ =ater' !r:10r>:a :9>.8t:09 a9> Jr.:t:9A are +a1e a+ D:th the J:r+t J=.+h'
Artificial Nlanting of 'uncao
Mr01 the pa+t *ear+T pra8t:8e; De +tr09A=* +.AAe+t that 1.+hr001 Ar0Der+ Dh0 Da9t t0 a>apt 2.98a0 a+ the
8.=t.re +.?+trate +h0.=> p=a9t 2.98a0 t00' <h:+ :+ ?e8a.+e D:=> 2.98a0 90r1a==* >0e+ 90t Ar0D :9 J:e=>+; a Ja8t that
a=Da*+ 8a.+e+ :9809Ee9:e98e a9> =0D *:e=>+' <he *:e=> 0J p=a9te> 2.98a0 8a9 rea8h I[;[[[SA per -. ]a?0.t
WW\1Z^'
Xe re8011e9> tD0 1eth0>+ J0r 2.98a0 8.=t:Eat:09k art:J:8:a= repr0>.8t:09 a9> 8=0+:9A h:==+:>e+ t0 Ja8:=:tate
Ara++:9A' X:=> Dicranopteris dichotoma ha+ a D:>e >:+tr:?.t:09 a9> a=Da*+ Ar0D+ :9 tra8S+' a0 Ar0Der+ 8a9 Aet
h:Ah *:e=> ?* N.+t 8=0+:9A h:==+ t0 Ja8:=:tate Ara++:9A; a9 a8t:09 that 1aSe+ tra9+p=a9t:9A .99e8e++ar*' &J p0++:?=e;
Ar0Der+ +h0.=> app=* Jert:=:Ver ?eJ0re the ra:9* >a*+ :9 +pr:9A; a+ th:+ D:== Dh:8h re+.=t :9 h:Aher *:e=>+'
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !"#
Mushroom Gro@ersW DandbooT !"
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Part &&. )yster Mushrooms
Chapter 2
Substrate
$%&&%'())* ,-..(
Guo 1ian
3hanghai Academy of Agricultural 3ciences< China
Cottonseed hull is one of the most efficient substrate materials for oyster
mushroom cultivation. Cottonseed hull contains hot @ater eAtracts and
alcohol eAtracts that mushrooms can easily utilize. Cottonseed hull is
easy to dry< so can be stored for relatively long period of time. &f the
substrate is to be sterilized or pasteurized< cotton @aste is suitable
because it emits eAtra heat by itself.
Do@ever< cottonseed hull cannot absorb @ater thoroughly and it is
difficult to remove eAtra @ater content if it is over@etted. Euring
fermentation< concentrated gas cannot escape to the outer surface of the
cottonseed hull. The control of gas and @ater is essential for successful
"#$%&' 1) *+,,+-.''/ 0%11 cultivation using cottonseed hull.
Cottonseed hull GHig. 2I is the coating of cotton seeds< the substance
that remains after the cotton has been peeled off. As a @aste material of the oil industry< it is about JKLMNO of the
total @eight of cottonseed. &n China the annual output of cottonseed hull is about 2K million tons. &t generally
contains P.2O @ater and PN.PO organic matter that consist of MO crude protein< 2.MO crude fat< MN.PO crude fiber<
JM.PO soluble carbohydrate< and K.QO ash. &ts C R S ratio is about (P R 2. This chemical composition sho@s ho@
nutritious a ra@ material cottonseed hull can be @hen cultivating oyster mushrooms. ThanTs to its soft teAture<
high @aterLholding capacity< and good physical structure< cottonseed hull is used @orld@ide as a good substrate
for cultivated oyster mushrooms.
&reatment o6 cottonseed :ull
Pre>?ettinA
Being fresh and contaminationLfree are the basic reVuirements for cottonseed hull that is to be used as substrate
material. &n the preL@etting step< the amount of @ater should be carefully calculated rather than measured by eye.
The @ater usually sinTs to the bottom of the pile< so the cottonseed hull pileWs surface still looTs dry< @hich
encourages gro@ers to over@ater. A graduated container is recommended to calculate the necessary @ater
according to the amount of dry cottonseed hull. After being miAed @ell< the cottonseed hull should remain soaTing
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !"B
overnight. &t is helpful to add 2O CaG)DIK during the overnight soaTing.
(uCClementation
The nutrient content of cottonseed hull is enough for cultivating oyster mushrooms due to its high CYS ratio.
Do@ever< (L2NO of rice or @heat bran is usually added as a supplement before sterilization< as this may produce
higher yields. Many Chinese gro@ers use nonLsterilized substrates in autumn @hen the temperature drops.
DaAAinA and (teriliEation
The plastic bag used here for gro@ing P. ostreatus is MNL(Ncm in length and K(cm in diameter. A specially
designed plastic ring is @rapped at the top end of the bag to form a bottlenecT @ith a cotton plug in it GHig. KI.
After bagging< the bags are usually sterilized to reduce the risT of contamination. &f the cottonseed hull is sterilized
at normal pressure< it is necessary to add 2NO bran or other Tinds of nitrogen supplements to raise yields. KO
calcium carbonate and 2O CaG)DIK is also added to adZust the pD of the substrate to [LP. The cottonseed hull is
sterilized at 2NN" for 2N hours GHig. JI. Then< the pD changes to reach the optimum level of Q.(L\.N.
3ome gro@ers sTip the sterilization of substrates to reduce their costs for heating and autoclaving. This method
is freVuently chosen by relatively poor Chinese gro@ers in autumn and @inter. &f not sterilized< the substrate
materials must be fresh and should be pasteurized for KLM days by sunlight before preL@etting. &n addition< no
nitrogen should be supplemented in order to lo@er the risT of contamination< but 2O of calcium hydroAide
GCaG)DIKI needs to be added.
!! !!!! !
"#$%&' 2) 34$$#-$ +5 6+,,+-.''/ 0%11 7#8'/ "#$%&' 9) 3+#1'& 4-/ 4%,+614:'
;#,0 6+&-6+<.
(Ca?ninA
Euring spa@ning< the spa@n should cover the surface of the substrate to reduce the possibility of contamination
during spa@n run. (NLQNg of spa@n is inoculated to 2Tg of substrate< so spa@ning rate reaches (LQO of @et @eight
of substrate. Then the bags should be incubated at K(" until the mycelia gro@ fully. ]hen sterilization is not
available< an increased amount of spa@n needs to be @ell miAed @ith substrate. After spa@ned substrate is put into
each bag< a layer of spa@n is placed on the substrate surface in the bag. The bags should be incubated at a
relatively lo@ temperature< about 2(LKN"< in order to decrease the amount of contamination.
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !!"
.aFinA t:e Gro?inA DaAs
After the mycelia have fully gro@n< the bags are then moved to the gro@ing house for fruiting. ]e use a uniVue
method of maTing @alls @ith mushroom bags and soil. 2Lmeter @ide ridges are made at N.[Lmeter intervals and
the space bet@een the ridges is used for draining. Hully incubated bags are cut open at the bottom and laid on one
side of the ridge @ith another bag on the other side of the same ridge GHig. MI. The length of the ridge varies
according to the @idth of the house. &t is necessary to leave the N.[Lmeter @ide aisles for both drainage and picTers
passing through.
"#$%&' =) >0' ;411. .0+;- 5&+7 "#$%&' ?) >0' ;411. +5 <4$. "#$%&' @) A%.0&++7 <4$ ;411.
4<+:' B/0'&'/ <C 5'&,#1#D'/ .+#1 ;#,0+%, .+#1
The uniVue characteristic of our method is the use of fertilized soil @ith urea as both cement for building the
@all and a source for nutrients and humidity GHig. (I. The fertilized and moistened soil is filled into the KNcm
space bet@een the t@o tiers of bags and is also layered Jcm thicT on top of the gro@ing bags. The proper
Vuantities of urea or other Tinds of inorganic nitrogen supplements are spread on this soil if necessary. Then<
another layer of bags are put on top of the previous layers until the ridge height reaches 2.(m @ith the @all length
and @idth gradually tapering GHig. (< QI to prevent the @all from falling do@n. A layer of soil is placed to cover the
top of the @all of bags GHig. MI. The number of ridges is dependent on the dimension of the gro@ing house.
By using this method< @e can manage the bags easily and raise the yields. The mycelia of the mushrooms
stretch into the fertilized and moistened soil and absorb the nutrients from it. ]atering is necessary during the
fruiting periods. ]ater is sprayed on the soil< not on the substrate or fruit bodies< in order to Teep the mushroom
pins from dying.
$roCCinA HanaAement
After the @all of bags are finished< the plastic rings and the cotton plugs are usually removed and the mouths of
the bags are pulled straight to let fresh air enter in order to stimulate pinning. 3ome gro@ers donWt cut off the
plastic at the top end of the bags because this part can generate a small microLclimate @here the relative humidity
is high< and @ater is not directly sprayed onto the pins thanTs to this part. Do@ever< the methods vary from
province to province according to local climate conditions. 3ome gro@ers leave the plastic rings on during fruiting
GHig. \I< @hile others get rid of the eAcess plastic GHig. [I.
Euring fruiting< gro@ers maintain proper temperature and [(O relative humidity by spraying @ater on the
ground and soil. ^sually< (LQ flushes are harvested before the @eather is no longer suitable for oyster mushroom
gro@ing. Biological efficiency has reached 2(NLKNNO.
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate !!!
!! !!! !
"#$%&' EFG) HC.,'& 7%.0&++7. $&+;#-$ 5&+7 ,0' <4$ ;411
,arvest
&t is necessary to stop @atering t@o days before picTing. The mature fruitbodies are recognizable by their shape.
The process of picTing is very easy as gro@ers simply pull out the fruitbodies by hand. &t is not advisable to use
Tnives to cut the fruitbodies at the base because some stumps @ill be left and these can cause the crops to suffer
from infections.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""#
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Chapter 5
Substrate
"#$%&C%() *%$%"")
Dewraj Taurachand
Wings of Angels, Mauritius
Mauritius is a small island in the Indian Ocean with a population of about 1.2 million. Mushroom industry is in its
infant stage and oyster mushroom is mainly cultivated. Other species such as shiitake and )uricularia are
cultivated on experimental scale at several governmental institutions. Oyster mushroom is rich in protein as well
as contains less fat, less carbohydrate and salts. It also has rich fibre, high Vitamin B12 and folic acid contents
uncommon in vegetables. Therefore, oyster mushroom is ideal food for patients suffering from hypertension,
diabetes and obesity.
Table 1. Characteristics of sugarcane bagasse
Moisture Fibre Soluble Solid (mostly sugar)

Composition (%) 49 48 2.3
Sugarcane bagasse is the only substrate material available in

Table 2. The Composition of Fibre large amount in Mauritius, and no other substitute has been
Cellulose 48%* proved as a good mushroom substrate till now. Sugarcane
Pentosan 28.7% bagasse requires no chipping, cutting, or grinding to be utilized
Lignin 14.3% as substrate material, unlike corn cobs, grasses and banana leaves.
Ash 2.4% It can be collected directly from factory, so we don’t need extra
pH 6.1% labour for collecting and can preserve environment by using this
Total nitrogen 1.23% agricultural waste. Previously, sugarcane bagasse was distributed
Carbon 29.36% by sugar factories free of charge. However, mushroom growers
Available phosphorus 2,399ppm have to pay for it nowadays because the sugar factories see the
Available potassium 21.63ppm waste as a fuel for electricity generation if ever earned. Moreover,
* out of which 26.6% is alpha cellulose(a) the factories can sell the excessive power to the Central
Electricity Board, so they have no reason to throw away the
bagasse. Sugarcane bagasse is not available in out of season, so most mushroom growers suffer from substrate
shortage. The sugarcane bagasse cannot be stored for a long time.
Sugarcane bagasse mainly consists of moisture, fibre, and soluble solid (Table 1). The main constituents of
fibre are cellulose, pentosan, and lignin. Table 2 shows the composition of fibre. Sugarcane bagasse contains
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""$
cellulose which is easily degraded by oyster mushroom, a cellulolytic fungus. It also contains cellulo sugars
especially sucrose which provides energy for mushroom. The total nitrogen content indicates that bagasse is not
poor in nitrogen. The nitrogen is mostly in the organic form especially protein which is required for growth of
mushroom. We use this waste from sugarcane industry to grow highly value added product, oyster mushroom.
"pa-. Preparatio.
Tissue culture of oyster

mushroom is inoculated to
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)
media (Fig.1) and incubated.
After colonized by mycelium,
the PDA media is cut into pieces
and inoculated to sterilized
millet grains, which will be
mother spawn. After fully Figure 1. Transfer of mycelium! Figure 2. Spawn bags in
incubated, this mother spawn is Incubation!
inoculated to spawn bags filled
with maize seeds. After fully colonized, this bag is used as spawn (Fig. 2). The spawn bag can be purchased from
governmental organization in Mauritius.
!
Preparatio. o5 6ushroo: *a;s
Figure 3. Mixing substrate materials Figure 4. Mixed substrate Figure 5. Bagging

(sugarcane bagasse : crushed maize
seed:lime=8:1:1)
To prepare substrate for oyster mushroom, we mix 80% of sugarcane

bagasse, 10% of lime, and 10% of crushed maize seed thoroughly (Fig.
3). Then, tap water is added to the dry mixture to keep the water content
60% (Fig. 4). The sugarcane bagasse is slightly acidic, so lime is added
to adjust the pH. And crushed maize is a supplement to provide nitrogen
source. The prepared substrate is filled into polypropylene bags (Fig. 5,
6) and the open end of the bag is tied. The size and weight vary ranging
from 0.75 to 3kg according to growers. We have experimented with 25kg
bags.
Figure 6. Weighing bags!
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""%
Pasteuri<atio. a.d >.oculatio.
The bags are pasteurized at 60-70& for three hours by steam in pasteurizer (Fig. 7). The prepared bags are placed
in three layers of the pasteurizer (Fig. 8). Enough space is left between bags so that steam can circulate and heat
the bags evenly. Water is poured into the bottom of pasteurizer and boiled for 3 hours to keep the inside
temperature of pasteurizer at 60-70&. A mercury thermometer is used to monitor the temperature inside
pasteurizer. The pasteurizer should be airtight to prevent any loss of steam and hence avoid a drop in temperature.
It can be operated by electricity, gas or wood burning. As the temperature inside the pasteurizer rises to 70&, it
should be maintained for 3 hours to make substrate pasteurized. When pasteurization is done, the bags are cooled
down in room temperature. Then, oyster mushroom spawn grown on maize seed is inoculated into the bags and
PVC pipe of 53mm in diameter is placed in the open end of the bag and plugged by a piece of foam. The
spawning rate reaches 2.5% of the wet weight of substrate.
! !!!! !
Figure 7. Pasteurizer (outside) Figure 8. Pasteurizer (inside)
>.cuAatio. a.d Fruiti.;
After inoculation, the bags are incubated in a dark room for 3-4 weeks. After the substrate bags are fully colonized
by mycelium, the foam is removed and PVC pipe is replaced by PVC ring. To induce fruiting, the bags are
watered 2-3 times daily at the opened ends, which should always remain moist.
5-10 days later, pinheads of oyster mushroom appear and grow into mature fruit bodies in 3-5 days (Fig. 9, 10).
The mushrooms are harvested when the caps are flat and the gills are open (Fig. 11). Frills are observed at the
edges of mushroom cap. The whole cluster should be harvested at one time. Mushrooms are packed for domestic
and overseas market (Fig. 12).
Figure 9, 10. Oyster mushrooms growing from sugarcane bagasse substrate

!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""'
Figure 11. Harvested oyster mushrooms Figure 12. Ready for delivery and export
After harvest, remnants of fruit bodies on substrate should be removed from the bags to prevent contamination.
Watering is done to induce second flush. Second flush can be harvested in 2 weeks. We usually harvest three
flushes from each bag and the yield is approximately one quarter of the dry weight of substrate used in bag. We
harvest 250g of oyster mushroom from 1000g of dry substrate (bagasse 800g + lime 100g + maize seed 100g), so
biological efficiency is 25%. After completion of the final harvest, the spent substrate can be used as compost that
can eventually be returned to the field.
Figure 13. Shiitake cultivated on sugarcane bagasse Figure 14. Auricularia cultivated on sugarcane bagasse
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""#
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Chapter 5
Substrate
RUBBER TREE SAWDUST
Truong Binh Nguyen

Biology Institute in Dalat, Vietnam
Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis (Willd ex. A. Juss.) Muell.- Arn.) is an industrial tree cultivated in some parts of
the Highland and South-East Provinces of Vietnam such as Daklak, Gialai, Kontum, and Dongnai. Every year, a
large number of rubber-exhausted trees are cut for new planting and for producing furniture from rubber wood.
This results in a lot of sawdust waste that may cause serious environmental problems. For many years, that
sawdust was either burned or naturally discharged, and now it is recognized to be very suitable for mushroom
cultivation in Vietnam. Many mushroom species, such as Pleurotus spp., Auricula spp., Lentinula spp. and
Ganoderma spp., are popularly cultivated on rubber tree sawdust. In this article we are going to deal with special
methods for preparing rubber tree sawdust as a substrate material for oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) cultivation.
The Rubber Tree Sawdust
Rubber tree sawdust has a uniform size structure so it is not only suitable for utilization in plastic bag cultivation,
but the structure also facilitates enrichment of the substrate. In addition, the levels of nutritional elements in
rubber tree sawdust are a little bit higher than those of mixed broad-leaf tree sawdust.
Table 1. Comparison of rubber tree sawdust and mixed broadleaf tree sawdust
Elements Rubber tree Sawdust (%) Mixed broad-leaf tree Sawdust (%)
N 1.68-0.20 1.27-0.20
P 0.48-0.04 0.43-0.06
K 1.18-0.05 0.77-0.05
Ca 0.12-0.03 0.23-0.06
Mg 0.04-0.01 0.03-0.01
(Source : Studies on Biotransformation abilities of oyster mushroom

- Master thesis by Tran Huu Do, 1999)
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""$
Table 2. Comparison of rubber tree sawdust and mixed broadleaf tree sawdust
Elements Rubber tree Sawdust (ppm) Mixed broad-leaf tree Sawdust (ppm) Error (%)
As 0.03 0.22 5
Cd 0.05 < 0.14 -
Cs 1.1 1.66 10
Cu 23.83 13.29 5
Fe 113.76 167.85 5
Hg 0.01 0.07 25
Mn 31.26 41.13 5
Pb 2.08 1.75 10
V 0.22 0.16 10
Zn 31.28 28.79 3
(Source : Studies on Biotransformation abilities of oyster mushroom

- Master thesisby Tran Huu Do, 1999)
Substrate Formulation
Although the nutrients of the substrate always affect mushroom production, we still propose three substrate
formulae for growing oyster mushrooms in Vietnam. Growers may choose the most convenient and appropriate
formulae for each specific case. For example, the substrate formula number one is not recommended for any
poorly equipped mushroom farm because of its high risk of contamination and formula number three is used only
for fresh sawdust.
Formula 1 Formula 2 Formula 3

(T.H. Do, 1999) (L. T. Chau, et al., 2003) (L.D. Thang, 1993)
sawdust : 75% sawdust : 85% Sawdust : 99%
rice bran : 10% rice bran : 10% Lime : 1%
corn bran : 5% lime : 1%
lime : 2% ammonium sulphate : 0.5% (Only used for fresh sawdust)
peanut waste 5% sugar : 1%
super phosphate : 1% gypsum : 2%
ammonium sulphate : 0.5%
magnesium sulphate : 0.05%
Treatment of Substrate
"igure (. *i+ti-g o+ s01dust "igure 2. 4ubber tree s01dust 6i7ed 1ith 0dditives
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""%
The sawdust must be pre-wetted for 2-3 days in advance, and then
shavings and pieces of wood that are too big or too sharp are removed by
a sift (Fig. 1), because these pieces absorb water poorly and easily pierce
plastic bags during handling. Rice and corn bran and peanut waste are
supplemented as organic nitrogen sources while urea and ammonium
sulphate as inorganic nitrogen sources. Lime should be diluted with water,
and then showered onto the sawdust to adjust pH. Mix the components
carefully and adjust the moisture content to 60-65% and the pH to 5.5-6.5
before filling the bags (Fig. 2).
"igure A. @0gs 0+ter b0ggi-g Many kinds of plastic bags are used in Vietnam, and growers can
choose the sizes of plastic bags according to the hygienic conditions and
equipment of their mushroom farms.
After filling, the bags are closed by putting on a ring made of plastic or thick paper forming a ‘mouth’ (Fig. 3)
inside which a cotton plug is put as a stopper, and the whole ring is then wrapped with a piece of old newspaper.
Sterilization
Sterilization of substrate bags is done under high pressure and high temperature using an autoclave, usually at 1
atm, 121&, for 60-90 minutes, depending on the volume of the bags.
Normal pressure sterilization is done in 95& for 5 hours in a drum (Fig. 4). As an alternative method for
sterilization, bags can be sterilized twice at 95&, for 3 hours each time, with a 24-hour interval between
treatments.
! !!!! !
"igure 4. ;ru6 +or -or60l pressure sterili>0tio- "igure ?. @0gs 0+ter sterili>0tio-
Inoculation
Spawning is conducted in a clean room and some inoculation rooms are made of a plastic sheet in Vietnam.
Growers buy mushroom spawn from the Institute of Biology or the Agriculture Center near their mushroom farms.
Spawn is inoculated into substrate bags manually after disinfecting the gloves and bottlenecks with an alcohol
flame. Spawn in 750g bottle is inoculated to 70-80 bags of 1kg each, so spawning rate reaches 1% of wet weight
of substrate.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 5. Substrate ""'
Incubation
Inoculated bags are hung by chains in a dark room at 25-30& for incubation. Incubation periods vary according to
the species: 20-25 days for Pleurotus sajor- caju, Pleurotus pulmonarius, and Pleurotus ostreatus, 30-40 days for
Pleurotus cystidiosus, and 50-55 days for Pleurotus eryngii.
Fruiting
When the mycelium has covered the substrate completely, the bags are transported to the fruiting room, and then
some slits are made around the plastic bags to accommodate fruit body formation. All the windows of the growing
room are open for ventilation and light, and humidity is maintained by spraying water 3-4 times per day. In most
developing countries including Vietnam, growing rooms don’t have ventilation systems or temperature controls,
so cultivation is absolutely dependent on natural conditions. Therefore, the temperature and humidity of a growing
area should be thoroughly examined when choosing suitable species or strains.
! ! ! !
"igure BC D. Pleurotus pulmonarius gro1i-g +ro6 rubber tree s01dust b0gs "igure E. Pleurotus abalonus
"igure F. Pleurotus cystidiosus "igure (0. H0rvested oyster

6ushroo6s
Harvest
In Vietnam, 4-5 flushes of oyster mushroom are harvested. The yield of Pleurotus eryngii is around 23-30% the
weight of the dried substrate while the yield of Pleurotus pulmonarius, Pleurotus sajor-caju and Pleurotus
ostreatus are higher, at about 40-50% of the weight of the dried substrate.
REFERENCES
- Chau, L. T., T. B. Nguyen, and C. N. M. Trang. 2003. Study on Growing of Pleurotus eryngii in Dalat. Research
Report
- Do, T. H. 1999. Studies on biotransformation abilities of oyster mushroom, Master thesis, Dalat University.
- Thang, L. D. 1993. Mushroom Cultivation Technique. Agriculture Publisher.
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms C"apter (' Substrate "#$
Mushroom GrowersQ HandbooA !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part II' Oyster Mushrooms
C"apter (
Substrate
"#$%&'&%T S*E,,S
Emilia Masenda
Aidabase Technology; Zimbabwe
Though the cultivation of oyster mushrooms by smallholder farmers has only recently been introduced in
Zimbabwe; it has become a very popular activity among many farmers' It has also caused direct competition for
substrate material with the livestocA industry' Zimbabwe citiBens raise cattle and goats in many areas' During the
dry season from May to November the cattle graBe on dry veld grass and their diets are supplemented with various
agricultural wastes including primarily maiBe and groundnut stover' Millet straw is also used for this purpose as is
any other cereals that are grown' Farmers value their livestocA more than the mushrooms so agricultural wastes
are usually given to livestocA'
Although groundnut shells FFig' GH are sometimes used for stocA feed; they are not as popular as cereal straws
and legume stovers' Therefore; they can be used as substrate for growing oyster mushrooms without much
competition from the livestocA industry' In some towns and centers; large Iuantities of groundnut shells can be
obtained very cheaply from the companies that are involved in shelling groundnuts'
! !!!! !
"#$%&' () *&+%,-,%. "#$%&' /) *&+%,-,%. 01'22
&utritional Composition
According to analysis by the Animal Science department; groundnuts shells contain an average of KLM organic
matter; K'LM crude protein; NL'GM crude fiber; and O'NM ash' Another nutritional composition analysis of
!
Copyright! 2,,- by MushWorld All rights reserved.
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms C"apter (' Substrate "#"
groundnut shells indicates that the shells contain K('OM cellulose; GN'GM carbohydrates; O'SM protein; T'(M
minerals and N'GM lipids' Since the processed shells from shelling machines contain bits and sAins of nuts; the
actual protein and lipid contents of this waste material are probably much higher'
Substrate Preparation
Crushing shells
Shells from machineUshelled groundnuts do not need to be crushed further but those from handUshelled nuts should
be ground in a mill or by hand mortar' Vefore crushing; growers should picA out rotten or blacAened shells'
>ashing shells
Shells have to be washed to remove soil' Two methods are used for washing the shells' In the first method; the
shells are placed on a plastic sheet and water is poured over them with a hose while they are being turned FFig' SH'
Then; the soil moves to the bottom and is carried away by the runUoff water' In the second method; the shells are
put in a plastic container and water is poured over them' The soil will fall to the bottom after agitation FFig' TH'
When the shells are clean; they are placed on a plastic sheet and left overnight to absorb moisture'
"#$%&' 3) 4501#,$ 6#.1 65.'& "#$1&' 7) 8'9+:#,$ 0+#2 ;< 5$#.5.#+, "#$%&' =) >''?'& @+2+& +A
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The substrate starts heating up and turns a deeper color after soaAing FFig' (H' Growers should observe the pile
carefully for soil which might remain stucA on the shells even after washing' Growers should never use moldy
shells and should collect shells before rainfalls and store them in a dry place'
Addition of supplements
The use of supplements is optional; but wheat bran FNMH and cottonseed hulls are added as supplements in the
ratio N X T to maAe substrate more compact and increase yield' With cottonseed hulls supplemented; biological
efficiency can be increased up to GYYM' In winter; cottonseed hulls have additional advantage of Aeeping the bags
warm and accelerate spawn run'
However; the bags can be overheated by cottonseed hulls in warm season; so addition of cottonseed hull is not
recommended in those seasons' Zime FNMH and gypsum FSMH are also added' Zime is added to improve and
maintain a favorable pH' Rapid drop of pH has been e\perienced after substrate fermentation if no lime is added'
A high pH also discourages competitor molds' Gypsum is added to prevent sticAiness and absorb e\cess moisture'
Zime and gypsum can be added at spawning to avoid them being lost during steaming'
*eat Treatment of Substrate
The substrate is steamed using a drum for G hours and the temperature is maintained at OY % by controlling the
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms C"apter (' Substrate "##
flow of steam' If the groundnut shells were not very clean; the time of steaming can be prolonged to TUK hours'
Good indicators of proper steaming are the nut shells that become tender and cooAed by the steam' If steaming
time is too short; the substrate IuicAly develops contaminants after spawning' Another popular heat treatment
method is to heat the substrate using the sun' This method is commonly used in some regions where firewood is
very scarce and e\pensive' Some local white button mushroom growers also use this method to heatUtreat their
composts' The substrate is preUwetted and then wrapped tightly with blacA plastic sheets and left in the sun for TUK
hours' ]ondensation on the plastic Aeeps the substrate from drying and so does turning the bundle from time to
time' After heat treatment; the substrate should retain OYM of its moisture'
Spawning
After the substrate cools down; it is pacAed into blacA plastic bags weighing (Ag each and spawned simultaneously'
NYYg of spawn is inoculated to (Ag bag; so spawning rate is GM of wet weight of substrate' Roughly crushed shells
should be tightly pacAed to avoid air spaces' Growers should maAe small holes in the bags using a pen through
which fermentation gases can escape' The bags are then left for incubation in a darA room' It is recommended not
to place the bags too closely together because that can cause overheating; and as a result; contamination'
Fruiting and Dield
When spawn run is complete; the bags are hung in the fruiting room and holes are made on the bags' Humidity in
the room is Aept at L(U^YM by watering the floor and periodic spraying of water in the air with a hand spray'
Usually KUL flushes are harvested'
When growing )* salmoneo0straminieus; NAg of fresh mushrooms are harvested from a bag F(Ag with OYM of
water contentH on average' In calculating biological efficiency FV'E' a fresh weight of mushroom b dry weight of
substrate \ NYYMH; the biological efficiency of this method is KOM FNAg b N'(Ag \ NYYM a KOMH' With )*
pulmonarius; V'E' is NGYM and with )* ostreatus it is N(YM' When the substrate is supplemented with cottonseed
hulls; biological efficiency for )* ostreatus is on average NLYM'
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#$
Mushroom Qro6ersZ Handbook !"
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part &&. )yster Mushrooms
Chapter (
Substrate
"#"$%&'()*)+', -.'/& %&(/-
Ahkla3 4han
Pakistan
)yster mushroom gro6ing re7uires se8eral essential steps including pasteuri=ation or sterili=ation. Pasteuri=ation
or sterili=ation is o>ten the most e?pensi8e step because it re7uires >uel-consumption >or steaming or boiling.
Though this is important >or obtaining high yields, it is a 8ery tricky and labor-intensi8e process. &> mushrooms
could be culti8ated 6ithout pasteuri=ation or sterili=ation, the 6hole process 6ould be much easier, >aster, and less
e?pensi8e. & ha8e used natural sources such as lime stone and pulse po6der to success>ully dispense 6ith the
pasteuri=ation or sterili=ation steps.
& ha8e been made many e?periments 6ith gro6ing oyster mushrooms on di>>erent kinds o> substrate materials
such as cotton 6aste, rice stra6, sa6dust 6ith poultry manure, dried grass, 6aste cloth, oak and others.
De8ertheless, all the materials re7uired sterili=ation at high temperature. Eithout sterili=ation high yields couldnFt
be produced. Gor e?ample, cotton 6aste is one o> the best substrate materials, but it re7uires a long time >or
sterili=ation. Ho6e8er, 6heat stra6 sho6ed great results (almost JKKL success) 6ithout pasteuri=ation or
sterili=ation. Moreo8er, it is 8ery simple to gro6 oyster mushroom in large 7uantities.
Nince & ha8e no idea about the scienti>ic analysis o> 6heat stra6 itsel>, & cannot e?plain 6hy 6heat stra6 is so
appropriate >or oyster mushroom culti8ation. Ho6e8er, 6heat stra6 6as the best o> all the non-sterili=ed
substrates in my e?periments. & 6ould like to share my e?perience 6ith you step by step.
Nubject matter P Qro6th o> oyster mushrooms using 6heat stra6 by adding the cheapest possible material such as
lime stone (CaC)S, Calcium Carbonate) and yello6 pulse in ground po6der >orm.
Ingredients and material
Eheat Ntra6 (Chopped)P TKkg Uime Ntone (CaC)S)P VKkg

Pulse Po6derP Jkg Eheat Bran or Xice BranP Tkg
EaterP JKKU Y more Polythene Nheet (&> necessary)
Bricks (>or grounds shel8ing)
DoteP The abo8e ratio is >or the e?ample sho6ing a simple production. &ncrease materials in the same ratio, i>
necessary.
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#%
: Step <
Pour 6ater into a large container or drum and add TKkg o> 6heat stra6 and lea8e until the 6heat stra6 is soaked
(Gig. V, S). Gill JKKU o> 6ater into another container (Gig. J) and add (kg o> lime stone to another container and let
it dissol8e (Gig. T, (, [). The dissol8ing lime emits heat and gases. Add the soaked 6heat stra6 to this solution
(Gig. ], ^). Uime stone acts as an anti bacterial agent and kills all the 8iruses harm>ul to the initial gro6th o> the
mycelium. &t also lo6ers the acidity o> the 6heat stra6 6hich is not good >or the gro6th o> the mycelium.
Figure 1. Fill two containers with Figure 2, 3. Pour the wheat straw on one container and soak it
100L water respectively
Figure 4, 5, 6. Add lime stones to the other container and they dissolve emitting heat and gas
Figure 7. Reaction to water added Figure 8, 9. Add soaked wheat straw to the lime stone solution
: Step =
Take the soaked 6heat stra6 out o> the 6ater (Gig. JK) to mi? 6ith Tkg o> 6heat bran or rice bran (Gig. JJ). Mi?
them thoroughly on a clean >loor 6ith a polythene sheet on it (Gig. JV).
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#&
Figure 10. Take the straw out of the Figure 11, 12. Add 4kg of rice or wheat bran and mix them thoroughly
water
: Step >
Make a closed tray pattern on the clean >loor 6ith bricks in a circular shape. Npread the remaining JKkg o> dry
lime stone inside the circle o> bricks (Gig. JS). Pour the soaked 6heat stra6 mi?ed 6ith 6heat bran on the lime
stone layer (Gig. JT, J(). Pour in 6ater until the base gets 6et to speed up the chemical reaction o> the dry lime
stone (Gig. J[). By this chemical reaction a lot o> heat and gases are produced 6hich are help>ul in pasteuri=ing
the material.
Figure 13. Spread lime stone Figure 14. Take the mixture of wheat straw and rice bran
Figure 15, 16. Pour the mixture inside the brick circle and pour water
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#'
: Step ?
_uickly co8er the substrate 6ith a plastic sheet to keep in the heat and humidity >or VT hours (GigJ`, J]). The
substrate should be co8ered no longer than VT hours. The substrate is ready >or spa6ning the ne?t day. aou can
sa8e energy costs by using this step.
!!!! !
Figure 17, 18. Cover the substrate with a plastic sheet to keep the heat, gas and humidity
: Step @
A>ter VT hours, mo8e the substrate to a shel>, tray, or bags >or spa6ning. &n my case, a brick shel> 6as used inside
an a8ailable gro6ing room (Gig. J^). Npread the ready substrate on the shel> bricks e7ually (Gig. VK) and pour on
more 6ater. Nprinkle the spa6n on the substrate e8enly (Gig. VJ). The last ingredient to add is yello6 pulse
po6der (Gig. VS). This po6der is also e7ually spread on the shel> o8er the spa6ned substrate (Gig. VT).
,
Figure 19. Make shelf bricks on floor Figure 20, 21. Pour the ready substrate and sprinkle spawn on the substrate
Figure 22. Yellow pulse Figure 23. Yellow pulse powder Figure 24. Spread yellow pulse
powder on the substrate
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#(
: Step A
Co8er the all the shel8es tightly 6ith a plastic sheet in order that no air can enter and so the re7uired humidity
le8el is maintained (GigV(, V[).
Figure 25, 26. Cover the shelf with a plastic sheet
: Step B
A>ter `-] days, the mycelium starts gro6ing and spreads all o8er the shel>. buring mycelial gro6th, keep the
temperature o> the room at JK-J() >or the best results and to pro8ide the most >a8orable en8ironmental
conditions.
: Step C
About (K days later, the 6hole shel> 6ill be coloni=ed 6ith a 6hite milky color by the mycelium. The 6heat stra6
mi?ture is no longer seen. Xemo8e the polythene sheet >rom the top o> the substrate and induce pinning.
: Step D
&t is time to start spraying 6ater S-T times each day on the substrate. Maintain proper 8entilation to control the
>lo6 o> air because mushrooms are more nourished and gro6 better 6ith air that contains good o?ygen content. &>
the amount o> carbon dio?ide increases in the room, the si=e o> the mushrooms starts decreasing and yields lessen.
: Step <E
&n ] -JK days, the mushrooms 6ill appear on the shel>. This is a delicate stage >or the gro6th. Continue 6ater
spraying daily. Make sure to spray 6ater to keep the humidity at ^K-JKKL and the temperature at J(-VK). The
mushrooms 6ill be ready to be picked a>ter V-S days. aou can har8est mushrooms >or up to S-T months
continuously. &t can be e?tended to J-V years i> good climatic conditions are maintained. Mushrooms are har8ested
6hene8er they are >ully gro6n. Usually J-Vkg o> mushroom is picked >rom Jkg bag.
The abo8e steps ha8e pro8en to gi8e the best results on an e8en larger production scale 6ith a healthy and
>ruit>ul har8est.
!
! Part &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Substrate "#*
! ! ! !! !
Figure 27, 28. Oyster mushroom grown on non-sterilized substrate in bag cultivation.
Foot note
The e?periences o> the editor Jo=e> Poppe ha8e sho6n since TK years the proo> that a pasteuri=ation o>
6heat stra6 during V minutes bet6een [( and `K degrees Celcium gi8es a per>ect incubation in S 6eeks and
a >ast har8est S 6eeks later.!
!
! !art II. !yster Mushrooms Chapter (. Growing Houses 129
Mushroom GrowersG Handbook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art II. Oyster Mushrooms
Chapter (
Growing Houses
MUSHROOM GROWING HOUSES
Hyun3ong 4won5 Seung 7oo 4ang5 Song Baek Cho

MushWorld
In the early days of mushroom growing and in most parts of the world; mushrooms were grown outdoors. Early
growers depended on natural environment for the control of mushroom growing conditions. Growers today in the
regions with favorable conditions for mushroom growing still grow their mushrooms as if they were wild
mushrooms growing in natural situations. Aut commercial mushroom growers or those who want to produce as
many mushrooms as they cannot rely on the natural environment. Most modern mushroom farmers build
mushroom growing houses; simple temporary structures; or retrofit an eBisting structure for mushroom production.
!roviding good conditions for mushroom growing can lead to a higher yield of mushrooms. A farmer who plans to
build a mushroom growing house will have to consider where; with what and how to build it. These topics will be
discussed in the following sections.
! !!!! !
"igure 1) *utdoor straw mushroom culti5ation "igure 7) 8 warehouse-turned mushroom growing-house
(;hoto courtesy of >ricita ?) @uimio)
Where to Build - Site Selection
The determination of where to build a house is important; especially when building a simple; makeshift structure
where the crop yields will be dependant on the environmental conditions of the growing site. The maFor factors
that should be considered when selecting a mushroom production site are described below.
Climate conditions
!
Although the optimal growing conditions for different mushroom strains vary; mushroom growth is generally
favored by warm and humid conditions. In temperate regions; growers who want all-year-round production need
to build their growing houses in places that are warmer; sunnier and less windy in the winter. Their counterparts in
subtropical regions; however; might want to grow their mushrooms in highland areas that are cooler than other
lowland areas during summer. Where environmental conditions are unfavorable for mushroom growth; one could
insulate or eJuip the structure or house with appropriate structures in order to minimiKe the influences of outside
conditions on the microclimate inside the growing room. !olyethylene sheet is one of the most commonly used
materials and is often applied to maintain the proper temperature and humidity in the growing house and to shelter
thatch houses or makeshift structures from such adverse conditions as heavy rain and strong winds.
! !
"igure B) >hatch mushroom growing "igure F) >hatch mushroom "igure G) HI; (Htructural insulated!
house co5ered by a plastic sheet, growing house draped by shade ;anel) house!
with the floor lined with plastic sheet! cloth and surrounded by a stone
fence
Some large-scale commercial growers build well-insulated growing houses; in which all the room conditions
including temperature; humidity and CO2 concentration are controlled automatically. Ay selecting an ideal
mushroom growing site; growers with these types of growing houses can also minimiKe the significant costs for
maintaining desired room conditions.
Access to water
It is widely known that mushrooms are OPQ water and are best grown at high humidities around RP-OPQ R.H.
Trelative humidityU. Growing mushroom reJuires a great deal of water and ensuring a sustainable water supply;
especially during dry spell; is crucial to successful mushroom growing. Growers need a large amount of water
when they prepare substrate pasteuriKe or steriliKe the miBed substrate; water the floor to maintain the constant
high humidity; water the mushroom bags; or clean the rooms.
Groundwater is widely used; especially for cooling and moistening the room air and for cleaning the room.
Selecting a site with a secure access to water source is a must for sustainable mushroom production.
Environmental integrity
Most farmers grow their mushrooms organically; which is one of the main reasons for the increasing popularity of
mushrooms. Air-borne pollutants and chemicals could be detrimental to the organic production of mushrooms and
the health of farmers as well. Locations near industrial compleBes; waste incineration facilities; or sewage
treatment plants should be avoided.
Proximity to markets
Mushrooms are highly perishable produce. The price of mushrooms depends on their Juality; especially their
freshness. Once mushrooms lose their freshness; their marketability and price will drop drastically. To earn the
!
most money available from selling mushrooms; growers need to shorten the time from growing room to store shelf.
Selecting the growing site which is not far from mushroom markets is Juite helpful to getting more money by
selling mushrooms as fresh as possible and reducing the transportation costs. They are also advised to locate
potential customers and make contact with supermarket produce buyers; restaurant supply persons and produce
wholesalers well before their mushrooms are harvested.
With What and How to Build - Examples
Once the growing site is determined; growers have to consider construction materials and methods with which to
build their growing houses. Usual construction materials are those easily available to growers; such as wood poles;
steel pipes; bricks; plastic; blankets; leaves; straw; thatch and hay. Some growers can build simple houses with
readily available materials. When and where environmental conditions are within acceptable temperature and
humidity ranges; a simple; open-style structure built of any available materials will do its Fob well enough. Other
growers will need to construct a closed-style growing house in which room conditions are less affected by outdoor
weather conditions. The following eBamples; ranging from simple to
sophisticated; will provide basic ideas about good growing houses and
structures.
Simple structures with a roof

The structure shown in Figure ( is one of the simplest structures for
mushroom growing. The open system and the pitched-roof permit good
ventilation. However; the control of humidity in this system is not easy when
the weather is too dry or too wet. The system reJuires more water than other "igure N) Hteel frame structure with a
roof
closed-style structure because of its greater evaporational water loss.
Simple structures draped by a proper covering

These draped structures are more insulated from outside weather conditions;
but are still simple structures. The proper covering provides a good
insulation and a high humidity holding capacity for the structure but growers
will need to pay a close attention to temperature; ventilation - removal of
eBcess carbon dioBide and supply of oBygen.
"igure O) Hteel structural tubing
co5ered with tarpaulin
Thatch houses
"igure J) Bamboo wo5en matting "igure L) Bamboo pole rafter and "igure 1M) >hatch house with
leaf-wo5en roof shade cloth
!
"igure 11) >hatch house with insect "igure 17) PodentQsnake barrier in "igure 1B) Podent repellent
screening the bottom part
(;hoto courtesy of 8udrey P)H Mab5eni)
Thatch houses are the most widely found simple growing houses. Straw; leaves and wood poles are readily
available and serve as good construction materials. They are air permeable; thermo-insulating; lightweight and
highly pliable. !ossible shortcomings; including the easy entry of contaminants; can be improved with proper
application and usage of sheltering; insulation; screening; barriers and other materials that could be readily placed
on the house.
!ests; diseases and other possible contaminants entering from outside can deteriorate mushroom Juality; which
translates into a significant drop in income. Some insects spread mushroom diseases. Other pests including snails
and rats and their predators like snakes gnaw and eat away mushrooms; substrate bags and even growing houses.
Installing proper physical and chemical protective barriers is recommended for these thatch houses. !rotective
barriers include stone fences TFig. 4U; screening TFig. 11U; plastic sheeting TFig. 12U and rodent repellent TFig. 13U.
Brick and clay houses
! !!!!!!!!!! !
"igure 1F) Brick house with a thatch roof and a 5ent "igure 1G) Titchen-turned mushroom growing house
(;hoto courtesy of 8udrey) (;hoto courtesy of 8udrey P)H) Mab5eni)
Thatch wears out within a few years. Once it begins to leak; the thatch structure should be renewed. Commercial
scale growers might want a more durable growing house that is suitable for all seasons. Clay and earthen bricks
are good choices that allow for good insulation; ventilation and prevention from pests. Depending upon material
availability and their preferences; growers can choose from a variety of materials for the roof material of their
growing house. They are well advised to make ventilation openings in order to ensure freJuent air-eBchanges.
Greenhouses sheathed in insulation and SIP (Structural Insulated Panel) houses

Sustainable production and a constant supply of harvestable mushrooms are important to successful marketing that
can provide growers with a sustainable income. In some parts of the world with adverse climate conditions and
varying seasons; well or totally insulated growing houses are needed for all-season production. Growers in these
regions invest a considerable amount of money to set up their growing houses and provide an ideal microclimate
!
for the growth of mushrooms to produce the highest yields possible.

In these closed-style growing houses TFig. ]; 1(; 1Û; growers need to monitor and control temperature;
humidity and CO2 concentration at all times. They partly or fully depend on sensors and controllers for the
growing room control. These sheathed houses are durable. Simple insulation houses TFig. 1(; 1Û last ]-^ years
and the SI! houses TFig. ]U can last for more than 1] years.
! !!!!! !
"igure 1N, 1O) Ureen house clad with insulation (glass wool) and roof 5ents
Why to Build - Functions of a Mushroom Growing House
The maFor value of a mushroom growing house is to provide favorable conditions for mushrooms and protect
them from adverse environmental factors such as harsh weather; pests; pathogens and pollutants. Good mushroom
growing houses perform these tasks effectively. Growers might want to have a mushroom growing house well-
insulated and at the same time; well-ventilated. Insulation materials mentioned above such as polyethylene;
tarpaulin; shade cloth; thatch; clay; glass wool and SI! TStructural Insulated !anelU will work well to provide
temperature and humidity control. For easy ventilation however; a pitched-roof and ventilation openings are
recommended; especially in closed-style growing houses; as are shown in most figures in this discussion. A
pitched-roof reJuires more money; time and higher technology to set up but provides better drainage; ventilation
and temperature control.
!rotection against pests and pollutants is also one of the maFor roles of
a mushroom growing house. Among the materials mentioned above;
thatch is not good for protection against them. A thatch house should be
lined or covered with screening TFig. 11U; plastic or other comparable
covering; and surrounded by some barriers or a fence TFig. 4; 11; 12U.
Growing houses made of the other materials are free from pests and
pollution but some screenings or filters should be installed on the vents
to further block access.
"igure 1J) V;H (VWpanded
;olystyrene) growing house with
The high-tech; insulated panels are an effective means of preventing polyethylene insulation and a bottom
possible pathogens from entering the room. Aut fungal and bacterial barrier along the ground
pathogens can come from the ground. !aving TFig. 2; ]; (; ^; 14U or the (;hoto courtesy of >ricita ?) @uimio)
application of gravels or plastic sheeting TFig. 3U on the floor is highly
recommended for disease prevention; especially where the ground is muddy. Mud on the footwear is a potential
contamination source in mushroom growing houses.
!
An ideal mushroom growing house does not necessarily need to be a high-tech; high-cost structure with all
automatic controls. Some growers ruin their crops even in these state-of- the-art growing houses and other
growers reap a rich harvest in humble sheds or garages. The most important consideration is keeping an eye on
preventing possible pests and pathogens and understanding the relation between temperature; humidity and air-
eBchanges. Room conditions including temperature; humidity and air movement are correlated. In a closed
environment; when the room temperature rises; relative humidity of air falls. When outside air flows in;
temperature and relative humidity of the room air change according to the condition of the outside air. Further;
close observation of different growing houses and different practices for room condition control could be helpful
to mushroom growers who seek to create optimal growing room conditions for their own operations.
!
! Part &&' !yster (ushrooms Chapter (' Culti0ation (odes 135
Mushroom LrowersM Handbook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part &&' )yster Mushrooms
Chapter (
Culti0ation (odes
LOG CULTIVATION
In the Temperate Regions
4yun5ong 78on9 :eung ;oo 7ang

MushWorld
Gepending on the length of logsA there are two basic methods for log cultivation of oyster mushrooms' &n
the long log methodA growers cut trees into one;meter long sections and drill a series of inoculation holes
in the logs into which spawn is inoculated' ?his techniHue is somewhat similar to traditional shiitake log
cultivation' &n the short log methodA growers cut the tree trunks into pieces IJcm in length and inoculate
those sections' ?hough the short log method is more labor intensiveA it shows a relatively higher
production than long log cultivation'
For that reasonA we will narrow down the topic and discuss only the short log method in this article'
Log Preparation
Species
!"#$%& 1) *+,-../01&+%2-../ %+2". !"#$%& 3) 4%&& 5&66"7# "7 -"72&% !"#$%& 8) !+66&7 2%&& "9 :$2 2. 9";&
"7 -../
)ne can see wild oyster mushrooms after a rainfall on the dead broad;leaf trees <hardwoods= such as poplars' ?his
indicates that those tree species are suitable for oyster mushroom cultivation' )n the other handA most needle;leaf
trees <softwoods= contain phenolic resin compounds and show low productivity when used for oyster mushroom
cultivation' Sawdust from conifers can be used after the phenolic compounds are gone' Hardwoods such as poplarA
willowA beechA elm and alder are the most commonly used tree species' Enlike shiitakesA oyster mushrooms do not
grow well on oak tree logs'
!
Since mushrooms feed primarily on sapwoodA any tree trunks selected for inoculation should have a large
sapwood area' ?he lighter or outermost wood of a log is the sapwood and the darker or inner wood is the
heartwood' N log with a small amount of sapwood will probably produce mushrooms for fewer years than another
log with a greater amount of sapwood'
Tree felling
Oogs should be felled during the dormant season when the bark adheres tightly and the tree trunks are full of sap
and nutrients' N bit later the seasonA these nutrients are likely to have been consumed during the germination of the
buds'
When recently cut logs are usedA living wood cells interfere with mycelial growth' When too old logs are usedA
older and drier logs with less water content also retard mycelial growth' &n order to prevent water loss and
contaminationA felled trees should remain uncut in the shade for several days before inoculation' &n order to avoid
contamination from the groundA cut trees should not contact the ground during storage' PQperienced growers cut
their logs into IJcm long pieces a few days before inoculation to allow the logs to achieve the proper log moisture
at inoculation' Ns fungi secrete digestive enRymes and absorb dissolved nutritionA mycelial growth reHuires the
proper amount of water content <ST;UIV= in logs for the smooth transfer of enRymes and nutrition' &n practiceA
when the logs have a coin;thick crack in the cut sectionA one can assume that the logs have the proper water
content' Oogs of WX;IJcm diameter are an ideal siRe for handlingA therefore efficient'
Spawn Preparation
Sawdust spawn is the usual inoculation medium for oyster mushroom log cultivation' Lrowers employ low;
temperature strains that form bunches easily and produce high yields' High;temperature strains make fast flushes
and produce high yieldA but are not fit for the production of high Huality fruitbodies'
&t takes at least W;I months for spawn suppliers to make spawn from a mother culture after they receive an order'
?hereforeA growers should order their spawn from a reliable dealer sufficiently ahead of schedule before the
spawning' Lrowers should give the spawn dealer their desired shipping date so their spawn will be as fresh as
possible'
Inoculation
&noculation season begins when the temperature outside is close to the best growing temperature for mycelia' ?he
mycelia of oyster mushroom are viable at a wide temperature rangeA and can survive
from X to SX"A but they grow best at IX;I( "' Yeyond the proper temperature rangeA
the mycelia lose vitality and may die' ?hereforeA the right time for inoculation is when
the lowest temperature is X " and the highest is IJ" in spring'
Method
Lrowers can either inoculate with original spawn onlyA or original spawn with
supplements that increase the Huantity of total spawn' With the supplementA growers
can use less original spawnA but when it is hotA contamination may increase with poor
management because the supplement usually contains much nutrients' ?o begin withA
growers should sort the logs by width' NeQtA they should make the inoculum by miQing
IJ;XJV spawn with the supplementA which is composed of sawdust and rice bran at a !"#$%& <) =7.:$6+2".7
ratio of U:W on a volume basis with a moisture content of \J;\XV' ?oo much .5 21& 6.#9
!
supplement can increase contamination' NeQtA they should apply the inoculum X;WJmm thick to the log ends with
more on the margin of each log <Fig' U=' Nnd lastA they should stack five or siQ logs on top of another like a
sandwich' Stacking logs in the order of cutting minimiRes the contamination risk by reducing the eQposure of
spawn to contaminants <Fig' X=' &n order to prevent damage by respiration heatA growers should arrange the
stacked logs in three or four rows and make walking aisles between the rows'
Incubation
&noculated logs should be covered with plastic and the mushroom mycelia
allowed to coloniRe the logs in a shady moist area' When it is dryA growers
should water the surrounding ground' &t takes S;U days for mycelia to recover
and begin regrowth' Parly in the incubationA growers should keep the room
temperature as steady as possibleA somewhere between WX and IJ" being best'
N wide variation in temperature will result in a high risk of fungal infestation'
When growers notice green moldA they should apply fungicides such as Yenlate
to the spot' With summer comesA growers may need to use appropriate
temperature controls to keep the area around IJ"'
!"#$%& D) =7:$A+2".7 .5 21&

"7.:$6+2&/ 6.#9
Burying
Guring the summerA the well;coloniRed logs

will adhere to each other' Nt this point they are
ready to fruit' Lrowers should move them to
the desired place for mushroom fruiting'
Lrowers may grow mushrooms either by
standing the logs or by burying the logs'
Yurying is recommended because sand can
!"#$%& >) ?$%@"7# +52&% "7:$A+2".7) 41& &BA&//&/ 6.#9 -"66
A& :.C&%&/ -"21 91+/& :6.21 prevent drying' Lrowers should separate each
log unit and bury them all vertically in the
mound with the inoculated sides up and with about WJ;IJV of the length above ground level' Pach log should be
spaced WJ;WXcm apart on a Wm wide ridge' Lrowers should direct free water to a XJcm furrow for good drainage
<Fig' \=' Nfter buryingA growers pitch a tent over the buried logs to prevent direct eQposure to the sun and moisture
loss' ?he tent must not disturb watering or harvesting'
Pinning Induction
Guring mid;autumn when the temperature goes down below IJ"A it is time to induce pinning' ?he usual pinning
stimulation methods for mushroom are from lightA cold;shockA soaking or physical impact' Nbout ten days before
pinningA growers should apply enough water to promote fruitbody pinning' Fruitbodies appear mainly on the
cambium'
!
Fruiting and Harvesting
Guring fruitingA Lrowers need to water enough to keep the logs

and soil moist' ?hey can eQpect to see mushrooms form on the top
surface first around the boundary between bark and wood' ?hey
should then remove the covering sheet from the logs and increase
irrigation' Lrowers should stop irrigation W;I days before harvest'
Fruiting takes nearly X;\ days' When is the right harvest time]
Lrowers should pick mushrooms when the caps reach Xcm in
diameter' ?hey must reap the pleasure of harvest along with
clusters of fresh mushrooms from the logs <Fig' (='
When they finish the first cycle harvestA they should clean the
mushroom remains and maintain the logs in a moist condition'
!"#$%& E) F+2$%& 5%$"2A./"&9 .7 6.#9 Fifteen days later or soA they may see a second flush' &f the outside
temperatures go down in winterA they should cover the logs with a
plastic sheet' When it gets warm againA they can harvest again'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "#$
Mushroom GrowersI Han46ook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art &&' Oyster Mushrooms
Chapter (
C).t/0at/+2 (+3e#
BAG %&'TI*ATIO,
4")25+26 78+29 :")26 ;/< 7/,

MushWor34
Bag ;u3tiBation is the most ;ommon3y use4 metho4 ?or mushroom ;u3tiBation in many 3o;ations aroun4 the
wor34' &ts a4Bantages are as ?o33owsK
LM Mu;h sma33er risk o? ;ro9 ?ai3ure ;om9are4 with other ;u3tiBation metho4s
NM !ossi63e insi4e houses or unuse4 stru;tures
OM !ossi63e with a sma33 initia3 inBestment
PM Qasy to ;ontro3 9ests an4 4iseases
RM Sui;k return o? ;a9ita3
(M !ro4u;tion is 9ossi63e a33 year roun4
Substrate Preparation
Substrate materials and additives
5he su6strate is to mushrooms 3ike soi3 is to 93ants' Mushroom my;e3ia grow on the nutritious me4ia, taking ?rom
it the nutrients ne;essary ?or their growth' Common3y use4 su6strate materia3s are saw4ust, ;ottonsee4 hu33, ;erea3
straw, ;orn;o6, sugar ;ane 6agasse, an4 other 93ant ?i6ers with high ;e33u3ose ;ontents' One o? the merits o?
mushroom growing is that the agroAwastes use4 as su6strates are Bery ineC9ensiBe an4 sometimes ?ree' MoreoBer,
oyster mushrooms ;an 6e grown on a wi4er Bariety o? agri;u3tura3 wastes than any other ;u3tiBate4 mushrooms
thanks to their mu3ti3atera3 enDyme system'
Et the 6eginning, growers must 4e;i4e what kin4 o? materia3s to use ?or the su6strate' One o? the 6est ;hoi;es
is using the su6strate materia3s that a grower ;an se;ure aroun4 their neigh6orhoo4' E se;ure su993y o? rea4i3y
aBai3a63e materia3s a33ows ?or sustaina63e mushroom 9ro4u;tion' 5he su6strate materia3s are su993emente4 i?
ne;essary with a44itiona3 nitrogen sour;es su;h as wheat 6ran, ri;e 6ran, sorghum, or mi33et' Other a44itiBes
in;3u4e gy9sum, 3imestone, an4 sugar' Gy9sum, 3imestone, an4 ;ha3k ?un;tion as 6u??ers to ;ontro3 the 9H Ba3ue in
the su6strate' 5he 9ro9er use o? a44itiBes that su993y nutrients is re;ommen4e4 in or4er to a;hieBe the 6est Hua3ity
mushrooms'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%&
#$%&'()
5here are Barious trees aBai3a63e in ea;h region that ;an 6e use4 as sour;es
?or saw4ust' 5he ?reHuent3y use4 tree s9e;ies ?or mushroom ;u3tiBation
in;3u4e oak, 9o93ar, a34er, ma93e, 6ir;h, wi34 ;herry, mango, an4 e3m' &t is
im9ortant to se3e;t tree s9e;ies that are 6oth ?aBora63e ?or the growth o?
mushrooms an4 easi3y aBai3a63e' 5ree s9e;ies that shou34 6e aBoi4e4 or
that reHuiring signi?i;ant a44itiona3 treatments 6e?ore their use in;3u4e
9ine, ;e4ar an4 re4woo4' !ine tree saw4ust has resins that inhi6it my;e3ia3
growth, an4 ;e4ar an4 re4woo4 saw4usts are a3so resistant to my;e3ia3
;o3oniDation'
Figure 1. The sawdust ready to Saw4ust is miCe4 with water an4 other su993ements either out4oors or
mix on the cement floor
in4oors, either manua33y or me;hani;a33y' C3ose attention shou34 6e 9ai4
4uring miCing to the eBen 4istri6ution o? water throughout the entire su6strate' 5he su6strate moisture ;ontent is
usua33y a4juste4 to RPV' E 9a3m test metho4 is a sim93e way to ;he;k whether the miCture has the 9ro9er water
;ontent or not'
W!a3m 5est Metho4W
! !!!!!! !
Figure 2. Optimum (left) and high substrate moisture contents
Xirst, take a ?ist?u3 o? saw4ust miCture an4 sHueeDe tight3y' &? just a ?ew 4ro9s o? water are re3ease4 with 9ressure,
the su6strate miCture has the 9ro9er water ;ontent' &? the saw4ust is too wet, it ;ou34 im9e4e the ?ree ?3ow o? air in
the su6strate' 5oo 3ow a water ;ontent 9rohi6its my;e3ia3 growth'
=>?a,p.e AB Che )#e +D #a83)#t a# a #)E#trate ,ater/a. /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
Cha/.a23 H Saw4ust ma4e ?rom ru66er trees is use4 as a su6strate materia3'

:a26.a3e#h H Mango saw4ust miCe4 with wheat 6ran in a ratio o? YKL is use4'
I,er/Fa H Oak, 9o93ar, a34er, ma93e, 6ir;h, an4 wi34 ;herry are use4 as saw4ust sour;es' Woo4 ;hi9s, ;erea3 grain
straw, ;orn;o6, hay, an4 sugar ;ane 6agasse are use4 as we33 as saw4ust' 5hey are su993emente4 with su;h
nitrogen sour;es as ri;e, wheat 6ran, 9e3t, an4 other grains, ;orn mea3, an4 ;ottonsee4 mea3 at a ratio o? Y to L'
Other a44itiBes in;3u4e sugar, mo3asses, gy9sum, an4 3imestone' E33 the ingre4ients o? ;hoi;e are miCe4 4ry, an4
then water is a44e4 to o6tain a RZARPV moisture ;ontent'
7+rea H Saw4ust ?rom oak, 9o93ar, an4 other 6roa4A3ea? trees are most ;ommon3y use4' Some growers o9t ?or
saw4ustAon3y su6strates an4 others use saw4ust su6strates su993emente4 with ri;e 6ran or other nitrogen sour;es'
Su993ements in 9ow4er ?orm are miCe4 together 6ut some su993ements with tough teCtures nee4 to 6e soake4 ?or
a6out LN hours 6e?ore miCing' MiCing is usua33y 4one in the ri66on miCer [Xig' LM'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%"
#)*$%
Straw has 3ong 6een ?aBore4 6e;ause it is easy to get in most regions an4
ri;h in 3ignin an4 ;e33u3ose' \irt, 9est an4 mo34A?ree straw shou34 6e
;hosen' Growers might want to se;ure a sustaina63e su993y o? high
Hua3ity straw ?rom one region, ?or this wi33 a33ow ?or easy 9re9aration
with minimum e??orts'
5o make a su6strate, straw is ;ut into oneAtwo in;hA3ong 9ie;es'
\i??erent too3s are use4 to ;ho9 the straw in 4i??erent ;ountries' Straw
;ho99ers, shre44ers, gar4en ;hi99ers an4 han4 straw ;ho99ers are use4'
QCtra 9re;aution shou34 6e ma4e not to get one's ?ingers into the 63a4es'
Figure 3. Rice straw pile Cho99e4 straw is soake4 in water ?or LAN hours, then rinse4 N or O times
in ;3ean water an4 3e?t ?or O or Y hours to 4rain eC;ess water o??'
5he ]!a3m metho4^ is a3so use4 to ;he;k whether this su6strate miCture has the 9ro9er moisture ;ontent' &? the
moisture ;ontent is too high, the su6strate is more Bu3nera63e to in?e;tion' &? the moisture ;ontent is too 3ow, the
s9awn ;ou34 grow 9oor3y an4 the harBest Huantity wou34 4e;3ine'
=>?a,p.e JB Che )#e +D #tra8# a# a #)E#trate ,ater/a. /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
K23/a H !a44y straw is use4 as a su6strate' &t is ;ho99e4 manua33y or me;hani;a33y into 6its o? OAP;m in 3ength'
Lepa. H _i;e straw is ;ut into one or two in;h 9ie;es an4 soake4 into water ?or a6out LAN hours' 5hen the soake4
straw is washe4 N or O times in ;3ean water an4 9ut asi4e ?or OAY hours to a33ow eC;ess water to 4rain' Growers
here 9re?er to su993ement the su6strate with 9roteinAri;h su6stan;es su;h as wheat or ri;e 6ran'
M/et2a, H Straw is soake4 in a ;ontainer o? 3imewater' 5he 3imewater ;ontains Nkg o? s3a;ke4 3ime 9er LZZkg o?
4ry straw, with as mu;h water a44e4 as is nee4e4 to just ;oBer the straw' 5he straw is 3e?t in the 3imewater ?or ha3?
an hour, so that it is thorough3y soake4' 5he straw is then 9i3e4 u9 on a ;ement ?3oor an4 ;oBere4 with 93asti; or
sa;king' 5he to9 o? the 9i3e is 3e?t un;oBere4' 5he straw is 3e?t to ?erment ?or (ALZ 4ays' \uring this time, it wi33
6egin to ?erment an4 6e;ome hot' 5he straw is turne4 on;e eBery three 4ays, ?irst ?rom the to9 4ownwar4s, then
?rom the 6ottom u9war4s, then ?rom the insi4e outwar4s an4 ?ina33y ?rom the outsi4e inwar4s'
;B IDr/Fa H 5he main raw materia3s use4 as su6strates here are ;ho99e4 wheat straw an4 other aBai3a63e
agri;u3tura3 6yA9ro4u;ts su;h as sugar;ane 6agasse' 5hese 6asi; su6strate materia3s are miCe4 with 3ime, gy9sum
an4 water' Wheat straw is aBai3a63e in 3arge roun4 6a3es [NPZkgM, 3arge sHuare 6a3es [OPZkgM an4 sma33er LNkg
sHuare 6a3es'
Some growers a44 organi; nitrogen su993ements to the su6strate in the ?orm o? a3?a3?a mea3, soy6ean mea3, ;ano3a
mea3, an4 ;ommer;ia3 4e3aye4Are3ease su993ements' HoweBer, su993ements are use4 on3y i? su??i;ient ;oo3ing is
aBai3a63e to ;ontro3 su6strate tem9eratures'
N/,EaE8e H 5he most ;ommon su6strate is wheat straw an4 grass' Banana 3eaBes, a3though higher yie34ing an4
9ro4u;ing higher Hua3ity mushrooms, are not usua33y 9re?erre4 6e;ause they giBe a 4e3aye4 6reak an4 this
su6strate is not as a6un4ant as the other two'
+,)),- %$(). ,* +,)),-(..& /'00(

Cotton wastes are a3so a goo4 su6strate materia3 ?or mushroom growing' Many
growers ;hoose ;otton waste 4ue to their eC9erien;es in whi;h ;otton wastes
giBe higher yie34s than saw4ust'
HoweBer, using ;ottonsee4 hu33 a3one is not 4esira63e 4ue to its 3ow
moisture retention ;a9a;ity' 5he maCimum water ho34ing ;a9a;ity o? Figure 4. Cottonseed hull
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%(
;ottonsee4 hu33s is a6out PPAP` Va there?ore growers nee4 to miC it with other su6strate materia3s to e??e;t a
higher water ;ontent in the su6strate'
=>?a,p.e OB Che )#e +D F+tt+2#ee3 h)..# a# a #)E#trate ,ater/a. /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e# G
7+rea H LPZkg o? ;ottonsee4 9e33ets are miCe4 with OZkg o? 6eet 9u39, LPkg o? ;ottonsee4 resi4ue, an4 Nkg o?
;har;oa3' OPZkg o? water is then a44e4'
N/,EaE8e H Cottonsee4 hu33s are su993emente4 with 3ime an4 gy9sum an4 then Bery s3ight3y wette4 oBernight'
Filling and compressing
! ! !
Figure 5. Bags filling and compressing Figure 6. Bag plugging Figure 7. Inoculation hole
5he 9re9are4 su6strate miCture is usua33y ?i33e4 into 6ags 6e?ore heatAtreatment, 6ut some growers 9asteuriDe or
steri3iDe the su6strate in 6u3k an4 then ?i33 the 6ags' 5he ?irst metho4 is re;ommen4e4 to minimiDe ;ontamination
risk' 5he ?i33e4 6ags are then 9ro9er3y ;om9resse4 ?or ?ast my;e3ia3 ;o3oniDation' E?ter ?i33ing an4 ;om9ressing, a
NAO;m 4iameter ho3e in the ;enter is ma4e that a33ows ?or ino;u3ation 4own at the 6ottom o? the 6ag' 5his 9ermits
4ee9er ino;u3ation an4 a 6etter oCygen su993y, thus en;ouraging ?aster ;o3oniDation' Growers who 4onIt ;om9a;t
the 6ags 4onIt a3ways nee4 to make an ino;u3ation ho3e'
%losing the bags
!!!!!!! !
Figure 8. Sealing the bags by rubber band Figure 9. The plastic cap
5he 9ro9er Benti3ate4 sea3ing o? the 6ags is Bery im9ortant to goo4 ;o3oniDation' My;e3ia nee4 oCygen to 6reathe,
there?ore 6reatha63e 93ugs or sto99ers are re;ommen4e4 ?or ?ree air eC;hange' !3ugs with ;otton 6a33s or
6reatha63e mi;roA?i3ters wi33 9roBi4e ?ree air eC;hange an4 at the same time ?i3ter out 9ossi63e ;ontaminants'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%#
=>?a,p.e PB :a66/26 /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e# G
:a26.a3e#h H E6out PZZg o? mango saw4ust is miCe4 with wheat 6ran in a ratio o? Y to L, then watere4 an4
steri3iDe4 an4 then 9ut into 9o3y9ro9y3ene 6ags measuring NP ) NZ;m'
Lepa. H Be?ore ?i33ing, the 9o3yethy3ene 6ags measuring LY ) NY in;hes, or L` ) NR in;hes are 9un;he4 eBery two
in;hes in rows a33 oBer the sur?a;e with a 9un;hing ma;hine' 5he ;on4itione4 straw is ?i33e4 a6out Y in;hes thi;k
at a time, 9resse4 s3ight3y, an4 then another 3ayer o? straw is a44e4' 5his is ;a33e4 the ]3ayer metho4'^
M/et2a, H !3asti; 6ags measuring NZ ) OZ;m or L` ) NP;m are use4 as mushroom 6e4s' Growers o9en the 6ags
an4 9ut a han4?u3 o? straw insi4e' 5hey 9ress the straw 4own tight3y, to make a 3ayer OAP;m thi;k at the 6ottom o?
the 6ag' 5hey 9ut a44itiona3 3ayers in the 6ags, an4 then they 9ut a ?ina3 3ayer o? straw on to9 in su;h a way that
the to9 o? this ?ina3 3ayer is PA(;m 6e3ow the mouth o? the 6ag' 5hey 9ut a ;3ean 9ie;e o? ;otton in the mouth o?
the 6ag, sea3 it, an4 then tie the 6ags together with a ny3on ro9e [OAP 6ags 9er ro9eM an4 hang them'
K23/a H 5hey use a woo4en mo34 to make a 6ag' &t is a woo4en ?rame o? YP ) OZ ) LP;m siDe, haBing no to9 or
6ottom 6ut haBing a se9arate woo4en ;oBer YY C Nb;m in siDe' 5hey take the woo4en ?rame an4 93a;e it on a
smooth ?3oor, 93a;ing jute ro9es un4erneath, two Berti;a33y an4 one horiDonta33y' 5hey then 3ine the ?rame with a
93asti; sheet that has 6een 9reBious3y steri3iDe4 6y 4i99ing in 6oi3e4 water' 5hey ?i33 the ?rame with a6out P;m o?
6oi3e4 straw an4 ;om9ress it with the he39 o? the woo4en 3i4, an4 then ;ontinue to a44 Y or R 3ayers'
;B IDr/Fa H Cro99ing ;ontainers are ma4e o? 3arge ;3ear or 63a;k 9o3yethy3ene 4u;ting ;ut into NAmeter ;o3umns
[PZ;m in 4iameterM with a meta3 su99ort' 5hese ho34 a99roCimate3y PZkg o? su6strate' Other growers use sma33
93asti; 6ags ;ontaining a6out NZkg o? su6strate' Ho3es are 9un;he4 into the 6ags ?or aeration an4 mushroom
maturation'
4eat treat,e2t
Su6strate nee4s to 6e treate4 6e?ore s9awning' Heat treatment is most
?reHuent3y use4 to ki33 or re4u;e 9ests an4 mi;roorganisms, an4 there are
two ;ategoriesK steri3iDation an4 9asteuriDation' Steri3iDation ki33s a33
mi;roorganisms whether they are harm?u3 or not to my;e3ia3 growth, whi3e
9asteuriDation re4u;es the num6er o? mi;roorganisms' 5he right
9asteuriDation time an4 tem9erature 4e9en4 on the 9ossi63e 9athogens in a
giBen su6strate materia3'
1,*2$0 3*.(('*. ().*4045$)4,-

Growers 9ut the su6strate 6ags in the auto;3aBe or steri3iDer' 5he 4esire4
steri3iDation tem9erature is maintaine4 ?or PA` hours at bZAbP*! or Y hours
at LZZ* measure4 ?rom the time the insi4e tem9erature has rea;he4 the
target tem9erature' 5he su6strates are then taken out an4 moBe4 to a ;oo3er Figure 10. Commercial Sterilizer
room'
647/ 3*.(('*. ().*4045$)4,-

cn4er 9ressure o? L'Pkgd;mN or NZ 9si [36 9er sHuare in;hM, the insi4e steri3iDer tem9erature rises u9 to LNL*'
When it rea;hes LNL*, the tem9erature is maintaine4 ?or RZAbZ minutes' c9on ;om93etion o? steri3iDation, the
9ressure is re3ease4 ?irst' E?ter steam ;omes out, the su6strate 6ags are moBe4 ?rom the steri3iDer to a ;oo3er 93a;e'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%%
CaE.e AB I30a2ta6e# a23 3/#a30a2ta6e# +D h/6h a23 .+8 pre##)re #ter/./Qat/+2
I30a2ta6e# R/#a30a2ta6e#
Hight 9ressure A time saBing A ;onsi4era63e 3oss in su6strate moisture
A ?ue3 saBing A nutrient 3oss 9ossi63e
A ;om93ete steri3iDation 9ossi63e A high setAu9 ;ost
eorma3 A 3itt3e 3oss in su6strate moisture A insu??i;ient steri3iDation e??e;t
!ressure A ;on4itioning o? nutrients ?or A time ;onsuming
&n;rease4 a6sor9tion 6y my;e3ia A ?ue3 ;onsuming
A easy an4 3owA;ost to setAu9
840 &*'2 3$().'*45$)4,-

Oi3 4rums are ;hea9 an4 easy to get an4 insta33 in oneIs yar4' 5hey are wi4e3y use4 to 9asteuriDe su6strate 6ags'
csua33y they are mounte4 on 6ri;ks, ro;ks or any other heatAresistant materia3' 5his 4rum 9asteuriDer is an
assem63y o? oi3 4rum[sM, meta3 or woo4en grates, 3i4s with steam es;a9e ho3e[sM an4 ki3n'
! !!!!!!! !
Figure 13. Inside the drum sterilizer Figure 14. Bags ready for sterilization
840 &*'2 3$().'*45$)4,-
A 5he ?irst grate is ?it into a not;h in the 4rum [Xig' LOM'
A Water is ?i33e4 a6out LP;m 6e3ow the grate'
A 5he grate sur?a;e an4 the 4rum wa33 are 3ine4 with 3inen to aBoi4 6ag 6urning [Xig' LYM'
A 5he 9re9are4 6ags are sta;ke4 in a 3ayer an4 then on the neCt grates'
A 5he 3i4 is 93a;e4 an4 the 3i4 rim is sea3e4'
A Water is 6oi3e4 an4 the heating is maintaine4 ?or YAR hours ?rom the time when the Ba9or starts to rise' 5he
9asteuriDation time 4e9en4s on the 6ag siDe an4 su6strate materia3'
!
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%+
!!!!!!! !
Figura 13. Interior del tambor esterilizador Figura 14. Bolsas listas para la esterilización
8')&,,*9 (4230. 3$().'*45$)4,-

Here is a sim93y way o? 6ag 9asteuriDation in 6u3k'
:a6 pa#te)r/Qat/+2 /2 E).<

A Su6strate 6ags in sta;k an4 nest ;ontainers are 93a;e4 on the she3? [Xig' LPM'
A 5hey are ;oBere4 with 93asti; sheet, insu3ation an4 tar9au3in [Xig' LRM'
A Steam ?e4 into the tentA3ike stru;ture 6y a steam 6oi3er is 9asse4 through a33 the ;ontainers'
A E?ter a6out LZAhour steaming, 6ags are 3e?t to ;oo3 to NP*'
! !! !! !
Figure 15. Bags ready to pasteurize Figure 16. Bags under pasteurization. Figure 17. Electric boiler to
They are covered with a plastic sheet, feed steam into the bags in
insulation and a tarpaulin. bulk.
=>?a,p.e#S #)E#trate heat treat,e2t /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
K23/a H Growers 93a;e a gunny 6ag o? straw into the 6oi3ing water ?or LPANP minutes' 5hey then remoBe the gunny
6ag ?rom the 4rum an4 3et it sit ?or ÀLZ hours to 4rain o?? the eC;ess water an4 a33ow the straw to ;oo3' Care is
taken that the 6ag is not o9ene4 unti3 the time o? 63o;k making as this wou34 9ossi63y ;ontaminate the 6oi3e4 straw'
5he 4esira63e moisture ;ontent o? the straw ;an 6e teste4 6y the ]9a3m metho4'^
Enother metho4 o? 9asteuriDation o? straw is 6y steaming' 5his metho4 reHuires 3itt3e mo4i?i;ation o? the 4rum'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%,
Growers 9un;h a sma33 ho3e in the 3i4 o? the 4rum, an4 whi3e 6oi3ing the straw, sea3 the 3i4 with a ru66er tu6e'
5hey 93a;e a ?ew stones in the 4rum an4 9our in water on3y to the 3eBe3 o? the stones' 5hey steam the wette4 straw
6y kee9ing it in a 6am6oo 6asket that is 93a;e4 oBer the stones insi4e the 4rum' 5hey ;3ose the 3i4 o? the 4rum an4
sea3 the rim 6y means o? a ru66er tu6e' 5he steam generate4 ?rom the 6oi3e4 water 9asses through the straw an4
9asteuriDes it' E?ter 6oi3ing, they trans?er the straw into a 9reBious3y steri3iDe4 gunny 6ag an4 3eaBe it sit ?or eight
to ten hours to ;oo3'
Lepa. H 5he wette4 su6strate is steame4 in a NZZf 4rum ?or LAN hours at a tem9erature o? bZ*' 5he steame4 straw
is then a33owe4 to ;oo3 4own' Et this time some growers su993ement the su6strate with a 9roteinAri;h su6stan;e
su;h as wheat or ri;e 6ran'
M/et2a, H 5here is no s9e;ia3 9asteuriDation eC;e9t the ?ermentation is 9er?orme4 out4oors'
;B IDr/Fa H Su6strate 9re9aration Baries ?rom grower to grower ranging ?rom hot water treatment to 9asteuriDation,
4e9en4ing on the aBai3a63e eHui9ment' Cho99e4 wheat straw is miCe4 with 3ime, gy9sum an4 water in rotata63e
9asteuriDation Besse3s' 5he su6strate is 9asteuriDe4 with 3iBe steam ?or N hours at (ZA(P* an4 ;oo3e4 oBernight'
Bang3a4esh Su6strate is steri3iDe4 at LNL* ?or LP minutes in an auto;3aBe an4 then ;oo3e4 at room tem9erature ?or
NY hours'
#3$%-4-7
Mushroom s9awn is a me4ium that ;arries mushroom my;e3ia' Most growers use s9awn 9ro4u;e4 6y ;u3tiBators
or ;ommer;ia3 s9awn 9roBi4ers' Here is how to ino;u3ate su6strate 6ags'
K2+F).at/+2
A 5he work sur?a;e, ino;u3ation room an4 g3oBes shou34 6e ;3ean an4 4isin?e;te4 with (ZV a3;oho3 so3ution' 5o
make a (ZV a3;oho3 so3ution, some growers 4i3ute methano3 with water' &t shou34 6e aBoi4e4 sin;e the
9ro3onge4 use o? methano3 might ;ause a serious injury in the 6rain an4 eyes'
A E s9oon?u3 o? s9awn is 9ut into su6strate 6ags as Hui;k3y as 9ossi63e ?or se;ure steri3e o9eration' 5he s9awning
rate is a6out NAN'PV o? the 4ry weight o? the su6strate'
! ! !!! ! !
Figure 18. Spawning room, Swaziland Figure 19. Additives, spawn bottles
and spawned-bags at different stage
=>?a,p.e#S ;pa82/26 ,eth+3# /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
K23/a H Xi33 a99roCimate3y P;m o? 6oi3e4 straw into a woo4en ?rame an4 ;om9ress it with a woo4en 3i4 an4
s9rink3e s9awn oBer the who3e sur?a;e' E?ter the ?irst 3ayer o? s9awning, 9ut another P;m o? straw an4 again
s9rink3e s9awn oBer the sur?a;e, ;om9ress it as in the ?irst 3ayer' &n this way, ;ontinue to s9rink3e s9awn oBer the
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%-
3ayers o? straw ?or YAR 3ayers unti3 the straw is 3eBe3 with the to9 o? the ?rame' On3y one [LM 9a;ket o? s9awn
shou34 6e use4 ?or L ;u6e or 63o;k' Growers shou34 ino;u3ate in the 4ark at an o9timum tem9erature o? NY* unti3
the straw is ?u33y 9re9are4'
On;e ino;u3ate4, the 93asti; sheet is ?o34e4 oBer the to9 o? the ?rame an4 tie4 4own with he39 o? jute ro9es
9reBious3y 93a;e4 6e3ow the 93asti;' 5he ?rame is then remoBe4 to a;;ess the 63o;k' Sma33 ho3es o? a99roCimate3y
Nmm are 9un;he4 in the 63o;k ?or 6reathing' 5he 63o;ks are 3ater 93a;e4 on the she3Bes in a sing3e 3ayer ?or
in;u6ation'
M/et2a, H Mushroom s9awn must 6e 9ur;hase4 ;ommer;ia33y, un3ess it is 9roBi4e4 6y an eCtension ;enter'
Eroun4 N'PAO'Zkg o? s9awn is nee4e4 ?or LZZkg o? straw'
;B IDr/Fa H S9awn is ino;u3ate4 at OAYV o? wet weight'
:a26.a3e#h H Su6strate is ino;u3ate4 6y one or two s9oon?u3s o? s9awn 9er 9a;ket'
Lepa. H &nitia33y ;on4itione4 straw is 9ut into the 6ags in a 3ayer a6out Y in;hes thi;k an4 the s9awn is s9rea4
uni?orm3y a33 a3ong the 9eri9hery o? the 6ag' 5hen another 3ayer o? straw is a44e4' &n this metho4, two 6ott3es
[NPZgd6ott3eM o? s9awn are su??i;ient ?or three 9o3yethy3ene 6ags [LY C NY in;hes siDeM ;ontaining Okg o? ri;e straw
[4ry weightM ea;h' &n the same way, one 6ott3e o? s9awn wi33 ino;u3ate an L` C NR in;h 93asti; 6ag ;ontaining Ykg
ri;e straw'
4)26ar" H E?ter treatment the su6strate is watere4 with a 6enomy3 so3ution an4 s9awne4 at YAPV o? wet weight'
A 'ow-cost Technological ProposalD from Mixing H Spawning to Bagging
LBTB C)r0ett+9 TB C/+2Qa.eQ (at)te9 RB U/6.#9 ;B Re.,a#tr+

cniBersi4a4 eo;iona3 4e3 Sur, Ergentina
Growers here use a 3owA;ost metho4 to 4e;ontaminate the

su6strates' \e;ontamination o? su6strate is one o? the ?irst
an4 most im9ortant 9ro;e4ures in mushroom 9ro4u;tion
an4 ;an 6e a;;om93ishe4 in seBera3 ways' Xor sma33 ?arms,
auto;3aBing an4 steam 9asteuriDation are eC9ensiBe 4ue to
the high ;ost o? the eHui9ment' !asteuriDation 6y immersion
in hot water has some 4isa4Bantages, as it is time
;onsuming an4 it is not easy to ;ontro3 the water ;ontent,
an4 it makes amen4ment with a44itiBes 4i??i;u3t'
5herma3 treatment in oBens usua33y takes Y` hours at bP*
to 4e;ontaminate the su6strate' Chemi;a3 steri3iDation d Figure 20. The equipment to pasteurize
4e;ontamination using ?orma34ehy4e in the range o? NPA substrate
L,ZZZ 99m was a3so stu4ie4 [Qaranna an4 Shetty, LbbYM 6ut this metho4 ;ou34 harm the o9erator, the
enBironment, an4 9ossi63y the ;onsumer'
Some growers now 9ro9ose a 4i??erent an4 3owA;ost 4e;ontamination metho4 using a 9ie;e o? eHui9ment
whi;h we ;onstru;te4 with the ?o33owing ;hara;teristi;sK a meta33i; rotary L`Zf 4rum o? Z'RZm 6o4y 4iameter
an4 Z'O`m o9en en4 4iameter [see Xig' NZ, three ?iCe4 meta33i; 6ars insi4e to im9roBe the miCing a;tion in
or4er to aBoi4 ?ormation o? su6strate 3um9s, the ang3e o? the 4rum main aCis was LL* with res9e;t to the
horiDonta3, he39ing to minimiDe su6strate 3osses through the o9en en4 4uring o9eration' 5he o9en en4 o? the
4rum was ;oBere4 with a ;3ose mesh ?a6ri; to iso3ate the su6strate 4uring the 4e;ontamination 9ro;ess' 5he
rotation s9ee4 was ON r9m' E gas heater with N ringAsha9e4 6urners o? Z'NLm an4 Z'Z`m 4iameter was 93a;e4
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "%.
at Z'ZYm 4istan;e ?rom the 3ower 6ase o? the 4rum' En e3e;tri; motor o? Z'(P H! rotate4 the 4rum an4
rotation was automati;a33y interru9te4 eBery LP minutes with the he39 o? an automati; ondo?? 4eBi;e'
5he 4e;ontamination 9ro;ess a3ways 6egan with the gas heater on an4 the 4rum [with OPAYZkg wet su6strate
mass insi4eM, in a stationary 9osition, 4uring the ?irst LP minutes' Heating is ;ontinue4 ?or N'P hours with the
4rum a3ternate3y rotating ?or LP minutes an4 sto99ing ?or LP minutes'
\uring this 9erio4, a thresho34 o? RP* was rea;he4 at YP minutes an4 the 6eginning o? the 93ateau at `Z*
an4 bZ* o;;urre4 a?ter PZ minutes an4 RZ minutes, at the sur?a;e an4 at Z'OZm 4e9th, res9e;tiBe3y' En
a44itiona3 heating 9erio4 o? bZ minutes a?ter rea;hing `Z* was ;onsi4ere4 a99ro9riate ?or tota3
4e;ontamination' 5hus, a99roCimate3y N'P hours were enough to 9reBent ;ontamination 4uring the my;e3ium
;o3oniDation an4 ?ruiting stages'
&t is interesting to note that heating the 4rum 4uring the 9erio4s without rotation great3y in;rease4 the
tem9erature o? the su6strate near the heat sour;e, an4 this, in turn, 9ro4u;e4 a Ba9or 63ow [or strokeM
imme4iate3y ?o33owing ea;h a;tiBation o? rotation' 5here was a more e??e;tiBe heat trans?er when the
oBerheate4 9ortion was miCe4 with the rest o? the su6strate'
&n a44ition, an e??e;tiBe 4e;rease in energy ;ost ;ou34 6e o6taine4 6y using a 3ower H! motor or 93a;ing a
tan4em system o? YAP 4rums 4riBen 6y a sing3e motor' 5hese ;onsi4erations a993y to the 3owA;ost eHui9ment
a3rea4y ?oun4 on the market [cS\LOZALPZ, in ErgentinaM'
With this 4e;ontamination metho4, an estimate4 P'P hours are reHuire4 ?or one ski33e4 9erson to 9re9are OPA
YZkg o? su6strate rea4y to 9ut in 6ags ?or my;e3ium ;o3oniDation' 5his time in;3u4es Z'P hour ?or weighing
the ;om9onents an4 ?i33ing in the 4rum, N'P hours ?or the 4e;ontamination 9ro;ess, N hours ?or a33owing the
tem9erature o? the su6strate to ?a33 to OPAYZ* 9reBious to s9awning, an4 Z'P hour [or 3essM ?or homogeneous
miCing o? s9awne4 su6strate' &t is im9ortant to 9oint out that this metho4 has the Bery ;onBenient a4Bantage
o? e??e;ting 6oth the 4e;ontamination an4 the ino;u3ation o? su6strate in the same re;i9ient, saBing s9awn
running time 6e;ause o? the 6etter s9rea4ing o? my;e3ium ;om9are4 to to9A or 3ayerAino;u3ate4 6ags that are
time ;onsuming to 9ro4u;e manua33y'
Xina33y, we ;onsi4er that with three 9ie;es o? eHui9ment, ;om9ose4 o? Y 4rums ea;h, it is 9ossi63e ?or two
workers to 4e;ontaminate YOZkg su6strate in twe3Be hours' O? ;ourse, the 9ro9osa3 o? the gyratory 4rum
;ou34 6e s;a3e4 u9 to higher Bo3ume' Growers shou34 remem6er that in or4er to e??e;tiBe3y 4e;ontaminate the
su6strate it is ne;essary to treat the materia3s ?or a minimum o? bZ minutes ?o33owing the rea;hing o? the `Z*
thresho34 tem9erature' E simi3ar 9roto;o3 ;ou34 6e e??e;tiBe3y a993ie4 ?or 4e;ontamination o? other
agri;u3tura3 wasteA6ase4 su6strates'
:-;'<$)4,-
5he ino;u3ate4 6ags are moBe4 to the growing house, or i? one is aBai3a63e, to the in;u6ation room' Growers ;an
haBe a se9arate in;u6ation room or they may use the growing house as an in;u6ation room 6y 9roBi4ing higher
tem9erature an4 higher humi4ity, whi;h are 9ro9er room ;on4itions ?or my;e3ia3 growth'
Bags are in;u6ate4 at an o9timum tem9erature o? NZANP* in 4arkness sin;e s9awn run 4oes not reHuire 3ight'
Xu33 ;o3oniDation takes LPANP 4ays 4e9en4ing on the 6ag siDe an4 su6strate materia3 an4 ;on4ition'
!
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!!!!!!!! !
Figure 21. Partial colonization Figure 22. Full colonization
=>?a,p.e#S /2F)Eat/+2 /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
Lepa. H 5he ino;u3ate4 6ags are in;u6ate4 at NZANP* ?or LZALP 4ays ?or s9awn run' Es soon as the su6strate is
?u33y ;oBere4 with a whitish my;e3ia3 growth, the 9o3yethy3ene ;oBer is remoBe4'
K23/a H S9awne4 6ags are 93a;e4 s3ight3y a9art ?rom ea;h other on she3Bes in an in;u6ation room, 3est they shou34
generate eC;ess heat' 5he tem9erature o? the su6strate 6ag is maintaine4 at NP*' 5em9erature is measure4 6y
inserting a thermometer in the 6ags' &? the 6ag tem9erature rises a6oBe NP*, it is a4Bisa63e to 3ower the room
tem9erature' &? the 6ag tem9erature is 3ow, the room shou34 6e warme4 s3ow3y' 5he ;om93etion o? s9awn run,
when the entire 6ag turns white in ;o3or, takes a6out LNALP 4ays'
M/et2a, H Bags are tie4 one ato9 the other with a ny3on ro9e [OAP 6ags 9er ro9eM an4 hung ?rom a 9er;h' 5he
mouth o? ea;h 6ag 9oints u9war4s' Bags are a ?ew ;entimeters a9art in or4er not to tou;h ea;h other' E?ter NPAOZ
4ays, my;e3ium wi33 4eBe3o9 throughout the 6ags' Growers use a shar9 kni?e to ;ut YAR s3its in the si4es o? the 6ag'
Qa;h s3it shou34 6e OAP;m 3ong, an4 an eHua3 4istan;e ?rom the other s3its' 5he ;uts shou34 not 6e in a 3ine aroun4
the 6ag, as this wi33 weaken the 6ag'
:a26.a3e#h H E?ter ino;u3ation, the 6ags are in;u6ate4 ?or LPANP 4ays at room tem9erature' When the my;e3ium
is growing, the in;u6ate4 9o3y 6ags ;ontaining the su6strates are 9un;he4 on the to9 si4es o? the 9a;kets ?or
?a;i3itating the 3uCuriant growth o? mushrooms'
4)26ar" H Bags ;ontaining the s9awne4 su6strate are either 93a;e4 in in;u6ation rooms or 4ire;t3y in 9ro4u;tion
rooms ?or s9awn run' \uring this 9erio4, su6strate tem9erature is maintaine4 at a6out NP*' Care is taken to aBoi4
oBerheating o? s9awne4 su6strate' 5here are two ;riti;a3 9oints when oBerheating may 6e a 9arti;u3ar 9ro63em'
5he ?irst is short3y a?ter s9awning [a;;e3erating growth o? mi;roorganismsM, an4 the more intensiBe se;on4 9eak is
(ALP 4ays a?ter s9awning [;ause4 6y meta6o3ism o? Pleurotus s9' my;e3ium growthM' 5he re3atiBe humi4ity is
maintaine4 6etween bZAbPV, an4 no 3ight 9roBi4e4 4uring the s9awn run'
;B IDr/Fa H Cro99ing ;ontainers use4 ?or Pleurotus 9ro4u;tion ty9i;a33y are ma4e o? 3arge ;3ear or 63a;k
9o3yethy3ene 4u;ting ;ut into NAmeter ;o3umns [PZ;m in 4iameterM with a meta3 su99ort an4 ho34ing
a99roCimate3y PZkg o? su6strate' Other growers may use sma33er 93asti; 6ags ;ontaining a6out NZkg o? su6strates'
_egar43ess o? the siDes o? the 6ags use4, ho3es are 9un;he4 into the 6ags ?or aeration an4 mushroom maturation'
c9on ;om93etion o? s9awnArun, growers usua33y moBe the 6ags into the 9ro4u;tion room or the growing room'
VB;BIB H 5he 9asteuriDe4 an4 su993emente4 straw or hu33s are s9awne4 an4 ?i33e4 [LNALPkgM into ;3ear or 63a;k
9er?orate4 9o3yethy3ene 6ags an4 then in;u6ate4 at NOANP* ?or LNALY 4ays' Some growers use 6ags with 9reA
9un;he4 ho3es whi3e other growers ;ut ho3es in the 6ags a?ter s9awning'
!
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=*'4)4-7 $-& /$*>.()4-7

cn3ike other ;ro9s, mushrooms A ?ruit 6o4ies o? ?ungi are Huite sensitiBe to the growing ;on4itions in;3u4ing
tem9erature, humi4ity, 3ight an4 Benti3ation' 5he ;orre;t tem9erature ena63es them to grow we33 in growing house'
5he 3ight an4 Benti3ation in?3uen;e the ;o3or, siDe an4 teCture o? the mushrooms'
?.23.*$)'*.
My;e3ia o? oyster mushroom grow 6est at a tem9erature range 6etween NZ an4 NP*' &n or4er to in4u;e ?ruiting
a?ter ?u33 ;o3oniDation, the room tem9erature must 6e 3owere4 to 6e3ow LP* or ;o3oniDe4 6ags must 6e moBe4 to
a growing room' Otherwise, growers ;annot eC9e;t goo4 9rimor4ia3 ?ormation 4es9ite goo4 ;o3oniDation'
! ! ! ! !! ! !
Figure 23. Simple structure for mushroom growing Figure 24. Thatch growing house covered
with a shading net
@47/)
cn3ike my;e3ia, whi;h 4o not reHuire 3ight, 9rimor4ia are ?orme4 un4er 3ight' Mushroom ?ormation an4 growth
stages reHuire `ZANLZ 3uC o? 3ight' Without 3ight, ?ruiting 6o4ies o? oyster mushroom wou34 a6ort or ma3?orme4'
fight in?3uen;es on the ?ruit6o4y ;o3or an4 sti9e 3ength' cn4er 9oor 3ight, mushrooms with an e3ongate4 sti9e an4
3ightA;o3ore4 ;a9 are 9ro4u;e4 whi3e un4er eC;essiBe 3ight, they wi33 6e short an4 4arkA;o3ore4'
A.-)40$)4,-
Oyster mushroom growth is stunte4 un4er high CON ;on;entrations' goung mushrooms su??o;ate 4ue to 3a;k o?
oCygen' Mushroom sti9es 6e;ome en3ongate4 an4 twiste4 an4 ;a9 growth is Bery 9oor' QC;essiBe Benti3ation,
howeBer, ;auses heaBy water 3oss, resu3ting in 3ower room humi4ity an4 4rier su6strate'
6'24&4)B $-& ('<()*$). 2,4()'*. ;,-).-)
E?ter Benti3ation, the room humi4ity 4ro9s' S9raying water onto ;orri4ors an4 into the air is re;ommen4e4' 5he
9ro9er room humi4ities ?or 9inning an4 ?ruit6o4y 4eBe3o9ment are bZV an4 `ZA`PV, res9e;tiBe3y' On;e 9inhea4s
a99ear on the su6strate, in4oor humi4ity must 6e 3owere4 to `PV'
QC;essiBe su6strate moisture ;ontent ;ou34 ;ause the 3a;k o? oCygen in the su6strate, whi;h, in turn, ;ou34 kee9
my;e3ia growing Bigorous3y' &n this situation, the growth o? ?ruit6o4ies in the su6strate 6ags is 4e3aye4 an4 stunte4'
When 6oth the su6strate moisture ;ontent an4 room humi4ity are 3ow, mushroom growth wi33 a3so 6e stunte4 4ue
to the 3a;k o? water' &n this situation young mushroom ;a9s may u9turn ear3ier an4 re3ease more s9ores'
!
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C$).*4-7
Be;ause most e4i63e mushrooms are bZV water, humi4ity is ;riti;a3 4uring the ?ruiting stage' Growers shou34
water the growing room ?reHuent3y in or4er to raise the re3atiBe humi4ity 4uring this re9ro4u;tiBe growth 9hase'
Watering ?reHuent3y, using sma33 amounts o? water is 4esira63e' Xor eCam93e, N or O 6u;kets o? water P or R times a
4ay is 6etter than LZ to LP 6u;kets o? water twi;e a 4ay' E993ying water 4ire;t3y to the mushroom 6ags shou34 6e
aBoi4e4 6e;ause 4ro9s o? water are harm?u3 to 9inhea4s an4 stan4ing water attra;ts a Bariety o? 9athogens'
Growers shou34 water the ?3oor o? the growing room an4 aroun4 the 6ags' Some growers uti3iDe humi4i?iers to
in;rease the re3atiBe humi4ity insi4e the growing rooms' Watering is es9e;ia33y im9ortant 4uring the 4ry season
when the am6ient humi4ity is Bery 3ow'
!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 25. Bags laid on their side in row on the wall. Figure 26. A-frame rack
D$7 $**$-7.2.-)(
harious 9ra;ti;es o? 6ag arrangement are ?oun4 wor34wi4e' Some growers
arrange 6ags so that they are not tou;hing ea;h other to aBoi4 oBerheating o? the
6ags' Mushroom my;e3ia emit heat 4uring in;u6ation, so the 6ags ;an 6e easi3y
oBerheate4 i? they tou;h ea;h other' Eir ;an easi3y ?3ow through the s9a;es
6etween the 6ags, 9reBenting the tem9erature o? the 6ags ?rom in;reasing'
HoweBer, many growers sti33 arrange 6ags sta;ke4 against ea;h other in or4er to
grow more mushrooms in a sma33 growing room' She3Bes an4 EA?rame ra;ks
[Xig' NRM are use4 ?or e??i;ient uti3iDation o? s9a;e insi4e growing rooms' &n
some ;ountries growers 6in4 6ags with wire an4 hang them [Xig' N(M'
=>?a,p.e#S Ur)/t/26 a23 har0e#t/26 /2 3/DDere2t F+)2tr/e#G
:a26.a3e#h H Growers ;u3tiBate mushrooms at room tem9erature'

Lepa. H When the su6strate is ?u33y ;oBere4 with a whitish my;e3ia3 growth, the
Figure 27. Bags bound 9o3yethy3ene ;oBer is remoBe4' 5he o9en 6ags are trans?erre4 into a new room
and hung with wire! with goo4 Benti3ation' 5he 6ags are ke9t a6out LP;m a9art ?rom ea;h other on a
woo4en 63o;k or 6ri;k' Watering is 4one OAY times 4ai3y' Mushroom 9rimor4ia
start a99earing NAO 4ays a?ter the remoBa3 o? 9o3yethy3ene an4 they rea;h maturity P or more 4ays 3ater' Oyster
mushrooms haBe a shorter growing ;y;3e an4 a tota3 o? OAY ?3ushes ;ou34 6e harBeste4 4uring this 9erio4'
Mushrooms are 9i;ke4 ;are?u33y without 4istur6ing other 4eBe3o9ing my;e3ia' 5hen harBeste4 ?resh mushrooms
are 9a;ke4 into 93asti; 6ags ?or the ?resh market'
!
! !art &&' !"#ter ()#hr++,# Chapter (' C).t/0at/+2 (+3e# "+(
cn4er ;ommer;ia3 ;u3tiBation, there is a great Bariation in 6io3ogi;a3 e??i;ien;y ?rom ?armer to ?armer' csua33y
they 9ro4u;e mushrooms eHua3ing ?rom YZALZZV o? the initia3 4ry weight o? su6strate'
M/et2a, H E?ter the 6ags haBe 6een ;ut with YAR s3its in the si4es o? ea;h 6ag, they are s9raye4 with water N or O
times a 4ay to kee9 the mushrooms moist, an4 the growers are ;are?u3 not to giBe them too mu;h water' eo water
shou34 ;o33e;t insi4e the 6ag' Growers take the ;otton out o? the mouth o? the 6ag an4 sus9en4 the 6ags on a wire
or ro9e, with the mouth o? the 6ag 9ointing 4ownwar4s'
5he mushrooms wi33 6egin to a99ear in the s3its, 3ooking 3ike sma33 roun4 6uttons' Es soon as they 6egin to a99ear,
growers shou34 moBe the 6ags to the growing or harBesting area' 5he 6ags shou34 6e 93a;e4 (ALZ;m a9art'
5he ?irst oyster mushrooms ;an 6e harBeste4 (ALZ 4ays a?ter the 6ag is ;ut' E?ter the mushrooms are harBeste4,
growers sto9 s9raying water ?or seBera3 4ays' When the young ?ruits 6egin to a99ear again, they 6egin to s9ray the
water again' 5his ;y;3e ;an 6e re9eate4 three or ?our times, giBing a tota3 harBest o? PZA`Zkg o? oyster mushrooms
?rom LZZkg o? straw'
4)26ar" H Eir tem9erature is maintaine4 at LPANZ* an4 the CON 3eBe3 is 3owere4 to RZZAL,ZZZ 99m 6y
Benti3ating with ?resh air' 5he s9awn run usua33y takes NAO weeks a?ter s9awning' \uring this 9erio4, the humi4ity
is maintaine4 at bZAbPV to 9roBi4e ?or o9timum ;on4ition' Su6seHuent3y, re3atiBe humi4ity may 6e 3owere4 to `ZA
bZV in or4er to minimiDe 4eBe3o9ment o? 6a;teria3 63ot;h' ÀLZ hours o? PZALPZ 3uC 3ight is 9roBi4e4 4ai3y to
a33ow ?or norma3 ?ruit 6o4y 4eBe3o9ment'
K23/a H On;e the 63o;ks are ?u33y ;o3oniDe4 4uring the s9awn run, they are hung a?ter remoBing the 9o3ythene in a
room where the re3atiBe humi4ity is maintaine4 a6oBe `PV' 5he humi4ity is norma33y maintaine4 6y ?reHuent
s9raying o? water on the 63o;ks an4 room enBironment' 5he 9ins are Bisi63e on the ninth 4ay a?ter the o9ening o?
the 63o;ks' !ro9er re3atiBe humi4ity an4 9ro9er Benti3ation is maintaine4 in the room 4uring 9in growth an4
9i;king' 5he mushrooms are 9i;ke4 genera33y ?or the ?resh market' Most o? the growers take three ?3ushes'
Mushrooms 9i;ke4 in the thir4 ?3ush are most3y use4 ?or sun 4rying, where maCimum 4ry matter is a;hieBe4'
T>U>T>LC>;
A Egri;u3ture in Megha3ya' Oyster Mushroom'
aBai3a63e at htt9Kddmegha3aya'ni;'indagri;u3turedoysterdmetho4'htm
A Bania' &n4u' NZZL' Oyster mushroom ;u3tiBation in ee9a3' MushWorld1
aBai3a63e at htt9Kddwww'mushwor34';om'
A \aBis, _'E', an4 B'i' Eegerter' NZZZ' Edible Mushroom Cultivation' Han4out ?rom SOME meeting [eoB' L(,
NZZZM'
A Xoo4 an4 Xerti3iDer 5e;hno3ogy Center' NZZN' Growing oyster mushroom [Pleurotus s9'M on straw in 93asti; 6ags'
aBai3a63e at htt9Kddwww'agnet'orgd3i6raryda6stra;td9tNZZNZNY'htm3
A Kim, \ukAhwan' NZZL' O9tima3 growth ;on4itions ?or oyster mushroom, es9e;ia33y 4uring ?ruiting' MushWorld'
aBai3a63e at htt9Kddwww'mushwor34';om
A Kim, \ukAhwan' NZZL' Oyster mushroom ;u3tiBation in Summer' MushWorld'
aBai3a63e at htt9Kddwww'mushwor34';om'
A Gem3, i', !' fa6us;hagne, an4 \'i' _oyse' NZZL' Oyster mushroom 9ro4u;tion on three ;ontinentsK an oBerBiew
o? ;u3tiBation in Hungary, South E?ri;a an4 cnite4 States' Mushroom News Yb[NMK Y ALO'
A _ahman, H', an4 M'S' kaman' LbbR' Cu3tiBation te;hno3ogy o? Pleurotus s9e;ies 9ro4u;tion in Bang3a4esh' The
Proceedings of 2nd ICMBMP 99 NAO'
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#$
Mushroom GrowersE WandbooO !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part II' O*ster Mushrooms
Chapter (
Cultivation Modes
S#E%F C(%TI+ATIO. OF O/STER 1(S#ROO1

2ith Emphasis on Substrate Fermentation
Kyung Wha Choi

Mush2orld
Shelf cultivation of o*ster mushrooms is a uni;ue <orean production method' This method was adapted b*
<orean scientists in the earl* ABCDEs from button mushroom F)garicus bisporousG growing on shelves' Button
mushroom cultivation can be summariJed as follows: Phase I Foutdoor fermentationGL Phase II FpasteuriJation and
conditioningGL Phase III Fspawning and incubationGL fruitingL harvesting and empt*ing' The uni;ue characteristics
of shelf cultivation of o*ster mushroom in <orea include the fact that the substrate is fermented in three steps
Fpre-fermentationL pasteuriJationL and post-fermentationG rather than on the shelf itself' UnliOe the pasteuriJation
process that lasts for P-Q hours in most countriesL shelf cultivation re;uires the substrate materials to be pre-
fermented outdoors for P-R da*sL then pasteuriJed at QD-QS% for C-AD hoursL and finall* post-fermented at TS-
SS% for R-T da*s' This process re;uires considerable time and generates significant expenses'
In <oreaL the main methods of o*ster mushroom growing are shelf cultivationL bag cultivation and bottle
cultivation' <orean o*ster mushroom growers ferment the substrate materials in shelf cultivation while the*
steriliJe substrate materials in the cases of bag and bottle cultivation' Button mushroom F)1 bisporusG is a
secondar* decomposer re;uiring the previous degradation of substrates b* bacteria or other fungi in order to be
able to absorb nutrients from the substrate' On the other handL o*ster mushrooms F2leurotus spp'G are primar*
decomposersL so the* have abilit* to breaO down and absorb the components of substrate materials that have not
been composted or degraded' <orean growers have normall* fermented substrate materials in spite of the high
fuel costs generated during the fermentation process because fermentation is definitel* helpful in producing high
*ields and high ;ualit* o*ster mushrooms' This article will discuss the process of shelf cultivation and the events
relative to the substrate materials during each fermentation step'
Shelf Cultivation at a Clance
The process of shelf cultivation is summariJed as followsL with images
Pre-fermentation & Filling & PasteuriJation and Post-fermentation & Spawning & Incubation
& Pinning and Fruiting & Warvesting & Xmpt*ing
!
Copyright! 2,,4 by Mush2orld All rights reserved.
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#'
Pre-fermentation
As the first step of fermentationL pre-fermentation is a part of Phase
I of button mushroom F)1 bisporusG cultivation' Most <orean
farmers utiliJe rice straw or cottonseed hull as substrate materials
for shelf cultivation' Substrate material is piled up outdoors and then
watered' The temperature of the heap graduall* increases as
microorganisms activated b* the water begin to propagate
themselvesL eventuall* resolving the high molecular carbon sources
into simpler molecules and absorbing them FShimL PDDAG' The pile is
turned FFig' AG to provide fresh air and prevent overheating' The
temperature drops initiall* after turning but it increases again as the
Figure 1. Pre-fermentation and turning of activities of the microorganisms continue FShimL PDDAG' This step
cotton waste usuall* taOes P-R da*s and the duration differs depending on the
substrate materials' 2hen this method was first adapted from button
mushroom cultivation methods b* <orean scientistsL farmers had alwa*s gone through this step' As time went b*
howeverL farmers came to understand that outdoor fermentation could be simplified in order to save labor costs'
Nowada*s some growers \ust water the substrate materials outdoors and Oeep them overnightL and then ferment
them at TS-SD% for about two da*s before pasteuriJation' Though this is a simplified versionL man* growersL
especiall* the most successful growersL still go through this or a somewhat modified pre-fermentation process'
Pasteurization and post-fermentation

The substrate is pasteuriJed usuall* at QD% for Q-AD hours and then goes through the post-fermentation process at
SD-SS% for R-T da*s' The temperatures and times of pasteuriJation and post-fermentation var* slightl* according
to growersE experience'
Some growers in other countries pasteuriJe substrate materials' WoweverL pasteuriJation and post-fermentation
for shelf cultivation are ver* technolog*-intensive activitiesL and unliOe bag cultivationL the* re;uire man* *earsE
experience to effect high productivit*' PasteuriJation and post-fermentation are the Oe* factors for producing high
*ields in shelf cultivation' Through this processL the substrate becomes more of an appropriate food source for
mushroomsL and microorganisms that can be possible competitors for nutrients are eliminated from the substrate
FShimL PDDAG'
! !!!!! !
Figures 2, 3. Room for pasteurization and post-fermentation (Farm A and B)
Previousl*L pre-fermented substrate was filled into the shelves of the growing room and then went through
pasteuriJation and post-fermentation in the growing room' WoweverL the substrate wasnEt thoroughl* fermented
and the extent of fermentation differed according to the specific la*er of the shelf because temperature differences
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "##
in the growing room were too large to evenl* ferment substrate materials' In additionL this practice consumed a
large amount of fuel' As a resultL man* growers nowada*s have built a special room that is heated b* steam for
pasteuriJation and post-fermentation FFig' PG' BasOets filled with pre-fermented substrate materials are stacOed
FFig' RG and pasteuriJed and post-fermented' ThanOs to this roomL growers can ferment substrate materials evenl*
in a relativel* small space and save mone* b* using this s*stem'
If the substrate is pre-fermented sufficientl* outdoorsL its temperature can be ;uite high when moved into the
room' The temperature inside the room is increased b* steaming and Oept at QD% for C-AD hours in order to
accomplish the pasteuriJation' Though the room temperature is Oept as QD%L the internal temperature of the
substrate rises up to QS%' After C-AD hours the temperature is lowered and maintained at TC-SR% for T-S da*s'
Some growers sa* five-da* is too long for post-fermentation and the substrate is liOe to be too wet after five da*s
of post-fermentation'
If the substrate is \ust watered outdoors without pre-fermenting itL it can be fermented in the room before
pasteuriJation' The room temperature should be slowl* increased b* steaming up to TS% and then graduall*
raised up to TQ% and then TC% and finall* up to SR% for two da*s to accomplish pre-fermentation'
Although the principles are sameL each expert grower has his own
Onow-how in this process' Some growers maOe an additional effort
to Oeep each part of the substrate at a similar temperature for
thorough fermentation' Figure T shows a cross-sectional view of a
basOet filled with substrate materials' The central part of the
substrate is removedL and b* doing thisL the temperature difference
among each part of the substrate in the same basOet can be reduced
down to T%' OtherwiseL the temperature difference between the
Figure 4. Cross-sectional view of hottest part and the coolest part in the same basOet reaches as far as
basket
C-AD%L which hinders thorough fermentation'
2hen pasteuriJation and post-fermentation is completedL a white color is visible on the substrate' These are
actinom*cetesL one of the thermophiles produced in the last stage of post-fermentation' If actinom*cetes exist in
sufficient ;uantities on the substrateL the substrate can be said to be well fermented and suitable for mushroom
growing' Actinom*cete will be discussed further later in this article'
Filling and spawning

After pasteuriJation and post-fermentation is completedL the substrate is filled into shelves in the growing room'
Filling and spawning is one of the most labor-intensive processes in shelf cultivation if it is done manuall*' The
post-fermented substrate is poured from the box onto the shelf and this is repeated until each shelf has the allotted
amount of substrate FFig' SG' Though differences existL growers usuall* fill ASOg of dr* substrate per s;uare meter
of shelfL as is the usual case with cotton waste' As the moisture content of the substrate is about (D]L filling the
proper amount of the fermented substrate can be calculated as SDOg per s;uare meter' WoweverL the filling weight
varies depending on growersL substrate materialsL and seasons' If rice straw is selected as the substrateL greater
amounts are filled than if the substrate is cotton waste' More substrate is used in winter than in summer because
the substrate is more liOel* to be overheated in summer'
After fillingL the substrate is covered with a plastic sheet FFig' QG to Oeep in humidit*L and sta*s overnight FFig'
(G for cooling' The next da*L when the substrate has cooled down to PD-PS%L about QD-(D] of the spawn is
inoculated FFig' CG and thoroughl* mixed with the substrate on the shelves' The substrate is then spread evenl* on
the shelves and the remaining RD-TD] of the spawn is sprinOled onto the substrate surface FFig' BG' The spawning
rate is generall* higher in shelf cultivation and can be as much as AT] of the wet weight of the substrateL namel*
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#(
(Og of spawn is inoculated to SDOg of substrate per s;uare meter' The shaped substrate is mulched with a plastic
sheet that has ver* small holes for ventilation FFig' ADG'
#$%&'%( )*((*&+ %&, -.%/&*&+0
!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 5. Filled substrate on shelf Figure 6. Covering filled substrate with plastic sheet
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 7. Cooling substrate overnight Figure 8. The first spawning
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 9. The second spawning after flattening the Figure 10. Covering with a plastic sheet after
surface spawning
These processes are ver* labor intensiveL so some growers utiliJe e;uipment such as filling machine and spawn
mixing machine' Farm A saves SD] of their labor costs of the spawning operation b* using a spawn mixing
machine' Filling is done manuall* one da* before spawningL and QD] of the spawn is inoculated b* sprinOling
FFig' AAG' Then the substrate and spawn are mixed FFig' APG b* the wires of the machine FFig' ATGL which rides on
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#)
the rails along the both sides of shelf FFig' ARG' The rail for this machine is attached to both edges of the shelves
FFig' ARG' The substrate is then flattened FFig' ASG and the rest of spawn is sprinOled on the surface FFig' AQG'
#)%12 34 -.%/&*&+ /*56 7.%/& 2*8*&+ 2%96*&:0
! !
Figure 11. The first spawning by Figure 12. Mixing substrate and Figure 13. Rail for the machine at
sprinkling spawn the edge of shelf
! ! !
Figure 14. The wires for mixing in Figure 15. Flattening substrate after Figure 16. The second spawning
the machine mixing on the surface
Farm B saves much more labor b* using a filling machine FFig' A(G' In this caseL filling and spawning are done
simultaneousl*' The post-fermented substrate sta*s overnight for cooling down to the PD-PS% temperature
appropriate for spawningL and then the substrate in basOets is poured into the filling machine FFig' ACG from where
it moves onto the shelves via the conve*er of the machine' As soon as the substrate falls onto the woven textile
mat on the shelfL two worOers sprinOle spawnL mix it with the substrateL and flatten the substrate b* hand on both
sides of shelf FFig' ABG' This procedure taOes some timeL so another worOer controls the speed of the filling
machine FFig' PDG' 2hen the substrate is flattenedL the woven textile under the substrate is winched toward the
other end of the shelf FFig' PAL PPG' The rest of the spawn is then sprinOled on the surface of the substrate'
#)%12 ;4 )*((*&+ /*56 <*((*&+ 2%96*&:0
!! !
Figure 7. Filling machine Figure 18. Filling substrate Figure 19. Substrate on shelf is
Spawned and mixed.
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#*
Figure 20. Controller of filling Figure 21. Substrate winched toward Figure 2. Winch machine
machine the end of the shelf
Incubation
Mushroom m*celia are incubated for A(-PR da*s while covered with a plastic sheet' The temperature should be
maintained at PD-PP% during the first stageL and then increased graduall* up to PS%' As the incubation
progressesL the substrate emits heat b* itself due to m*celial growth' ThereforeL the temperature should be set at
PP-PR% though the optimal temperature for growing of the o*ster mushroom m*celia is PS% FCha et al'L ABB(G'
The m*celia donEt re;uire much ventilation during vegetative growthL but it should be Oept in mind that the* do
re;uire sufficient ox*gen during this stage'
Pinning and fruiting

2hen the spawn has full* coloniJed the whole substrate FFig' PRGL the environment in the growing room is
ad\usted and made appropriate for reproductive growth and fruiting' To convert to the reproductive growth stageL
the factors such as adding lightL performing a cold shocOL maintaining a high relative humidit*L and providing
enough ox*gen are implemented' Light levels are raised to CD-APD luxL sufficient for newspaper to be readableL for
R-T da*s before the plastic sheet is removed for ventilation' The temperature of the growing room is lowered to
AS-AC%L but the optimal temperature for pinning varies from AD-PT%L depending on species and strains FCha et
al'L ABB(G' Growers should be aware of the characteristics of the species and strains the* are growing' èlative
humilit* inside the growing room should be Oept as high as CS-BS] b* watering once or twice a da*' Pinheads
FFig' PTG should be observed within several da*s and grow to full siJe soon thereafter'
! ! !
Figure 23. Fully colonized shelf Figure 24. Pinheads of oyster Figure 25. Fruitbodies growing
mushroom from perforated parts
Some growers cover the whole shelves with blacO perforated plastic sheets with S-ADcm holes ever* AD-AScm'
At spawningL QD-(D] of the spawn is mixed with the whole shelf and then the shelf is covered with the perforated
plastic sheet and the rest of the spawn is inoculated into the holes' ThenL the shelf has CD] of mulched area and
PD] of perforated area' The fruitbodies grow onl* from the perforated parts FFig' PSG in clusters' The mulching
with a plastic sheet provides man* benefits' It reduces the labor input during harvest and the abortion of small pinsL
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "#+
and produces ;ualit* mushrooms with favorable color and long stipesL which are more marOetable in <oreaL and
most importantl*L it produces greater *ields FOh et al'L PDDRbG' In additionL mulching with a plastic sheet is
effective for in preventing diseases such as bacterial brown blotch and various fungal diseases b* preventing
invasion of the pathogens and reducing waterlogged areas on the shelves FOh et al'L PDDRaG'
#arvest
O*ster mushrooms are harvested when the* grow to full siJe' Several flushes are harvested because the abundant
;uantit* of substrate on the shelves still has plent* of nutrition for o*ster mushrooms even after several harvests'
Most growers harvest R-T flushes from the shelfL and about SD] of the *ield is from the first flush' Accumulated
biological efficienc* reaches ADD]L but it fluctuates according to seasons'
!!!!!! !
Figure 26. Oyster mushroom on conventional shelf Figure 27. Oyster mushroom on vinyl mulching
!
After R-T flushesL the shelf can still produce more mushrooms due to the existence of sufficient nutrients on the
shelves' WoweverL harvesting more than R-T flushes is not economicall* reasonable in <orea where land and labor
costs are ver* high and high fuel expenses for growing room control are re;uired in summer for cooling and in
winter for heating' More flushes could be harvested in countries with low land costs and labor costs and tropical or
sub-tropical climatesL and in those situations the biological efficienc* could reach much higher rates'
O*ster mushrooms from shelf cultivation are considered to be of a higher ;ualit* than those from bag or bottle
cultivation thanOs to the rich nutrients available for mushrooms grown on shelves' This high ;ualit* produce also
earns more mone*' In the <orean mushroom marOetL high ;ualit* o*ster mushrooms are usuall* three times more
expensive than low ;ualit* ones'
Emptying
2hen the substrate has produced an economicall* reasonable amount of mushroomsL the shelves are emptied'
Xmpt*ing is also ver* labor-intensiveL but man* growers have discovered more convenient methods that save
labor' In principleL the substrate on the shelves is steamed and then removed' WoweverL man* farms have a
steaming facilit* onl* in the room used for pasteuriJation and post-fermentationL so growing rooms are disinfected
b* fungicides or insecticides such as diluted formalin solutionL BenlateL or Panmashi' The spent substrate is moved
awa* from the farm to prevent the infection of new crops' Sometimes the spent substrates are utiliJed as pigEs
fodder'
Fermentation, the Art of 1icroorganism

!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "(,
The following section is excerpted and translated from aThe essence of mushroom cultivation
- Fermentation of SubstrateE Fin <oreanGL written b* br' Moon-soo Shim and excerpted here with the
permission of the author'!
Fermentation can be defined as the process of converting or decomposing organic matters into uni;ue final
products b* the function of microorganismsE enJ*mes' WoweverL fermentation in mushroom cultivation can be
defined as the converting b* microorganisms of the nutrients of substrates into proteins'
Selecting substrate material
Button mushrooms naturall* grow from materials with a relativel* high nitrogen content such as horse manual
FA'C] nitrogenG and wheat straw FD'QS] nitrogenG' The optimal C : N ratio for cultivating button mushrooms is
A( : A' On the other handL o*ster mushrooms and shiitaOe grow from wood with a relativel* low nitrogen sourceL
of which the C : N ratio is RSD to SDD : A' The optimal C : N ratio differs according to mushroom species'
ThereforeL the C : N ratio of substrate material should be first considered in substrate preparation' Table A shows
composition contents of each substrate material'
Table 1. Comparison of composition contents of substrate material (%)
Material pH Cellulose Lignin Total Carbon Total Nitrogen C:N ratio

Cotton 2aste Q'P (R Q PT D'TA SB:A
ìce Straw Q'( TP AR TQ D'QR (P:A
2heat Straw Q'B TC PD T( D'TC B(:A
Corncob ('P T( PS T( D'TC B(:A
Sawdust S'S ST PB TB D'A TBA:A
As shown in Table AL the main substrate material alone sometimes cannot provide enough nitrogen re;uired for
optimal growth of mushroomsL so additives such as rice and wheat bran are supplemented as a nitrogen source'
The amounts supplemented var* depending on which substrate is chosen' If cotton waste is selectedL a smaller
amount of nitrogen source is added than when wheat straw is selected'
The C : N ratio is also important because it affects the fermentation process' Through the fermentation processL
nitrogen is converted into ammonia nitrogenL restraining the growth of mushroom m*celia as well as maOing
nitrogen available for the m*celia' If available nitrogen increasesL ammonia nitrogen also increasesL and ammonia
nitrogen decreases when available nitrogen decreases' ThereforeL the amount of ammonia produced b*
fermentation should be considered in substrate selection' Table P shows the result of comparison of o*ster
mushroom *ields after supplementing different amounts of rice bran' As supplemented rice bran increasesL total
nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen increase and the o*ster mushroom *ield is affected as a result' 2hen D'BC] of
total nitrogen addedL the amount of ammonia nitrogen FPC ppmG is too little to influence o*ster mushroom *ields'
2hen A'TC] of total nitrogen is added howeverL the *ield decreases to TS'POg because the ammonia nitrogen
levels are enough to restrain the o*ster mushroom from growing' In conclusionL o*ster mushroom *ield decreases
when the ammonia concentration is higher than QC ppm as well as when total nitrogen is smaller than the optimal
amount'
Table 2. Oyster mushroom yield according to total nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "("
Total Nitrogen (%) Ammonia nitrogen (ppm) Yield (kg/m2)

D'BC PC A(R'B
A'DC QC ABR'T
A'TC CT ATB'P
ThereforeL C : N ratio and the amount of ammonia nitrogen should be both considered' If cotton waste is chosen
as the main substrate material for o*ster mushroomL a nitrogen source such as rice bran should be supplemented
considering the optimal C : N ratio' The amount of nitrogen source supplemented should be up to the total amount
of nitrogen from which the amount of ammonia nitrogen created during fermentation doesnEt restrain the m*celial
growth of the mushroom'
Cotton waste and sawdustL the ma\or substrate materialsL have naturall* occurring microorganisms that
participate in fermentation of the substrate' Figures PC and PB show incubated microorganisms from sawdust and
cotton waste' Both substrate materials were soaOed in water and then the water was inoculated on nutrient agar
and incubated' The first two Petri dishes were incubated at RD% and several Oinds of mesophiles were propagated
on them FFig' PCG' The other two Petri dishes were incubated at SD% and some thermophiles were cultivated on
them FFig' PBG'
!!! !
A. from sawdust B. from cotton waste A. from sawdust B. from cotton waste
Figure 28. Mesophiles incubated at 30! Figure 28. Thermophiles incubated at 50!
Table R calculated the number of microorganisms in cotton wasteL hardwood sawdustL and rice bran' Cotton
waste has the most microorganisms while sawdust has less and rice bran has the lowest amount' Though the
results var* a little bit according to how and how long the materials are storedL the result will be same as below if
the* are stored under similar conditions' Sawdust has as man* mesophiles as cotton wasteL but cotton waste has
RBD times more thermophiles than sawdust' This is because cotton waste is more easil* exposed to
microorganisms in nature than sawdust' ThereforeL materials with more microorganisms are desirable as
mushroom substrate if the substrate is to be fermented'
Table 3. Numbers of microorganisms according to materials
Substrate materials Cotton waste Hardwood rice bran note

sawdust
Mesophiles (S-ADT ST-ADT C-ADP Cotton waste has A'R times more
Fincubated at RD!G mesophiles than sawdust'
Thermiphiles T(-ADT AP-ADP AP Cotton waster has RBD times more
Fincubated at SD!G themophiles than sawdust'
Pre-fermentation
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "(.
Fermentation aims at repressing microorganisms that might possibl* compete with o*ster mushrooms and
converting substrate materials into a superior nutritional source for mushroom through the actions of a succession
of microorganisms' Outdoor fermentation is the first step' Substrate materials in nature have microorganisms
attached on their surfaces and these microorganisms are suppressed on dr* material' Once water is appliedL
microorganisms on substrate material can propagate themselves' If the initial temperature of the substrate is PD%L
microorganisms suitable for this temperature range will increase and begin consuming the water-soluble carbon
source that is relativel* eas* to absorb' Generall*L the organism utiliJes RS] of the nutrients for energ* but the
other QS] cannot be utiliJed and is emitted as heat' As the microorganisms increase b* geometric progressionL the
heat emitted b* the microorganisms is accumulated and the temperature of substrate increases to RD%' ThenL
growth of the microorganisms that prefer the temperature of PD% is suppressed and other microorganisms
appropriate for RD% begin to increase' In this wa*L the temperature of substrate increases up to SD%'
The water-soluble carbon sources in substrate are all consumed b* microorganisms as the fermentation
proceeds' At that point microorganisms begin to consume high molecular carbon sources that are relativel* hard to
absorbL such as celluloseL hemi-cellulose and lignin' In theor*L the increase of substrate temperature up to SD%
means that microorganisms have decomposed the high molecular carbon sources that are relativel* hard to utiliJe
as well as the water-soluble carbon sources that are eas* to utiliJeL and that the nutritive substances of the
substrate are accumulated in the microorganisms in the form of protein' WoweverL the substrate temperature is not
uniform within a pile in actual fermentationL so the substrate pile is turned several times to encourage thorough
fermentation b* repeating the process described above several times' In additionL turning helps aerobic
fermentation b* providing more air to the pile'
Some growers ma* wonder what would happen if the substrate materials were fermented at SD%' 2ould this
maOe the fermentation process faster and easierc The answer is negative' The initial microorganisms that exist on
cotton waste or cereal straw come mainl* from the soil and man* of them are mesophilic microorganisms best
cultivated at about RD%' Because SD% is not a usual temperature in natural environmentsL there are not man* or
man* varieties of thermophiles that are best incubated at SD%' There are not man* microorganisms available to
ferment the substrate if the fermentation starts from SD%' In additionL various Oinds of microorganisms are more
able to ferment the whole substrate depending on the diverse nutritional components' WoweverL o*ster mushrooms
can be still cultivated successfull* even though the substrate has been fermented onl* from SD% if the mushrooms
are well managed in each step of cultivation' This is because o*ster mushrooms grow ver* well on various
substrates without fermentation'
Pasteurization
The substrate is pasteuriJed at QS% for Q-C hours' PasteuriJation is sometimes said to aim at Oilling insects and
mold sporesL but this is not a sufficient explanation of the process of pasteuriJation' The spores of molds are
generall* Oilled at temperatures over CD%L and therefore the pasteuriJing temperature of QS% is not enough for
Oilling most mold spores' MoreoverL the spores are more durable in a QS% substrate with relative humidit* of QD-
(D] than in QS% water' This can be easil* understood if *ou thinO that people can sta* in an CD% sauna but not
in CD% water' Some growers pasteuriJe substrate at CD%L but this temperature can Oill useful microorganisms as
well as mold spores' The substrate is pasteuriJed in order to soften the substrate materials and Oill mesophilic
microorganismsL not mold spores'
Post-fermentation
After pasteuriJation is completedL the substrate is post-fermented at SD-SS% for R-T da*s' Though pre-
fermentation is completed before pasteuriJationL the whole substrate is not fermented' Post-fermentation aims at a
thorough and even fermentation of the whole substrate' buring pre-fermentationL mesophiles are converted to
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "($
thermophilesL but mesophiles are still abundant because considerable parts of the substrate are not full* fermented'
These mesophilic microorganisms later compete with mushroom m*celia because both grow well at similar
temperatures' Once these mesophiles are converted into thermophilesL howeverL these thermophilic
microorganisms cannot grow at the incubation temperature of mushroomL and so cannot compete with mushroom
m*celia'
2hite actinom*cete grows at the last stage of the fermentation FFig' RDL RAG' The presence of actinom*cete
indicates that the substrate is well fermented aerobicall* and has become appropriate for the m*celial growth of
mushrooms' The presence of actinom*cete on the substrate indicates that the pW of the substrate is more than pW (L
a level that suppresses the growth of green molds'
After post fermentationL the substrate has become a superior nutritional material for mushroom m*celia' Useful
nutrients are possessed b* microorganisms as proteins and these proteins are not spoiled because the* are inside
the living organisms' Mushroom m*celia vegetative growth cells are able to secrete a greater variet* of digestive
enJ*mes than an* other microorganisms' Once mushroom m*celia are inoculated into the substrate in the form of
spawnL b* using various digestive enJ*mes the m*celia can digest materials that other microorganisms could not
process' MoreoverL the m*celia have enJ*me-digesting microorganismsL so the* can dissolve and absorb the
proteinsL lipidsL mineralsL and vitamins of the microorganisms'
!!!!!! !
Figure 30, 31. Actinomycetes on cotton waste(above) and rice straw (below)
!
Characteristics of microorganisms participating in fermentation
One of thermophiles and one of actinom*cete were separated and their optimal pW and temperature were
examined' According to Figure RPL the thermophilic microorganism showed optimal growth at pW (-C while the
optimal pW for the actinom*cete was C-B' ThereforeL both grew well on alOaline Fover pW (G substrate'
Considering onl* microorganismsL pW C would be the optimal for substrateL but the optimal pW for mushroom
growth is Q-C' ThereforeL pW ( is the best level for the growth of both mushrooms and thermophilic
microorganisms' Figure RR shows that the thermophiles and the actinom*cete grow best at SD%' The thermophiles
propagate well enough below SD%L but their growth is much repressed above SD%' On the other handL the
actinom*cete prefer TS-SS%' This result indicates that the thermophiles participate in fermentation at the earl*
stage while actinom*cete participate activel* laterL when the temperature is over SD%'
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "('
Figure 32. Optimal growth of thermophile Figure 33. Optimal growth of thermophile and
and actinomycetes according to pH actinomycetes according to temperature
Various microorganisms participate in the fermentation process as dominant species in each step in the
succession' To monitor the changes of microorganisms during fermentation according to substrate materialsL
substrates were prepared b* mixing different rates of cotton waste and sawdust and incubated at RD% for P da*s
and then at SD% for S da*sL after which the propagation of mesophiles and thermophiles were examined FFig' RTL
RSL RQG'
!!!!!! !
Figure 34. cottonaste! Figure 35. cotton waste:sawdust=5:5
According to Figure RTL mesophilic microorganisms begin to
propagate after the first da* and multiplied in number over
ALDDD times until the first da* of incubation at SD% began' On
the first da* of incubation at RD% mesophiles did not grow at
allL because this was a preparator* period when appropriate
microorganisms for temperatureL pWL ox*gen and nutritional
condition of the substrate adapt themselves and microorganisms
participating in fermentation are selected' 2hen read*L the
mesophiles increased explosivel*' WoweverL the* begin to
decrease rapidl* at the beginning of the first da* of incubation at
SD%L and their numbers dropped down to the level where
fermentation started' On the other handL thermophiles increased
! Figure 36. cotton waste:sawdust=2:8
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (' Cultivation Modes "(#
from the first da* at SD% until the last da*' Seeing that mesophiles did not stagnate at SD% but decreased and
disappearedL it can be inferred that the* were utiliJed as nutrients for the thermophiles'
Figure RRL RT and RS shows how important the choice of substrate material in fermentation process is for two
reasons' As the rate of sawdust increases among substrate FFig' RSGL thermophiles as well as mesophiles cannot
increase because sawdust doesnEt contain enough microorganisms that are participating in fermentation' WoweverL
the number of microorganisms doesnEt increase as much as when the rate of cotton waste is higher FFig' RRL RTG
even though the incubation da*s are extended' The second reason is that sawdust lacOs nutrients easil* utiliJed b*
microorganisms' Sawdust has more hemi-cellulose and ligninL which are relativel* hard to utiliJeL while cotton
waste has more celluloseL which is dissolved relativel* easil* b* microorganisms' ThereforeL the growth of
microorganisms is restrained and fermentation is not increased as the amount of sawdust increases within a
substrate' Another important finding is that if mesophiles donEt increaseL thermophiles also cannot increase'
Mesophilic microorganisms affect the growth of thermophilic microorganisms'
Note : End of excerpt.
Conclusion
Shelf cultivation of o*ster mushroom adopts the composting technolog* of button mushroom cultivation' Though
not essentialL fermentation contributes to the high ;ualit* and high *ield of o*ster mushrooms' Nowada*sL man*
<orean growers have converted from shelf cultivation to bag cultivation due to the high risO of shelf cultivation'
The fermentation of substrate re;uires man* *ears of experience and sOillL so man* inexperienced o*ster
mushroom growers fail to produce profitable amounts of mushrooms' MoreoverL shelf cultivation entails high
expenses due to the large amounts of substrate and spawnL the high fuel cost for fermentationL and so forth' On the
other handL bag cultivation is relativel* eas* and safe because it produces appropriate *ields though not of as high
of a ;ualit*' NeverthelessL it is expected that the principles of substrate fermentation could be applied to the
respective situations of o*ster mushroom growers' Fermentation might re;uire far less costs in tropical or
subtropical regions because less fuel is re;uired'
REFERE.CES
- ShimL M'S' PDDA' Ph*siolog* of substrate fermentation and substrate maOing' 4ushroom Fin <oreanG SFPG: SR-(('
- OhL S'e'L e'S' ParOL b'C' LeeL and P' G' Shin' PDDR' Studies on the effect of vin*l mulching on 2leurotus
cultivation - control of mushroom diseases on 2leurotus ostreatus FPG' 4ycology RAFAG: SD-SR'
- OhL S'e'L P'G' ShinL <'f' eangL and W'<' <im' PDDR' Studies on the effect of vin*l mulching on 2leurotus
cultivation - bunch formation in 2leurotus sa\or-ca\u FRG' 4ycology RAFAG: ST-SQ'
- ChaL b'f'L e'S' ParOL C'W' fouL G'P' <imL C'S' eeonL and b'2' Lee' ABB(' Oyster 4ushroom 8 Cultivation
Technology and 4anagement Fin <oreanG' SeoulL <orea: The Farmers Newspaper' R(Tpp'
- ShimL M'S' PDDP' The Xssence of mushroom cultivation - fermentation of substrate Fin <oreanG'
available at http:ggwww'mushworld'com'
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "##
-ushroom Gro>ersJ HandbooC !
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Part &&. )*ster -ushrooms
Chapter (
Cultivation Modes
"#$$%& '(%$)*+$)#,
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)*ster mushroom cultivations on logs: on shelves and in bags are discussed earlier in this chapter. =o>: the latest
container used ?or o*ster mushroom gro>ing is a pol*prop*lene bottle. Prop*lene bottles >ere ?irst ?avored b*
spa>n suppliers since the* are heat-resistant and thus: autoclavable: endurable and thus: re-usable: and eas* to
handle.
-ushroom gro>ers >ith eAperience and some specialiBed Cno>ledge o? mushroom gro>ing and sterile
techniDues can maCe use o? bottle culture s*stems ?or production o? spa>n and mushrooms. The s*stem: ho>ever:
might be impractical ?or gro>ers >ho have Fust started mushroom gro>ing or those >ho use pasteuriBed bulC
substrates or composted substrates that are not appropriate ?or bottling. Favored are the small particle-siBed
gro>th media t*pes such as sa>dust: spent grains and grain hulls. &n addition: the initial set-up cost o? the s*stem
ma* be too high ?or man* small-scale gro>ers to adopt. Still: some gro>ers ma* be able to develop some viable
ideas ?rom this up-to-date gro>ing method.
!!!!! !
!
Figure 1, 2. Plastic bottles in use for mushroom growing
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "#$
:;775 <;68 =75 4-. &==9>9.84 (3. 7= 0?6>.
Commercial large-scale mushroom operations usuall* have t>o compleAes: one ?or substrate preparation and the
other ?or gro>ing. An ideal ?loor plan ?or mushroom bottle preparation compleA is sho>n in Figure N. )ne can see
the structure is designed to minimiBe the length o? path>a*s: a design ?eature that minimiBes contamination risCs.
SteriliBed substrate in the bottles harbors neither harm?ul nor bene?icial microorganisms to the m*celial gro>th.
That means: the ?irst comer can occup* the entire substrate in the bottle. That accounts ?or >h* steriliBed substrate
bottles are so vulnerable to diseases >hen the* are eAposed to air-borne contaminants be?ore mushroom m*celia
coloniBe them. Gro>ers are advised to maintain the highest levels o? h*giene and sanitation in mushroom
operations.
Figure N. Floor plan ?or an e??icient mushroom operation
#@34.5 A13-577B '1;49C64978 98 "744;.3
A bottle cultivation s*stem emplo*ing sa>dust as the gro>th medium >ould be similar to a sa>dust-based spa>n
production s*stem. The di??erences bet>een the t>o include the material used as inoculum and the stage that
occurs a?ter incubation. &n spa>n production: inoculum is spa>n master OPstarter spa>nJQ and m*celia-coloniBed
sa>dust become spa>n. &n bottle culture the inoculum is regular spa>n and the coloniBed substrate is encouraged
to produce ?ruiting bodies.
01234564. ?5.?6564978
The substrate materials should be in particles small enough to run

smoothl* into the bottle. Sa>dust ?rom hard>ood or broad-lea? trees such
as poplar: alder: and cotton>ood are pre?erred. Sa>dust ?rom so?t>ood
trees liCe Rouglas ?ir can be used a?ter a three to ?our month-outdoor
?ermentation process during >hich the phenol compounds are dissipated.
Gro>ers are advised to use mature sa>dust: but not overl* aged material
that ma* contain heat- resistant bacteria and substances un?avorable ?or
m*celial gro>th.
Figure 4. Substrate mixing

The same substrate preparation recipes used ?or mushroom bag culture
can be applied to substrate bottle preparation. Sice or >heat bran:
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "#%
corncob or other cellulosic materials can be supplemented to promote m*celial gro>th. Although optimal
substrate ?ormulation varies among strains: generall* ?our parts o? basal ingredient and one part supplement are
miAed and the ?inal moisture content should be TUV. Ho> can gro>ers Cno> >hether the moisture content is
appropriate or notW A rule o? thumb among mushroom gro>ers is one or t>o droplets should be released >hen
the* sDueeBe the miAture in the palm o? their hand. Some gro>ers add lime Ocalcium carbonateQ to the substrate
miAture to improve ph*sical structure and lo>er acidit*.
"744;98D
Prepared and moisture-conditioned sa>dust miAture is loaded into the bottle ?eeder. Through the ?eeder: bottles
are ?illed >ith the preset Duantit* o? miAture. )nce bottles are ?illed: compactors press the miAture in the bottle
do>n to the pre-set height and hole-maCers go through the compacted miAture.
Proper compaction gives the substrate high densit*: >hich means more nutrients >ill be available to m*celia
and thus produce a higher *ield. Xertical holes in the bottle permit even distribution o? mushroom spa>n to the
bottom: >hich allo>s ?or ?ast: even coloniBation. Fast depletion o? nutrients in the substrate: in turn: leads to an
earl* ?ruiting.
Figure 5. =ixer to feeder Figure 6. @ottle feeder
Figure 7. Feeding, compacting and hole maCing Figure 8. Inoculation holes
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "#&
04.59;9E64978
Filled bottles are loaded into an autoclave. Commercial scale autoclaves
have double doorsY one ?or entr* and the other ?or eAit. As seen on the
?loor plan: post-steriliBation contamination risC ?rom eAposure to outside
air is almost removed since steriliBed bottles are removed ?rom the eAit-
onl* door in the >ell-controlled: dust-?ree cooling room.
Gro>ers are advised to maCe sure the autoclave has enough >ater and
?uel so that steriliBation >ill not be interrupted. Zottles should be
steriliBed at [\[' or [U psi ?or T]-^] minutes O?rom the point the
temperature or the pressure reaching [\[' or [U psiQ. -ore reasonable
Figure 9. doubleKdoor autoclave precautions >ould include >earing protective gloves and removing
sa>dust litters ?rom the bottle sur?ace that could act as a contamination
vector ?rom the bottles.
'77;98D 68F 987>1;64978
2hen the bottles are removed ?rom the autoclave the* should be cooled to \]' in the cooling room. Slo> cooling
is advisable as condensation occurs >hen hot bottles are abruptl* eAposed to cool air. This is >h* some mushroom
operations have a pre-cooling room that is used be?ore the cooling room. Zottles read* to inoculate are moved
?rom the cooling room through a small >indo> into the clean bench on the sCate >heel conve*or. Ze?ore
inoculation: the inside o? the laminar ?lo> hood must be disin?ected >ith an ultraviolet lamp and (]V alcohol. The
?loor must be mopped >ith []V bleach. Some large-scale ?arms have an air-sho>er be?ore entr* to the inoculation
area. The highest sanitation is reDuired since one might gro> >eed and disease ?ungi inside contaminated bottles.
Xisitors and >orCers should taCe o?? their shoes and >ear clean clothing >hen entering this part o? the operation.
Figure 10. Autoclave door to the Figure 11. Iheel conveyer from Figure 12. Inoculator
preKcooling room cooling room to inoculation room
0?6/8 518
&noculated bottles are hauled to an incubation room: >here temperature and humidit* is maintained at [(-[_'
and TU-(]V: respectivel*. The spa>n run is strain-dependant: but usuall* taCes \]-\U da*s. Xentilation time and
?reDuenc* var* largel* depending on room temperature: humidit* and the number o? bottles. Gro>ers can
determine ventilation time and ?reDuenc* b* measuring the C)\ concentration. The maAimum upper limit o? C)\
concentration ?or m*celial gro>th is N:]]] ppm. Ruring incubation: it is critical to per?orm a close eAamination o?
the bottles and looC ?or an* contamination. 2hen unnoticed: contaminated bottles can ruin all the hard >orC
involved in substrate preparation: inoculation: and incubation. Ze?ore ?ruiting: some gro>ers opt ?or removing
aged m*celia on the top part o? the bottle.
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "$(
Figure 13. spawned bottles at the incubation room Figure 14. Nood colonization
:519498D
2hen ^]V o? the substrate in the bottle is coloniBed: the* are brought to a gro>ing room or eAposed to a lo>er
temperature Osuch as >hen one incubates and gro> mushrooms in the same placeQ. Fruiting is induced b* lo>
temperature or high humidit* as the m*celia shi?t into reproductive gro>th ?rom vegetative gro>th. Gro>th
parameters ?or mushroom development are the same as >ith mushroom bag or shel? cultivation.
Figure 15. Pinning Figure 16. Fruiting
Figure 17. Fruiting bodies in the bottles Figure 18. Fruiting bodies ready to harvast
!
! Part &&. O"ster Mushrooms Chapter (. Cultivation Modes "$"
&B?4@98D
A?ter harvest: bottles are loaded into the empt*ing machine. This de-bottler ?irst removes spent substrate and then
>ashes the emptied bottle >ith air or >ater. The empt*ing area should be ?ar ?rom the gro>ing ?acilities since the
used mushroom substrate might harbor spores o? >eed or disease mold.
Figure 19, 20. PeKbottling
This ne> gro>ing method saves much labor b* automating the >hole production process. -ushrooms can be
`manu?actureda all through the *ear in microclimate controlled rooms. This allo>s ?or a predictable and stable
cash ?lo>. Ho>ever: as one ma* imagine: the initial set-up cost is too high ?or most beginning gro>ers. &n addition:
as mushrooms are mass-produced and spa>n is also sel?-produced in the s*stem: sCilled sterile techniDues and
strict h*giene practices are reDuired. 2ise gro>ers emplo*ing di??erent cultivation methods could use their
creativit* to adopt the good points o? a bottle cultivation s*stem. Gro>ers are advised to 9start small and smart
but grow big;<
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms C"#$%&' 8. Pest and Disease Management !"#
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
C"#$%&' 8
Pest and Disease Management
Pest and ,isease .anagement
Jae-Soon Cha
Chungbuk 7ational :niversity< =orea
A wide range of diseases and pests can cause serious problems in mushroom cultivation< and management of those
diseases and pests is a key factor in successful mushroom production. Dhe main reasons for the eEistence of many
diseases and pests problems in mushroom cultivation can be summariFed as
G Mushroom cultivation conditions such as high humidity and warm temperature are favored by many pathogens
and pests.
G Dhere is a limit on chemical use for control of diseases or pests in mushroom cultivation.
G Pathogens and pests are readily attracted inside andHor outside mushroom houses involved with continuous
cultivation.
G Growing houses are not usually well eJuipped for environmental control.
1asi2 Pra2ti2es 4or ,isease and Pest .anagement
G Kanitation and strict hygiene are the most important preventive methods for pest and disease control. Lithout
them< effective disease or pest control will never be achieved. Every practice must focus on eEclusion and
elimination of pathogens or pests.
G =eep doors closed and avoid any practices that eEpose substrates to pathogens or pests during spawning.
G =eep mushroom flies from entering mushroom houses by installing screens on windows and doors.
G Inspect mushroom bags or beds carefully for early detection of pests and diseases.
G =eep mushroom bags or beds clean by removing any mushroom debris or mushroom stumps shortly after harvest.
G =eep the floors clean. No not dump any waste near mushroom houses< which can attract mushroom flies.
G Nisinfect or pasteuriFe spent substrate before removing it from mushroom houses after cultivation.
G Clean and disinfect mushroom houses thoroughly before a new crop.
G Clean and disinfect eJuipment freJuently.
G Lear clean clothes and shoes and wash hands before entering mushroom houses.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms C"#$%&' 8. Pest and Disease Management !"6
G899: .;<, =:, HYPOCREA ,>?9=?9
Any disease caused by green colored mold RfungiT on mushroom bags or beds is called [green mold
disease.\ Green color showed by the fungi comes from their spores< not from hyphae. Hyphal color of the
fungi is usually white. More than 30 fungi are reported as casual agents of green mold disease on
mushrooms. )'*+",-&'.# spp.< one of the maQor pathogens of green mold disease< reproduce by aseEual
spores " green conidiospores. However< some of )'*+",-&'.# spp. have not only aseEual cycle but also a
seEual stage R:;$,+'&# sppT. :;$,+'&# spp. form white or brown stroma in which seEual spores<
ascospores are formed. Recently :;$,+'&# spp. that do not produce aseEual stage in their life cycle have
been shown to cause a severe problem in oyster mushroom cultivation in =orea.
Pat@ogens
G MaQor pathogens of green mold disease on oyster mushroom are reported as )'*+",-&'.# /*'&01 RS 23*,+3#-*4.
/*'&01T< )5 /*'*-&6 )5 "#'7*#04.6 and )5 8,0*09** in =orea.
G :;$,+'&# sp. forms white or brown stromata for :;$,+'&# disease.
G MaQor pathogens of green mold can vary dependant on region or cultivation method or medium because more
than thirty fungi are known to cause green mold on mushrooms< and pathogenicity or proliferation conditions of
each fungus are different. For eEample< )5 "#'7*#04. 2 is a maQor pathogen of green mold in Europe< while )5
"#'7*#04. 4 is a maQor pathogen in the :KA on button mushrooms.
?AmBtoms
G Hyphal growth stage of pathogens in mushroom bag or on mushroom bed is difficult to distinguish from
mushroom hyphae by color since both are white. However< green mold fungi form denser mycelia and more
aerial hyphae than oyster mushroom.
G Green color appears when pathogen produces conidiospores from aerial hyphae. If pathogen was introduced at the
spawning stage< green patch usually appears 10G15 days later on cultivation bed.
G It is difficult to early identify :;$,+'&# spp. because they do not turn the infected area green and a white stroma
formed by :;$,+'&# spp. is similar to the primordia of oyster mushroom.
G If stroma appears< the pathogen has already occupied the substrate deeply and to a wide eEtent.
G Mushroom hyphae stop their growth around the green patch and are gradually covered by green mold.
!igure () 2. ,ree- .old o- 2otto- 45ste substr5te

!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms C"#$%&' 8. Pest and Disease Management !"C
!igure 8. White stro.5 o; Hypocrea sp. !igure 4. White stro.5 o; !igure >. ?ro4- sto.5 o;
o- 2otto- 45ste substr5te Hypocrea sp. o- ri2e str54 Hypocrea sp.
@Ahoto 2ourtesy o; Ceu-gDEu- FouG substr5te
Dontrol .easures
G Kanitation and hygiene are the most important control methods for green mold disease. Ktick to the 8Basic
Practices for Disease and Pest Management.=
G Kevere infestations with green mold are found in poorly pasteuriFed substrates with uneven moisture content.
G No not use green moldGcontaminated spawn. Any green patch in or around spawn bottles is a maQor source of
pathogenic spores. Nust from a green patch can provide inoculum for whole mushroom bags or beds at the
inoculation stage.
G Observe carefully mushroom substrates during hyphal growth stage< and remove or treat any spot with dense
white mycelial growth indicating green mold mycelia. Kpray or drench with a 500 ppm solution of Kporgon
RprochloraFGmanganese compleE_ 50`T on the spot.
G Kpraying the affected parts with 250G500 ppm of Kporgon before pasteuriFation is reported to prevent green mold
and :;$,+'&# disease.
G aenomyl and thiabendaFole are also known as control agents for green mold disease. However< resistant strains of
the pathogens are more common in =orea< and recent results of eEperiment showed that prochloraFGmanganese
compleE is by far the most effective.
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 8' Pest and Disease Management "#$
Mushroom GrowersR Hand5ook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part II' Oyster Mushrooms
Chapter 8
"#$%& "'$()* +,-./-.-

Jae-Soon Cha
Chung5uk National University, Korea
Brown 5lotch disease 5y 5acterial pathogen causes significant crop loss' The disease is very common in
mushroom houses in Korea' Various disease symptoms are o5served on cultivation 5eds' Nellowing of fruiting
5odies can 5e easily caused 5y environmental factors' A rapid change of humidity caused 5y too much
ventilation is diagnosed as 5eing conducive to 5acterial 5rown 5lotch'
"01234506 "4789 "6721: +5;30;3
<02:7=39;
> Ma?or pathogen is Pseudomonas tolaasii' Pseudomonas agarici was also reported as causal agent, 5ut the
importance of that 5acterium as a pathogen of 5rown 5lotch disease is Euestiona5le'
->?@27?;
> Bacterial 5rown 5lotch has various symptoms (Hig' 1)'

The most typical symptom is a 5rown spot on the caps
and stipes' The 5rown spots enlarge and coalesce with
other spots, and the affected areas are sunken and
covered with sticky material' At this stage a rotten fish
smell is evident'
> Rarely, the entire fruiting 5ody is discolored with a
reddish 5rown color and appears water logged'
> Noung fruiting 5odies are covered 5y a clear, glossy
material and stop growing'
> Pseudomonas tolaasii is isolated in all these diseased
mushrooms, 5ut it is still possi5le that miOed infections
cause these various symptoms' Figure 1. Symptoms of bacterial! brown blotch
disease on oyster mushroom
!
Co#yright! 200- .y MushWorld 5ll rights reserved.
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 8' Pest and Disease Management "#%
)792476 ?30;A43;
> Sanitation is the 5asic control measure for 5acterial 5rown 5lotch' Hollow the “Basic Practices for Disease and
Pest management.”
> PasteuriUe su5strates thoroughly and use healthy spawn'
> Control mushroom flies' Mushroom flies are well known vectors of the pathogen'
> Try to maintain constant humidity and temperature in growing houses' A5rupt temperature and humidity changes
increase the incidence of 5rown 5lotch'
> Hree water on fruiting 5odies makes the pathogenic 5acteria grow rapidly' Try to avoid free water on mushroom
surfaces 5y ventilating after watering'
> Vo not water too much' Brown 5lotch is favored 5y eOcessive moisture'
> Chlorinated water is effective to prevent the 5rown 5lotch disease' Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and calcium
hypochlorite WCa(OCl)2Y are most commonly used' Recently BiospotZ, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, has also
5ecome availa5le' Active chlorine content varies among the different formulas and chlorine is well known to 5e
vaporiUed easily' A routine use of 5 ppm chlorinated water (active chlorine concentration) prevents 5rown 5lotch
incidence' If 5rown 5lotch is o5served in mushroom 5ags or on mushroom 5eds, use 2\ ppm chlorinated water'
BA9=06 "4789 "6721: +5;30;3
<02:7=39
>4erticillium fungicola' This pathogen is suspected, 5ut the actual cause of the disease remains yet to 5e proved'
->?@27?;
> Mushroom cap is partially or entirely discolored yellow to 5rown (Hig' 2a)' The spots are not as clear as the spots
caused 5y 5acterial 5rown 5lotch'
> The shape of fruiting 5odies 5ecome a5normal and mushrooms stop growing (Hig' 25, 2c, 2d)'
A. Discoloration B. Abnormal growth
!
! Part II' Oyster Mushrooms Chapter 8' Pest and Disease Management "##
C. Stunted growth D. Malformation

Figure 2. Symptoms of fungal brown blotch
)792476 ?30;A43;
>Typical 5actericide or chlorine disinfectant is not effective' Hungicides such as Sporgon, 5enomyl, and
thia5endaUole, are effective, which indicates the cause of disease is fungi rather than 5acteria'
!
! !art II. Oyster Mushrooms C"apter (. Pest and 1isease Management "#$
Mushroom Xro@ersS Wandboo6 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art II. Oyster Mushrooms
C"apter (
Pest and 1isease Management
VIRAL DISEASE
4ae-6oon Cha
Chungbu6 National :niversity< Korea
Biral disease in oyster mushroom has not been @ell documented. Wo@ever< they occur sporadically and cause
huge losses in some mushroom farms.
Causing Agents
> T@o isometric viruses< OMIB>I and >II (oyster mushroom isometric virus I and II) @ere isolated from oyster
mushrooms sho@ing viral disease symptoms.
> Birus particle siHes of both viruses are same as IJ nm at diameter. Coat proteins and ds>RNLs that the viruses
contain are different.
> Except these t@o viruses< the same siHe of cryptic virus @as found in healthy oyster mushroom. The third virus is
also isometric and IJ nm in siHe.
Symptoms
> Typical symptoms of viral disease on oyster mushroom are Ouite similar to PLa Rrance diseaseS @hich is a @ell>
6no@n viral disease in button mushrooms (A*ari,us bisporus).
> Telay in fruiting body formation< shortening in stipe< abnormal shape and thin mushroom caps are the maUor
symptoms (Rig. 1b< 1c< 1d). Rruiting bodies are not formed at all on some infected mushroom beds.
> The viral>infected hyphae gro@ very slo@ly on agar and their density is very lo@ (Rig. 1f).
A. $ealthy oyster mushrooms B. 1iral3infected mushrooms

!
! !art II. Oyster Mushrooms C"apter (. Pest and 1isease Management "#%
C. 1iral3infected mushrooms 9. 1iral3infected mushrooms
:. $ealthy culture on agar <late F. 1iral3infected culture
Figure 1. $ealthy and viral3infected oyster mushrooms and culture @Ahoto courtesy of $yun3SuC LeeE
Ecology
The ecology of viral disease in oyster mushrooms is not 6no@n at all so far. Ror La Rrance disease< a 6no@n viral
disease of button mushroom< it has been 6no@n that basidiospores mediate the spread of the virus. Wo@ this virus is
spread in oyster mushrooms is not yet 6no@n.
Control Measures
> Biral diseases cannot be cured in infected mushrooms by any cultural or chemical treatment. !revention is only
the @ay of control the viral diseases.
> :se healthy spa@n. !repare spa@n using virus>free strain. To not use any culture containing the viral particles.
> Clean and disinfect thoroughly the gro@ing house in @hich any viral disease occurred. It has not been proven yet<
but spores or mycelium of viral infected mushrooms can transfer the viral disease in a manner similar to the
spread of La Rrance disease of the button mushroom.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 8. Pest and Disease Management "#$
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Cha$ter 8
P#$T$
Jae-Soon Cha
Chungbuk National University, Korea
Oyster mushroom cultivation beds provide very good conditions for pests, plenty of food, warm temperatures,
and high humidity. Five kinds of flies and two types of mites are reported as the major pests for oyster
mushrooms.!
$ciarids ,Lycoriella mali-
Sciarids are the most important pests of oyster mushroom. Adults are about 2mm with long thread-like antennae
(Fig. 1). Larvae are 6-12mm long with a distinct black head capsule (Fig. 2). Larvae feed on mycelia, small pin-
heads, and large mushrooms. Such feeding results in cuts in the mycelium, less primodium formation, and cavities
in the stipes and caps of large mushrooms. Adults spread diseases and mites. Female adults lay 100-130 eggs at a
time on cultivation beds and the eggs hatch after 4-5 days at 20%. Growth and development of the fly is delayed or
poor when temperatures are lower than 15% or above 30%.
Figure 1. Female adult sciarid and eggs Figure 2. Lava of sciarid
$captosids ,Coboldia fuscipes-
This fly occurs mainly during summer crop cultivation. Larvae feed on the mycelium, causing rotting of substrate
which results in yield loss. Both adults and larvae are known to transfer mites and diseases. Larvae grow and
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 8. Pest and Disease Management "#"
develop fast at above 25%, but it takes much longer for their growth and development when the temperature is
below 20%. This indicates that their growth is favored by high temperature during summer cultivation.
Figure 3. Male adult Coboldia fuscipes Figure 4. Larva of Coboldia fuscipes
Cecids ,Mycophila sp.-
Adults are very small, less than 1 mm, which makes them difficult to see inside the growing room (Fig. 5). Larvae
are 1-3mm in length suck the nutrients from hyphae and also attack mushroom stipes and caps. Larvae populations
can increase rapidly within a short time because they can reproduce by paedogenesis during which each larva
releases 14-20 daughter larvae every 6 days. Mushroom bags or beds become orange in color if huge numbers of
orange colored larvae occur. Larvae are well known to transfer various bacteria that cause the breakdown of
mushrooms.
Figure 5. Adult cecid Figure 6. Larva of cecid Figure 7. Cecid larvae on

mushrooms
Phorids ,Megaselia tamiladuensis-
Adults are 2-4mm and move quickly by hopping on the substrate. Larvae
are 4-6mm long with a white and transparent body and they do not have a
distinct black head. Larvae feed on mycelia and make cavities in
mushroom fruiting bodies. Phorids usually occur during summer
cultivation, but they normally cause less damage than other flies.
Figure 8. Adult phorid

!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 8. Pest and Disease Management "#&
Mites
Mites belong to the class Arachnida, not Insecta. Tarsonemus sp. and
/istiostoma sp. are major mushroom damaging mites. They are small and
invisible to the naked eye. Mites feed on mycelia and fruiting bodies,
causing yield loss and a decrease in mushroom quality. Mites carry
pathogens and nematodes, sometimes causing itchy rashes among growers.
Figure 9. Mite
Mycetophil ,Mycetophila sp.-
Adults are big and yellowish (Fig. 10). Larvae are 15-20mm long and grayish brown and construct cocoons with
threads on the substrates or mushrooms. Young fruiting bodies become brown and stop growing. Larvae also cause
large cavities in the stipes (Fig. 11).
Figure 10. Adult mycetophil Figure 11. Infection with mycetophil larvae
Control Measures
- Sanitation and hygiene is the most important control method of pests. Keep the “Basic Practices for Disease and
Pest management”
- Clean and disinfect mushroom houses thoroughly before cultivation.
- Remove any waste, weed, mushroom debris, and water containers inside or outside mushroom houses that attract
flies or on which flies can live.
- Exclude flies with a mesh with apertures not greater than 0.5-0.6mm on air inlets. Keep doors closed insofar as
possible, particularly during spawning and mycelium growth phase.
- Maintaining a low fly population during spawn run is of major importance as early flies give rise to the initial
infestation which culminates in the high populations that appear later in the cropping cycle.
- Pasteurize substrates thoroughly. This is very important, especially for mite control.
- Burning mosquito coils is known as a very effective control method of adult flies inside mushroom houses.
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Pest and Disease Management "#$
Mushroo1 WroDersC L"3dboo6 !
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Chapter (
"#$O&M"()*)ES )$ -&.)*)$/ #O01
Jae-Soon Cha
Chu3gbu6 7"tio3"l :3iversity< =ore"
>he Aor1"tio3 "3d groDth oA Aruiti3g bodies "re se3sitive to e3viro31e3t"l Bo3ditio3s< suBh "s te1per"ture<
hu1idity< B"rbo3 dioVide Bo3Be3tr"tio3< "3d 1oisture Bo3te3t i3 the 1ushroo1 substr"te. &1proper b"l"3Be oA
these A"Btors B"3 i3duBe Aruiti3g body deAor1"tio3s. !
*em4erature and &elati=e >umidity
>e1per"ture "3d hu1idity "AAeBt the Aruiti3g bodiesC sh"pe. )pti1"l Bultiv"tio3 Bo3ditio3s v"ry Dith str"i3s. >he
Bh"3ges i3 the Aruiti3g body sh"pes oA "3 oyster 1ushroo1 str"i3 "t diAAere3t Bo3ditio3s "re desBribed beloD.
)pti1"l te1per"ture "3d hu1idity Aor Aruiti3g body Aor1"tio3 oA this 1ushroo1 is 63oD3 "s EFGEH% "3d I (0K.
Ligh "3d loD te1per"ture i3diB"tes I EH% "3d M E2%< respeBtively "3d high "3d loD hu1idity i3diB"tes I (0K
"3d M H0K.
:3der high te1per"ture "3d high hu1idity

G C"pOstipe r"tio s1"ller Ps1"ll B"pOlo3g stipeQ
G C"p Bolor beBo1es lighter PgreyGbroD3ish greyQ
G Repressio3 i3 the Be3ter
:3der high te1per"ture "3d loD hu1idity

G C"p 1"rgi3 gets thi33er "3d brittle
G C"p tur3s i3to u1brell" sh"pe
G C"p Bolor beBo1e very light Plight greyGDhiteQ
G Stipe beBo1es very thiB6
:3der loD te1per"ture "3d loD hu1idity

G C"p Bolor beBo1es d"r6 Pd"r6 broD3Q
G Stipe beBo1es thiB6 or 1iddle oA stipe is sDolle3 or b"rrelGsh"ped
G Truiti3g bodies groDs very sloDly "3d produBes loD yields
:3der loD te1per"ture "3d high hu1idity

G Uel"tively stro3g Bolor "3d stro3g Aruiti3g bodies Aor1ed
G Truiti3g bodies groD sloDly "3d the 3u1ber oA Aruiti3g bodies reduBed
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Pest and Disease Management "#&
Figure 1. Fruiting bodies at 123 4R.6.7 Figure 2. Fruiting bodies at 923 4R.6.7
@OA @onCentration
Ligh B"rbo3 dioVide PC)2Q Bo3Be3tr"tio3 i3side >"ble E. Truiti3g body sh"pe "t diAAere3t C)2 Bo3Be3tr"tio3
1ushroo1 houses is o3e oA the 1"Xor B"uses oA
"b3or1"lity i3 Aruiti3g bodies. !roper ve3til"tio3 C)2 Bo3B. Ri"1eter oA B"p \e3gth oA stipe
is 3eeded i3 order to reduBe C)2 Bo3Be3tr"tio3. PKQ P11Q P11Q
LoDever< too 1uBh "ir 1ove1e3t B"used by 0.0F H.[ 4.H
eVBessive ve3til"tio3 "lso i3duBes "b3or1"lities 0.E F.4 H.(
i3 Aruiti3g body sh"pes. A3 i3Bre"se oA B"rbo3 0.F 2.4 H.^
dioVide Bo3Be3tr"tio3 B"3 deBre"se B"p siZes "3d 0.[ 0.H 2.[
i3Bre"se le3gth oA stipes. LoDever< eve3 stipes
"re short "t C)2 Bo3Be3tr"tio3s oA 1ore th"3
0.[K.
A. :;2 concentration 2.233 >. :;2 concentration 2.13
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Pest and Disease Management "#'
:. :;2 concentration 2.33 D. :;2 concentration 2.53
Figure 3. Affect of :;2 concentration on mushroom morphology of P. ostreatus

4Hhoto courtesy of IapJKeol Lang7
DaterinE FSubstrate Moisture @ontentI
W"teri3g "Ater pri1odiu1 Aor1"tio3 to 1"i3t"i3 opti1"l 1oisture Bo3te3t i3 substr"te is very i1port"3t Aor the
produBtio3 oA high yields oA high ù"lity oyster 1ushroo1s. Rise"se usu"lly i3Bre"ses Dith too 1uBh D"teri3g o3
Bultiv"tio3 beds PeVBessive 1oisture Bo3te3tQ. >oo little D"teri3g reduBes yields "3d i3duBes "b3or1"l sh"pes i3
Aruiti3g bodies. Substr"te bloB6s shri36 "3d Aruiti3g bodies beBo1e broD3 o3 dry Bultiv"tio3 beds< "3d 3eD 1yBeli"
groD "3d 1"3y s1"ll 3eD Aruiti3g bodies "re Aor1ed o3 old 1ushroo1 Aruiti3g bodies.
M. Nubstrate was separated with boP by shrinking >. >rowning of fruiting body
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Pest and Disease Management "#(
:. >aby fruiting bodies formed on an old fruiting body D. >aby fruiting bodies formed on an old fruiting
body
Figure 4. ;yster mushroom fruiting bodies with low substrate moisture content
4Hhoto courtesy of IapJKeol Lang7
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 9. Post-harvest Management !"#
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Cha$ter 9
Post-harvest Management
%&C(C)*+, -. /0&+1 -(/1&% 23/4%--2 /35/1%61&
Danny L. Rinker1, ;<RI2, Seung Woo Kang3

1
University of Guelph, Canada
2
ZERI (Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives)
3
MushWorld
Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) needs heat treatment before being

removed from the growing chamber. But it takes extra cost, and thus, some
mushroom growers want to throw away the contaminated SMS far from
the farm in order to prevent re-contamination (Fig. 1). Without proper
treatment, contaminated SMS can cause re-contamination. In opposition,
recycle of SMS can increase sustainability and also help farm economy.
This article is excerpted from “Spent mushroom substrate around the

Figure 1. Mushroom bed world” (Danny Lee Rinker) and “Project report” (ZERI Foundation), and
contaminated by green mold
edited by Seung Woo Kang.
6 5r8e: ;e<=r8pt8@A @: /peAt -B<ter 2C<hr@@E /CF<trate
At the end of several mushroom harvests, the growing material is considered spent. SMS contains enough
digestible nutrition, primarily decomposed by mushroom, to be fed livestock (Table 1, 2). It will increase growers’
income and protect environment to recycle SMS for feeding livestock or soil for other plants. As you can see in
Table 2, P*eurotus compost contains high percentage of three primary nutrients (nitrogen, N; phosphorus, P or
P2O5 ; potassium, K or K2O) as a fertilizer.
Table 1. Characteristics of spent oyster mushroom substrate
Ash TSS* C H N Mg Ca Na K Mn Ni Zn
(%) (%) (%) (mg/L)
72.92 830 23.6 4.06 5.99 7.72 30.13 1.32 4.47 2.2 nil 2.34
* TSS: Total Soluble Solids

(Source: Chiu et a*., 1998)
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 9. Post-harvest Management !""
Table 2. Analysis of the fertilizer value of compost from the edible #$%&'()&* (*)'%+)&*
N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

P*eurotus compost 1.70 0.61 1.13
Human manure and urine 0.30 0.16 0.30
Pig manure 0.60 0.60 0.50
Cow manure 0.59 0.28 0.14
(Source: Zheng et a*., 2002)
For instance, a Thai mushroom grower recycles his spent substrate as a soil for other plants (Fig. 4, 5). He put
the spent substrate for over one year under outdoor condition before reuse.
Figure 2. Spent sawdust substrate from bag cultivation Figure 3. Spent cotton-waste substrate from shelf
cultivation
Figure 4. Spent straw substrate during aging before Figure 5. Tropical plants grown on aged spent straw
reuse substrate
/2/ %e=B=H8AI Ca<e< 8A J&%* 0r@Ke=t<
C@H@EF8aL<peAt =@::eeM<CF<trate :@r :eeN8AI =attHe aAN p8I<

The organic wastes from a coffee farm contain biochemicals, which do not permit their reuse as cattle feed.
Therefore, they could at best be used for earthworm farming. However, enzymes of the tropical mushrooms are
capable of neutralizing these biochemicals. Even better, the mushroom mycelia (roots) are rich in protein (up to
38%). This means that the waste from the coffee farm-after mushroom farming - becomes an excellent additive to
cattle and pig feed.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 9. Post-harvest Management !"O
4kg of vegetable or fungal protein produces 1kg of pig meat. In the case of cattle farming, the ratio is 7 : 1. Many
consider this to be a very inefficient way for us to get protein. However, we usually do not consider the volume of
energy pig or cow manure can produce in a digester. 100 pigs produce enough manure each day to generate a
calorific energy value equivalent to 10L of petroleum. Manure energy (biogas), should be used first and foremost
by the coffee farmer for the preparation of the substrate for mushroom farming. The coffee bush waste needs to be
pasteurized, and for specific types of mushrooms sterilized, before being used as a mushroom growing substrate.
And since this requires a continuous flow of energy, it is best to use a locally available renewable energy source -
and pigs always produce waste.
AfricaM spent substrate of water hyacinth weed for cattle feeding and vermiculture
The Southern African region has an abundance
of the waterweed commonly known as water
hyacinth (.i0hhornia 0rassi$es). This aquatic
weed has become a serious problem because it
grows very fast and in the process chokes up
waterways, blocks navigable waterways, reduces
fishing points, and in some cases blocks water
pumps. The adverse impact of the excessive
growth of the water hyacinth is being felt in the
economies of all lake districts of Africa:
Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania, Kenya,
and Uganda. Then, scientific research initiated
by the ZERI Foundation demonstrated that dried
water hyacinth is the best substrate for farming
mushrooms and that the spent substrate after
fungi harvesting is rich in protein from the
mycelia of the mushrooms and is excellent feed
for earthworms, which convert it all into humus
and can be fed to chickens, ducks and pigs.
After only 30 days, the dried substrate from
water hyacinth produced a variety of mushrooms.
Once harvested, it did not take more than 10
Figure 6. The integrated biosystem for the water hyacinth
days to harvest a second and even a third flush. 1
ton of dried water hyacinth substrate generated 1.1 tons of mushrooms, thus generating more mushrooms than base
material and out-performing traditional substrates such as sawdust. The residual substrate of water hyacinth after
mushroom farming, is a rich food-base for cattle. Since nearly all the lingo-cellulose has been broken down by the
enzymes of the mushroom, the rest of the material can also be used to farm earthworms, which will convert the
material into a humus. The humus that is produced in the process would then be reapplied to the soils, recovering
and replenishing some of the lost topsoil. Earthworms are also an excellent chicken feed.
/@Ee /tCN8e< @A /-2/P %e=B=H8AI
58@reEeN8at8@A
- Chiu, S.W., M.L. Ching, K.L. Fong and D. Moore. 1998. Spent oyster mushroom substrate performs better than
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 9. Post-harvest Management !OQ
many mushroom mycelia in removing the biocide pentachlorophenol. My0o*ogi0a* 5esear0h 102(12): 1553-1562.
- Eggen, T. 1999. Application of fungal substrate from commercial mushroom production- P*eurotus ostreatus - for
bioremediation of creosote contaminated soil. 6nternationa* 7iodeterioration and 7iodegradation 44(2-3): 117-
126.
- Martiriani, L., P. Giardina, L. Marzullo, and G. Sannia. 1996. Reduction of phenol content and toxicity in olive oil
mill waste waters with the ligninolytic fungus P*eurotus ostreatus. 9ater 5es. 30:1914-1918.
Cr@p pr@NC=t8@A
- Abdallah, M.M.F., M.F.Z. Emara, and T.F. Mohammady. 2000. Open field interplanting of oyster mushroom with
cabbage and its effect on the subsequent eggplant crop. :nna*s o; :gri0u*tura* S0ien0e Cairo 45(1): 281-293.
- Anderson, D. 2001. Sawdust substrate as organic fertilizer (pers. comm.).
- Batista, J.G., E.R.B. Batista and F.F. Mateus. 2000. Effectiveness of two biodegradation methods on the physical
characteristics of compost for horticultural purposes. :0ta =orti0u*turae 517: 293-302.
- Keil, C. 2001. Cotton seed substrate pelletized for organic fertilizer or mixed with :gari0us spent substrate for
organic fertilizer (pers. comm.).
- Nguyen, H.H., J. Teplikova, M. Dobra, and M. Stanek. 1987. Effect of substrates for the cultivation of mushrooms
on the growth of cucumber, rhizospheric microorganisms and fall caused by 5hi>o0tonia so*ani? .n@ironmenta*
Mi0roBio*ogy 32(6): 503.
- Quimio, T.H., S.T. Chang, and D.J. Royse. 1990. Technical guidelines for mushroom growing in the tropics. FAO,
Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. 106: 131-134.
- Utilization of spent mushroom compost. In: C:O P*ant Produ0tion and Prote0tion.
%eMC<e 8A the =CHt8Rat8@A @: EC<hr@@E<

- Kim, H.K., H.D. Lee, Y.G. Kim, G.H. Han, C.S. Moon, and H.G. Kim. 1998. Studies on the development of casing
materials using sawdust bottle culture in cultivated mushroom, :gari0us Bis$orus? Ehe Forean Journa* o;
My0o*ogy 26(1): 51-55.
- Nakaya, M., S. Yoneyama, Y. Kato, and A. Harada. 2000. Recycling of cultural waste of P*eurotus 0ornu0o$iae
for cultivation of P? 0ornu0o$iae and P? ostreatus.
- Poppe, J. 2000. Cultivation of edible mushrooms on tropical agricultural wastes. Biennial Training Course, ABOS
and VLIR, University Gent.
- Sharma, V.P., and C.L. Jandaik. 1985. Studies on recycling of P*eurotus waste. Mushroom Journa* ;or the Ero$i0s
6(2): 13-15.
Food for animals and fish

- Calzada, J. F., E. de Porres, R. de Leon, C. Rolz, and L. F. Franco. 1987. Production of food and feed from wheat
straw by P*eurotus saHor-0aHu? Mushroom Journa* o; the Ero$i0s 7: 45-46.
- Kakkar and Dhanda. 1998; Bakshi, et a*. 1985. Adult and young buffaloes fed spent wheat or rice straw from
P*eurotus cultivation.
- Kakkar, et a*. 1990; Adamovia, et a*. 1998; C. Jaramillo. 2001; Cattle feed from spent wheat straw compost (pers.
comm.).
- Permana, I.G., G. Flachowsky, U.ter Meulen, and F. Zadrazil. 2000. Use of sugarcane bagasse for mushroom and
animal feed production. Mushroom S0ien0e 15(1): 385-390.
- Permana. 1990; Zadrazil, and Puniya. 1995. Spent sugarcane bagasse compost in a dietary blend for ruminants.
- Streeter, C.L., K.E. Conway, and G.W. Horn. 1981. Effect of P*eurotus ostreatus and .rJinia 0aroto@ora on
wheat straw digestibility. My0o*ogia 73(6): 1040-1048.
!
! Part II. Oyster Mushrooms Cha$ter 9. Post-harvest Management !O!
- Zadrazil, F. 1977. The conversion of straw into feed and by Basidiomycetes. .uro$ean Journa* o; :$$*ied
Mi0roBio*ogy 4: 273-281.
- Zadrazil, F. 1980. Conversion of different plant waste into feed by Basidiomycetes. .uro$ean Journa* o; :$$*ied
Mi0roBio*ogy 9: 243-248.
- Zadrazil, F. 1984. Microbial conversion of lignocellulose into feed. In: S. Sundtal, and E. Owen (eds).
De@e*o$ment in :nima* and Leterinary S0ien0es. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.
Chapter 14: 276-292.
0e<t EaAaIeEeAt
- Hibbett, D.S., and R.G. Thorn. 1994. Nematode-trapping in P*eurotus tuBerregium? My0o*ogia 86(5): 696-699.
- Thorn, R.G., and G.L. Barron. 1984. Carnivorous Mushrooms. S0ien0e 224(4644): 76-78.
Miscellaneous uses
- Tan, Y.H., and M.N. Wahab. 1997. Extracellular enzyme production during anamorphic growth in the edible
mushroom P*eurotus saHor-0aHu. 9or*d Journa* o; Mi0roBio*ogy and 7iote0hno*ogy 13: 613-617.
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Post-harvest Management "#$
Mushroo1 SroAersE T"6dbooF 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Chapter (
Post-harvest Management
M#S%ROOM STORA*E A,D PROCESSI,*
Byung Sik Kim

MushWorld
Dhe 9olloAi6g p"per is su11"riCed 9ro1 Shiitake Growers’ HandbookU The Art and Science of Mushroom
Cultivation by !"ul !rCybyloAi5C "6d Voh6 Qo6oghue "6d Tropical Mushroom Cultivation by Dri5it" T.
Wui1io.!
Mushroo1s 5o6ti6ue to respire "9ter h"rvest "6d they h"ve " rel"tively
high respir"tio6 r"te 5o1p"red to other 9resh produ5e< the respir"tio6 r"te
o9 oyster 1ushroo1 bei6g three ti1es gre"ter th"6 1ost 9ruits 9or e>"1ple.
?espir"tio6 r"te is " good i6di5"tor o9 stor"ge li9e "6d respir"tio6 results i6
5h"6ges i6 1ushroo1 te>ture.
@poil"ge duri6g stor"ge 5"6 be 5"used by b"5teri" "6d 9u6gi Aithi6 the
1ushroo1s. B"5teri" "6d e6Cy1es 5o6ti6ue to i65re"se duri6g 5old
stor"ge. Dhis results i6 r"pid deterior"tio6 Ahe6 the 1ushroo1s "re
Figure 1. Harvested oyster mushroom re1oved 9ro1 5old stor"ge. Dhe 1ushroo1sE te>ture is "ltered "s they lose
their 9ir16ess "6d their 9lesh d"rFe6s. Dhe A"ter i6side the 1ushroo1s is
"lso 9"vor"ble 9or b"5teri"l groAth.
M"6y 1ushroo1s "re Ahite to gr"y i6 5olor Ahile they "re groAi6g. G6der 5ert"i6 stor"ge 5ir5u1st"65es<
hoAever< the e6Cy1es re"5t Aith o>yge6 "6d 9or1 broA6 pig1e6ts. @u5h dis5olor"tio6 seriously de5re"ses the
Hu"lity o9 1ushroo1s. Mushroo1s "re IJK(JL A"ter. Dhere "re 6o b"rriers to A"ter loss 9ro1 their sur9"5e. W"ter
loss i6 the 1ushroo1s "9ter h"rvesti6g is i69lue65ed by the st"tus o9 the 1ushroo1s< the hu1idity< 9resh "ir "6d
"t1ospheri5 pressure. Whe6 1ushroo1s Ailt "6d shrivel< the Hu"lity o9 9resh 1ushroo1s is loAered.
Mresh 1ushroo1s h"ve " short shel9 li9e. Dhere9ore it is 6e5ess"ry th"t they "re either 1"rFeted soo6 "9ter
h"rvesti6g or preserved Aith spe5i"l 5"re su5h "s i6 5old stor"ge or other 5o6trolled e6viro61e6t stor"ge.
Short Term Storage
Dhe shel9 li9e o9 9resh 1ushroo1s 1"y be e>te6ded by re9riger"tio6 "t NK4%. Cooli6g the 1ushroo1s result i6
loAer r"tes o9 "ll the physiologi5"l pro5ess Aithi6 the 1ushroo1s. Quri6g the i6iti"l 5ooli6g there is " high 5ooli6g
lo"d. )65e the 1ushroo1s "re preK5ooled< hoAever< the 5ooli6g lo"d is 1u5h redu5ed. Dhe shel9 li9e o9 1ushroo1s
1"y v"ry 9ro1 N d"y to 2 AeeFs.
!
!o#$r&'(t! +,,- .$ /us(2or34 533 r&'(ts reser7e4.
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Post-harvest Management "#&
Figure 2. Trimming mushroom Figure 3, 4. Trimming. Washing, Weighing and packaging
!reserv"tio6 o9 1ushroo1s "t 5ool te1per"tures ge6er"lly results i6 e99e5tive short ter1 preserv"tio6 by
ret"rdi6g the groAth o9 1i5roorg"6is1s< redu5i6g the r"te o9 post h"rvest 1et"boli5 "5tivities o9 the 1ushroo1
tissues< "6d 1i6i1iCi6g 1oisture loss.
Dhe te1per"ture o9 the 1ushroo1s "t h"rvest is eHu"l to the te1per"ture i6 9ruiti6g "re". Se6er"lly the 1et"boli5
te1per"ture o9 1ushroo1s is NJKNI% "9ter h"rvesti6g. Te"t is ge6er"ted by pro5esses Aithi6 the 1ushroo1 "6d is
high duri6g 9ruiti6g. &9 1ushroo1s Aere 6ot r"pidly 5ooled but Aere put i6to the bo>es or 5overed by !XC 9il1
stor"ge< their te1per"ture Aould i65re"se due to the 1et"boli5 pro5esses "6d the6 spoil"ge duri6g stor"ge 5ould be
5"used by b"5teri" "6d 9u6gi Aithi6 the 1ushroo1s.
Do stop this 1et"boli5 pro5ess r"pidly< the 1ushroo1s should be 5ooled to stor"ge te1per"ture o9 0K2% Aithi6
9ive hours o9 pi5Fi6g.
Figure 5. Low temperature room for the storage of Figure 6 Fresh mushrooms were packed by PVC film
Mushrooms in the commercial refrigerator.
Dhe best 1ethod 9or 9resh stor"ge o9 oyster 1ushroo1 is to Feep the1 "t IKN0% i6 p"5Fed 5o6t"i6er Ar"pped i6
pl"sti5 9il1. &tEs 5"lled Z!XC 9il1 stor"geE. Wr"pppi6g 1ushroo1s Aith su5h 1i5roporous or per9or"ted pl"sti5 9il1
5"6 i1prove their stor"ge li9e< "s this redu5es the 1oisture loss "6d preserves the Hu"lity o9 1ushroo1s. C"rbo6
dio>ide levels i65re"se "6d o>yge6 levels de5re"se i6 Ar"pped 5o6t"i6ers due to 1ushroo1 respir"tio6. Dhe g"s
5o1positio6 5"6 be 1odi9ied by the respir"tio6 o9 1ushroo1s i6side the p"5F"ge.
Long Term Storage
Mor lo6gKter1 stor"ge o9 1ushroo1s< 5"66i6g< pi5Fli6g "6d dryi6g pro5esses "re e1ployed. Dhe Hu"lity o9 the
preserved produ5t is r"rely 5o1p"r"ble Aith th"t o9 9resh 1ushroo1s< "6d these pro5esses "re 6ot "lA"ys suit"ble
9or "ll types o9 1ushroo1s.
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Post-harvest Management "#'
Drying
Qryi6g is " 1ethod o9 preservi6g edible 1ushroo1s su5h "s shiit"Fe "6d Aood e"r 1ushroo1s. &t is 6ot o9te6 used
9or butto6 1ushroo1s or oyster 1ushroo1s< but oyster 1ushroo1s 5"6 "lso be stored "6d 1"rFeted i6 dried 9or1.
Qryi6g preserves the 1ushroo1s by re1ovi6g e6ough A"ter to i6"5tiv"te the e6Cy1es "6d 1i5roorg"6is1s.
Mushroo1s preserved by dryi6g h"ve " good 9l"vor "6d the dryi6g preve6ts deterior"tio6. Qried 1ushroo1s "re
5o6ve6ie6t 9or lo6gKter1 stor"ge "6d tr"6sport"tio6. Dhe 1oisture 5o6te6t o9 9resh 1ushroo1s is [0K(JL
depe6di6g upo6 the h"rvest ti1e "6d e6viro61e6t"l 5o6ditio6s\ th"t o9 dried 1ushroo1s is 6e"r to N0L. Dhere "re
sever"l 1ethods 5o11o6ly e1ployed 9or 1ushroo1 dryi6g.
Figure 7, 8. Dried shiitake and white wood ear mushroom
Sun drying
&6 this dryi6g 1ethod< 1ushroo1s "re spre"d o6 the shelves i6 su5h "
A"y th"t the gills 9"5e upA"rd "6d "re dire5tly e>posed to su6light. Qryi6g
ti1e reHuired Aill v"ry depe6di6g o6 the Ae"ther 5o6ditio6s. &6 ge6er"l<
the Hu"lity o9 su6Kdried 1ushroo1s is loAer th"6 th"t o9 the 1ushroo1s
th"t "re dried by the ther1"l poAer dryi6g or hotK"ir dryi6g. Dhe 1oisture
5o6te6t is "lso higher "6d this 1e"6s higher sus5eptibility to 1olds "6d
pests.
Figure 9. The mushrooms are put into

the bags after drying.
Thermal po3er drying

Dhe pro5ess o9 ther1"l poAer dryi6g should begi6 Aith 1ushroo1s "t " rel"tively loA te1per"ture. Mushroo1s
should be dried duri6g su66y d"ys "t "6 i6iti"l te1per"ture o9 ]J% Ahile 1ushroo1s should be dried duri6g d"1p
d"ys "t "6 i6iti"l te1per"ture o9 ]0%. A9ter 9ive hours o9 he"t 9or 1ushroo1s u6der su66y 5o6ditio6s "6d seve6
hours o9 he"t 9or those duri6g the r"i6y se"so6< the te1per"ture 5"6 be r"ised gr"du"lly "6d the6 Fept "t 40K_0%
9or N2KNI hours. &6 "dditio6 to preservi6g the produ5t< dryi6g 5"6 e6h"65e the 9l"vor "6d "ppe"r"65e o9 the
1ushroo1s.
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Post-harvest Management "#(
Figure 10. Ear mushrooms are dried Figure 11. Product of dried Figure 12. Dried fruitbodies of
In 60-80% for 6 hours in firewood !hellinus baumii -ericium erinaceus
stove
Hot-air drying
&6 the hot "ir dryi6g 1ethod< hot "ir is bloA6 i6to the dryer "6d
1ushroo1s o6 the shelves "re e>posed to hot "ir. Dhe te1per"ture "6d
hu1idity o9 the "ir 5"6 be 5o6trolled to opti1u1 5o6ditio6s by use o9
he"ters "6d re5ir5ul"tio6 ve6ts. Mushroo1s produ5ed by this 1ethod h"ve
better Hu"lity Aith higher hygie6i5 5o6ditio6s "6d brighter 5olor 5o1p"red
to the su6Kdried 1ushroo1s. Dhe siCe o9 the dryi6g 5h"1ber v"ries
depe6di6g o6 the produ5tio6 s5"le. Gsu"lly N0KN2 shelves "re i6st"lled
Aith the 5le"r"65e o9 NJ51 betAee6 shelves "6d 1ushroo1s "re pl"5ed o6
the shelves ste1 doA6A"rd i6side the dryi6g 5h"1ber. Dhe dryi6g
Figure 13. Hot-air drying of 0garicus 5h"1ber should be he"ted up to 40KJ0% prior to lo"di6g the 1ushroo1s.
bla2ei
&9 the 1ushroo1s "re lo"ded "t the begi66i6g< it Aill t"Fe " lo6ger ti1e
be9ore the 5h"1ber re"5hes the e99e5tive te1per"ture< "6d this Aill 5"use sel9Kdigestio6 o9 1ushroo1s by their
i6herit e6Cy1es "6d Aill result i6 so9te6i6g o9 te>ture "6d spoil"ge.
&t is desir"ble to sort 1ushroo1s "55ordi6g to the siCe be9ore dryi6g. Dhis Aill e6sure u6i9or1 dryi6g "6d results
i6 good Hu"lity produ5ts. Dhe dried 1ushroo1s "re "pt to "bsorb 1oisture 9ro1 the "ir< so they should be properly
stored. &9 the 1oisture 5o6te6t o9 the 1ushroo1s re"5hes "bout 20L< the 1ushroo1s Aill e"sily be i69ested by
i6se5ts "6d 1olds. Dhere9ore< the dried 1ushroo1s should be put i6to polyethyle6e b"gs< se"led "6d Fept i6 " dry<
5ool "6d d"rF pl"5e. Mor prolo6ged stor"ge< the 1ushroo1s should be p"5Fed i6 5"rto6s or Aoode6 bo>es "6d Fept
"t 2KJ% i6 " loA te1per"ture stor"ge "re".
Canning and bottling

C"66i6g is by 9"r the 1ost 5o11o6 pro5ess used 9or preservi6g 1ushroo1s. Dhe produ5tio6 o9 1ushroo1s by
5"66i6g h"s be5o1e 5o6sider"bly 1ore spe5i"liCed i6 re5e6t ye"rs. &6 ge6er"l ter1s< 5"66i6g is divided i6to seve6
b"si5 oper"tio6sU 5le"6i6g< bl"65hi6g< 5"66i6g< steriliC"tio6< 5ooli6g< l"beli6g< "6d p"5Fi6g. Dhis 1ethod is Aidely
used by the i6dustry.
BroA6i6g "6d ble1ishi6g o9 1ushroo1s 5"6 be redu5ed by tri11i6g i11edi"tely "9ter h"rvest. &9 1ushroo1s
"re 6ot 5"66ed i11edi"tely< they should be re9riger"ted u6til pro5essi6g st"rts. Color "6d te>ture "re ret"i6ed by
stor"ge "6d proper stor"ge 5"6 "lso i65re"se 5"66i6g yield. At this st"ge< "6 "ppropri"te level o9 sodiu1
1et"bisulphite or "s5orb"te is i65orpor"ted 9or 5olor rete6tio6. Dhe 1ushroo1s "re the6 ri6sed "6d bl"65hed 9or
tAo 1i6utes. Bl"65hi6g is used to redu5e the "5tivity o9 e6Cy1es.
A9ter bl"65hi6g< the 1ushroo1s "re pl"5ed i6 5"6s 5o6t"i6i6g 2.JL sodiu1 5hloride "6d 0.24K0.JL 5itri5 "5id.
Dhe 5"6s "re the6 se"led "6d steriliCed. @teriliC"tio6 1ethods v"ry "55ordi6g to the type o9 eHuip1e6t used. Dhe
!
! !"rt &&. Oyster Mushrooms Chapter (. Post-harvest Management "#)
1ost 5o11o6ly used 1ethod is the b"t5h pro5ess i6 Ahi5h the 5"6s "re pl"5ed i6 "6 "uto5l"ve "6d steriliCed 9or
o6e hour N20KN]0%. Dhe 5"6s "re the6 r"pidly 5ooled i6 the A"sh si6F.
Figure 14. The mushrooms are put in the bottle with Figure 15. Canned !leurotus nebrodensis
brine
Dhe pri65iple o9 bottli6g is the s"1e "s 5"66i6g but reHuires 1u5h less i6stru1e6t"tio6< "6d there9ore bottli6g
5"6 be "dopted by s1"llKs5"le groAers Aithout di99i5ulty. Dhe pro5edure 9or bottli6g 1ushroo1s 5"6 be
su11"riCed "s 9olloAsU Mushroo1s 1ust be pro5essed right "9ter h"rvesti6g i6 order to 1"i6t"i6 their Hu"lity.
@poiled 1ushroo1s 1ust be sorted out 9ro1 the Aholeso1e 1ushroo1s. Dhe 1ushroo1s should the6 be sorted i6
ter1s o9 siCe "6d Hu"lity "6d the6 boiled i6 A"ter 5o6t"i6i6g 0.NL su55i6i5 "5id "6d NL s"lt 9or 4K_ 1i6utes o9
bl"65hi6g.
A st"i6less steel F6i9e is re5o11e6ded Ahe6 progressi6g 1ushroo1s i6 order to 1i6i1iCe broA6i6g. Quri6g
bl"65hi6g< " Aeight loss o9 ]JK40L is liFely. Bri6e should be prep"red "55ordi6g to the s"li6ity desired by the
5o6su1ers. Dhe bottles "re 9illed Aith bri6e "6d the bl"65hed 1ushroo1s i6 " desired proportio6. A9ter 5losi6g the
5"p h"l9A"y i6 order to "lloA "ir to es5"pe 9ro1 the bottles the bottles "re boiled 9or ]0 1i6utes or 1ore depe6di6g
o6 the siCe o9 the bottles. Dhe 5"ps "re the6 5losed tight be9ore the bottles "re t"Fe6 out "6d 5ooled.
Pickling
!i5Fled produ5ts su5h "s 5u5u1ber pi5Fles "re popul"r i6 1"6y 5ou6tries throughout the Aorld. Mushroo1s 5"6
"lso be su55ess9ully pi5Fed "6d produ5e Huite 9"vor"ble produ5ts Ahe6 the right pi5Fli6g 9or1ul" is 5hose6.
&6 this pro5ess< the 1ushroo1s "re sorted "6d A"shed. Dhey 5"6 be sli5ed i9 desired. Dhe6 they "re bl"65hed
Aith ]L s"lt A"ter 9or three to 9our 1i6utes i6 boili6g A"ter. A9ter the A"ter dr"i6ed o99< they "re pl"5ed
i11edi"tely i6 5old A"ter to 5ool. Dhey "re the6 tr"6s9erred to " `"r or bottle< "6d bri6e a22L s"ltb is "dded Aith "
little vi6eg"r< sug"r "6d other spi5es su5h "s vit"1i6 C or 5itri5 "5id to give the 1ushroo1s so1e 9resher 5olor. Dhe
`"rs "re the6 loosely 5losed "6d ste"1ed 9or o6e hour. Dhe lids "re tighte6ed Ahe6 5ooled "6d the 5o6te6ts 5hilled
be9ore e"ti6g.
Figure 16. Pickled mushrooms in Figure Pickled mushrooms 6oprinus Figure 18. Pickled mushrooms
Chinese market comatus 8olvariella volvacea
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch !"#
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part ". Mushrooms Worldwide
Cha$ter 10
/egional /esearch
%&'()**% C&,-./0-.*1 .1 23140
4ustus Wambua
Community Supporting Group, Kenya
.5tr89:;t<85
Kenya is a medium-sized, East African, tropical country with a total land

area of 582,646 sq. km. The equator cuts the country in half so the sun is
usually directly overhead. This third world, Sub-Saharan country has a
population of 30 million people.
Kenya’s economy, like those of its neighbors Uganda and Tanzania,
largely depends on agriculture. Kenya has a diverse climate that allows for
the growing of many agricultural crops like coffee, tea, maize, wheat, rice,
sugarcane and cotton all the year round. We intend to use the residues from
many of these agricultural crops as substrates for growing mushroom for
both commercial purposes and home consumption.
The Kenyan people are diverse, and the country’s population is made up
of 42 different indigenous tribes, each of which has different eating habits.
Figure 1. Map of Kenya Among these, 38 tribes are known to use mushrooms as food. Apart from
these indigenous tribes, the population also includes many immigrants and
visitors mainly of Asian, European and American origin. It is also immigrants and foreign visitors for whom many
hotels here prepare mushroom dishes. But more local people are now trying these mushroom dishes and are
discovering that mushrooms are both tasty and full of nutrients.
Kenya is an active tourist destination and offers beautiful beaches along the Indian Ocean and vast savannahs
rich in wildlife. These attractions lure many tourists throughout the year, and this creates a great demand for
mushrooms in the hotels. Agricultural products provide Kenya’s primary income, but tourism is the second major
income source. Part of mushroom production in Kenya does make its way to the leading supermarkets in major
towns like Nairobi and Mombasa, but the current local Kenyan production does not meet the total demand for
mushrooms and must be supplemented by canned mushroom imports.
The mushroom industry in Kenya is still in its infancy and is growing slowly. To many people, mushroom
growing is still a myth because there is a lack of communication between the researchers in this field and the
farmers, and the exchange of cultural knowledge is rather poor.
The mushroom that is commonly grown here is )gari,us. Its cultivation is highly sophisticated and requires a
lot of capital, which discourages most potentially interested farmers. There are a few very-small scale producers of
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch !"=
oyster mushroom and shiitake in Kenya, but the few people with the knowledge of how to grow mushrooms here
keep it secret and usually charge a lot of money to educate any interested farmers. This has caused slow
development of the industry in a country that has a great potential for producing mushrooms.
C:rre5t 2e5?a5 %:Ahr88C .59:Atr?
There are several commercial mushroom farms here in Kenya. They include Agridutt Ltd., Rift Valley mushrooms,
Olive mushrooms, and Devani and Kanchan mushrooms. There are also other small farms producing mushrooms
but only the four major farms have their produce sold in the supermarkets. Small farms usually sell their produce in
the hotels and restaurants.
The current producers can hardly meet the demand in the supermarkets and sometimes the supermarkets run out
of stock of the mushrooms. It is important to note that the four major producers are just medium-sized farms with
limited capacities for production.
Three types of mushrooms, including )gari,us, oyster mushrooms and shiitake are grown here, and the button
mushrooms account for over 95% of the mushrooms production volume. Only )gari,us is sold fresh in the
supermarkets. Only on very few occasions have fresh oyster mushrooms been sold in the supermarkets. Shiitake are
usually sold directly to the hotels and individuals.
The price of mushrooms is very high compared to that of other vegetables. Due to the low supply the price has
remained unnecessarily high. In the supermarkets, )gari,us is sold in 250g packs at a price of KES*150 (USD2).
The price for the oyster mushrooms is comparable to that of )gari,us but shiitake costs as much as KES1,000
(USD13) for one kg of fresh mushrooms. Many poor Kenyans earn less than a dollar a day so they cannot afford a
meal that makes use of these expensive mushrooms. For purposes of comparison, 250g of beef costs approximately
USD0.5.
Establishment of traditional commercial-scale farms requires a huge initial capital investment, so smaller farmers
are hard to grow mushrooms in a commercial scale. The commercial farm’s technical expertise comes from
personnel who have been trained abroad in countries where mushroom farming is popular. To start a medium-sized
farm would require a capital investment of around KES40 million (USD520,000). This includes construction of
mushroom houses, purchase of the land, purchase of the machines used for compost preparation, installation of air
conditioners, acquisition of spawn, educating staff abroad, and many other costs related to mushroom production.
These costs could be lower for a person who had the knowledge concerning mushrooms cultivation because many
of the required systems could be improvised to lower the initial investment.
Many farmers interested in growing mushrooms here do not have a lot of capital and cannot afford to hire trained
personnel. The greatest problem, though, is the lack of availability of mushroom spawn. There is not even one
single spawn manufacturing company here in Kenya. Interested farmers have to either import spawn or use cultures
from culture collections to make their own spawn.
Spawn making requires well-trained personnel in order to keep the quality high. Culture preservation is not easy for
small farmers and after a few months the quality of spawn diminishes so they need to continually import the
cultures in order to remain in the business (Fig. 2, 3). The quality of the spawn they make themselves is also
usually low and this translates to poor yields. Mushroom growing technicians who have trained abroad are
expensive, a significant portion of the businesses investment.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch !""
!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 2. Cultures stored in a cabinet at room Figure 3. A collection of cultures stored in
temperature. a refrigerator. The cultures normally lose
Small farmers cannot afford the methods of their This may be due to electricity power
culture preservation! fluctuations which are very common and
prolonged.!
This writer knows of several people working in the commercial farms who have received training in Japan,
Britain, France and Belgium. Few local farmers are able to go abroad for training and are discouraged from
entering the mushroom cultivation business as a result.
Most commercial farmers import expensive spawn from other countries. Mushroom spawn usually costs
KES600 (USD7.8)/kg including the airfreight charges.
Mushroom farmers keep their growing procedures highly secretive and access to the farms is highly restricted.
As a result, the exchange of information is very poor and it is even difficult to ascertain the total production of
mushrooms from these farms. This writer has personally been denied entry many times to the commercial farms.
These mushroom establishments will summon mushroom experts only when problems such as diseases threaten
their production.
The personnel employed in the farms can be divided into two groups. The first group includes the well-trained,
well paid managers and technicians. More than half of the money a farm pays out as wages and salaries goes to this
group. A single commercial farm could usually have only two people with such advanced training. The other group
involved in the actual production is the workforce that provides the unskilled labour, and their number could be as
high as 50 in big commercial farms. In order to increase their profits, most farms pay these people meager wages,
and since the farms belong to rich owners who pay low wages to their workers, there is very little that these types
of mushroom farming operations can do to change the economic situation of the people in the regions where they
operate.
It is estimated that the current production of mushrooms in Kenya is 500 tons per annum, which is very low. Of
this production, )gari,us mushroom accounts for 476 tons. Other mushroom species are not widely farmed. Some
small farms exist that do produce around 20kg of shiitake within a period of one week (Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7). Oyster
mushroom cultivation is not yet popular although there are four small farms with an average production of around
120kg each per week. The likely demand for the oyster mushrooms is not high because few people know about
them. This explains why many commercial farmers don’t grow oyster mushrooms. From an objective point of view,
however, Kenya has the potential to produce over 100,000 tons of mushrooms every year.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch DEE
!!!!!!! !
Figure 4. Recently inoculated bags Figure 5. Bags of sawdust inoculated with shiitake
ready for fruiting
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 6. A pile of tree logs during spawn run Figure 7. Logs producing a few
mushrooms. The major challenge in this
green house is overheating during the day.
This problem is solved by shielding it
from direct sunlight.!
There are a few people in Kenya currently growing oyster mushrooms for home consumption. In August, 2003, a
project was initiated involving over one hundred families whereby they grow /leurotus sajor3,aju at home in small
spaces like their kitchens. The major aim of this initiative is to provide the people with alternative food sources to
counter the problem of malnutrition in Kenya. Many people in the rural areas and the urban slums suffer from
malnutrition because the prices of foods rich in protein and minerals are generally expensive.
Owing to the ease of growing, high yields, high fruiting temperature and high nutritional content, it was appropriate
to introduce small-scale mushroom cultivation in Kenya. Today there are a number of farmers who have expanded
because they grow more than what they can consume, they can market their surplus.
Among the 42 tribes in Kenya, some like eating mushrooms very much. Only a few tribes do not value mushrooms
as food although they are also changing as nutritional awareness grows. In the rural areas, people collect wild
mushrooms and prepare them traditionally with other foods for consumption. The most popular mushrooms
collected are the 4ermitomy,es and /leurotus species commonly growing in the forests.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch DE!
A portion of the Kenyan forests is lost each year due to deforestation, so the natural habitat for wild mushrooms
also decreases every year, and this has led to a decline in the collection of mushrooms from the wild. A large
percentage of the Kenyan population, especially those living away from wild mushroom habitats, and those who
cannot afford the mushrooms sold in the supermarkets, have never had the chance of eating mushrooms. There are
still many delicious and nutritious species of wild mushrooms yet to be identified and possibly domesticated but
this will depend on future research efforts.
Several species of /leurotus have been domesticated from Karura, Kakamega and other forests. These species
are more adapted to local tropical climate and generally grow fast and fruit readily, but it may take some time
before they appear in the markets.
)e;8CCe59at<85A F8r the GaAt Hr8Ith 8F 2e5?a5 %:Ahr88C .59:Atr?
- There should be a local producer of high quality mushroom spawn that could be sold directly to local farmers. The
spawn manufacturer should also advise the farmers on which strains grow well in their particular localities
because the country has diverse cold, moderate, and hot regions.
- The Ministry of Agriculture and other supporting institutions should give more emphasis to encouragement of
mushroom cultivation. The Ministry does not currently have officers specifically assigned to mushroom
extension services. The extension officers should be more accessible and less expensive than the present
mushroom experts.
- Donors who usually shun projects involving new technology and huge amounts of money should give support to
women’s groups or small farmers to initiate small local projects for mushroom cultivation as a family food
source. This would go a long way to solving the problem of malnutrition, particularly protein deficiency among
children, and food insecurity that is common in Kenya.
- Exchange of information between farmers and researchers should be encouraged. The current mushroom farmers
don’t trust their competitors, and unfortunately neither do some researchers. This selfish and short-sighted
attitude has inhibited the development of Kenya’s mushroom industry. A research institution established
specifically for mushroom research would greatly support the industry. There are research institutions for other
crops like coffee, tea, pyrethrum from which the country earns a great deal of foreign exchange. For example,
due to the enormous amount of research that has been performed concerning tea cultivation, Kenya has now risen
to be the world’s third largest tea producer.
- Promotions for the consumption of mushrooms should be undertaken. The Kenyan people should be taught the
nutritional and medicinal attributes of mushrooms in order to encourage them to eat more mushrooms. There are
still many people who have never eaten mushrooms. When this writer exhibited mushroom cultivation at the
Nairobi International Trade Fair in October, 2003, he realized that some people didn’t know that mushrooms are
eaten as food. Many people do know about the poisonous mushrooms and this makes them fear eating any
mushrooms, even cultivated mushrooms. These promotional campaigns would expand the local market and the
growers would therefore be able to sell a large proportion of their produce here even before they exported the
surplus.
GeaA<J<K<t? 8F Hr8I<5L %:Ahr88CA <5 2e5?a
- It is possible to grow mushrooms in Kenya but the growers will need to find solutions to the problems facing
mushroom growers in this country. These problems are more or less similar to those in other third world
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch DED
countries and the approach could be compared to mushroom projects in these countries.
- Kenya generally has a tropical climate and most of the areas are hot, and these areas are suitable for /leurotus.
There are cold regions favorable for )gari,us 7is$orus and other mushrooms growing in cold areas.
- The lowlands are usually hot (21-34#) and are generally poor in agricultural production. Though some of the
lowlands receive adequate rainfall, the soils are poor and this results in small quantities of agricultural residues
being available for use as substrates.
- Areas of moderate altitude that receive moderate rainfall (800-1,500mm per annum) are where most of the
agricultural activities take place. Temperatures in these areas range between 18 and 27#. This climate allows for
the cultivation of a variety of crops such as wheat, rice, maize and cotton. And the agricultural residues suitable
for use as mushroom growing substrates in these areas are plentiful.
- The highlands are generally cold, with temperatures ranging between 14 and 23#. The highlands produce less
agricultural residues but mushroom farmers can get their substrates from nearby moderate areas. The risk of
contamination of substrates in the hotter areas is higher than the cool areas and the polythene bag technique is the
most appropriate for oyster mushroom and shiitake cultivation here. In oyster mushroom bag cultivation, it is
advised that the volume of the bags should not exceed 15L in order to avoid overheating.
- In the hot areas the mushroom houses should be highly insulated to keep the heat out. Mushroom houses made
with locally available materials used as insulation and covered with polythene are suitable for farmers with only
small capital investments.
- In order to fight temperature fluctuations, the commercial farmers should build mushroom houses using concrete
and use air conditioners to regulate the environment inside. In cold areas the temperature at night falls to as low
as 4# which would inhibit the growth of mushrooms.
- Substrates for growing mushrooms are plentiful in areas where wheat and rice are grown in large scale. Other
substrates like sawdust, sugarcane bagasse, corncobs, coffee pulp, cotton wastes and other straws are also
available. The country is a big producer of agricultural produce so the availability of any of the substrates is not a
problem (Fig. 8).
- Straw burning is a common practice. Wheat straw is sometimes baled and used as animal feeds but in some areas
it burned as a means of disposal. Rice straw, like other straw, is also used as animal feed. Rice bran and wheat
bran produced in the processing industries are used as animal feed and are sold at inexpensive prices.
- Sawdust is available free of charge from the lumbering yards. Only in a few areas is it used as fuel. This may
change very soon because the government has recently banned cutting down of forests for timber. Sugarcane
bagasse is available for free from the crushing industries and the locals do not currently have a way of making
use of this residues.
- Most farms are located near the markets and they can therefore easily supply the markets with fresh mushrooms.
Mushrooms are currently produced only near major towns because people in the rural areas cannot afford them.
People in the rural areas collect their mushrooms from the wild. First quality fresh mushrooms are supplied to
hotels and supermarkets with second grade mushrooms being sold to lower markets at a cheaper price.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide Cha$ter 10. /egional /esearch DEM
!! !
Figure 8. Crop calendar and main crop zones of Kenya
- Some companies do canning of their mushrooms but the canned Kenyan produce is not sold in the supermarkets.
There could be other outlets currently being used, but the companies always keep their activities secret. Canned
mushrooms imported from Europe are sold in the supermarkets and food stores to supplement the local
production. Dried mushrooms are also available here. It is worth noting that the proportion of both dried and
canned mushrooms is very small compared to the fresh mushrooms consumed.
- There is a great possibility of producing mushrooms here and exporting to other countries. It is the policy of the
government to attract investors into the country and set up industries to ease the problem of unemployment.
Companies intending to export produce are greatly encouraged because this earns the country foreign exchange
credits.
- Importing of mushrooms does not account for a major proportion of the mushroom consumption. More promotion
of mushrooms as a nutritious food item has to be done to increase local consumption before more imports can be
made. What would be more beneficial to the country is to encourage more local production to meet the local
demand.
- Consumption of mushrooms in Kenya is not high. In the hotels, the mushrooms are cooked by chefs who cook
them in combination with other ingredients to suit the taste of visitors and customers. Many local people simply
fry and mix them with meat and vegetables. Some people who collect wild mushrooms roast them before eating.
Some wild mushrooms are dried and ground together with maize or sorghum for making porridge fed to babies,
pregnant women and nursing mothers.
/EFE/EN:ES
- Central Bureau of Statistics (Kenya).
- Horticultural Crops development Authority.
- Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#$
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part %. Mushrooms Worldwide
!hapter 10
Regional Research
"#$%&''" ()*#$+&, () -("./.01
Canford K. Chiroro
+he C567ate :; -67<a<=e
Zimbabwe is a beautiful country that lies on the great southern African

plateau. Being in the subtropical region, the vegetation is predominantly
savanna with short scattered bushes and lush grass to feed the livestock
and, of course, provides ample substrate for mushroom cultivation. The
year is divided into two main seasons the hot and wet summer stretching
from October to March and the long dry winter covering the remaining
months of the year. Although summer temperatures are often oppressive,
in excess of 35& in the southeast Lowveld, the northern Highveld region
is often cooler with a summer average of 26& and receiving more rainfall
(about 1,500mm per annum versus 500mm in the Lowveld). The eastern
highlands receive the highest annual rainfall amounts (2,500mm+)
Figure 1. Map of Zimbabew distributed more or less evenly throughout the year and enjoy temperatures
averaging 18&. The region, naturally, is home to most of the wild
mushrooms found in Zimbabwe. As rainfall amounts (and thus relative humidity) and temperatures increase and
decrease respectively from south to north and from the west to the east of the country, so does the concentration
and importance of mushroom farming. The variability in soils and climate within Zimbabwe allows for the
production of various crops that produce a wide range of residues suitable for use as substrates in mushroom
cultivation.
">?hr::7 (AB>?trC
The mushroom industry in Zimbabwe is dominated by many small-scale producers and a few well-established
companies. The larger companies, accounting for approximately 75% of the white button mushrooms marketed, are
mostly family-owned businesses concentrated around the county’s major cities of Harare, Bulawayo and Mutare in
the eastern highlands. There are approximately ten large-scale producers, of which two are located around
Bulawayo, the country’s second largest city. Although no statistics are available, this group of producers accounts
for about three hundred tons of button mushrooms and an estimated 50 tons of oyster mushrooms produced per year.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#'
The small-scale producers, concentrating on the most important specialty mushroom, the oyster mushroom, account
for about 60% of the total annual production of that species.
Although per capita demand in Zimbabwe for both the button and oyster mushroom has increased dramatically
in the last five years, mushrooms still remain a preserve for the high-income class comprised of mostly the white
population and an emerging group of rich and trendy indigenous black people. The rapid growth of this industry in
recent years, most importantly the oyster mushroom cultivation, could be attributed to the need for alternative
sources of protein to complement the traditional sources. This has become necessary because of the falling yields in
legumes and pulses due to frequent droughts, and diseases like Anthrax and foot-and-mouth disease, which have
detrimentally affected the livestock industry in recent years. In a country with beef priced at ZWD*18,000/kg
(USD22.50/kg) and an unemployment rate of well over 75%, mushrooms not only reduce protein malnutrition, but
also provide an important avenue for income generation especially among women and orphaned youths. In fact,
most mushroom growers are women’s co-operative groups, and they are located in both urban and rural areas.
Mushroom cultivation has, therefore, to a large extent, been adopted as a tool for poverty alleviation most
importantly for families affected by HIV-AIDS. Zimbabwe has about 1.4 million people (35% of the population)
living with HIV-AIDS.
(7p:rtaAt ">?hr::7? 6A -67<a<=e
+he =65B 7>?hr::7?

The diversity in vegetation and climate in this country allows for a wide range of wild mushrooms to flourish.
There are over 60 wild edible species in Zimbabwe and these are most commonly found in Miombo woodlands,
composed mostly of )rachystegia, 0upaca and 2ul4ernadia species. The Mackintoshia truffle (Mac8itonshia
persica), although little known and very rare, has recently been added to the list of edible fungi of Zimbabwe. The
most important wild mushrooms are listed in the table 1.
Table 1. Wild mushrooms of ;imbabwe
Mushroom group Popular varieties (English) Popular varieties (Cernacular)

Termite fungi Beefsteak / Taproot mushroom Huvhe/Nhedzi (Shona)
:;ermitomyces= Amakhowa (Ndebele)
Chantarelles Apricot fungus Tsuketsuke (Shona)
:!antharellus= Ubushabishabi (Ndebele)
Button mushrooms Field mushroom Chikunguwo (Shona)
:Agaricus= Ubudzugwe (Ndebele)
Boletes Penny Bun / Cep / Sponge fungus Dindinde (shona)
:)oletus= / King Bole Kapewpew (Tonga)
Parasols Nzeveyambuya (Shona)
Indlebekagogo (Ndebele)
(Source: AREX and Partners Integrated Community Support Programme)
The boletes and the chanterelles are by far the most important mushrooms and they have a ready market for
export. A number of South African and Italian companies visit the Eastern Highlands and areas around
Domboshawa and Gweru during the rainy season to buy these fresh mushrooms that are picked by the locals from
the forests and anthills. Unfortunately the pickers, who are often rural communities with no knowledge of the
market potential or value of the mushrooms, do not earn much income from this business. For example, a picker
can only get USD1 for a bucketful of fresh mushrooms!
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#(
Although locals enjoy eating these mushrooms, there is still a widespread fear of mushroom poisoning especially
in urban areas. Although poisoning is not very common, there is a need to train mushroom lovers on identification
of edible mushrooms and to break the misconceptions concerning mushroom poisoning.
+he <>tt:A 7>?hr::7

Button mushroom (A? 4isporus), originally cultivated as a hobby, is Zimbabwe’s most important export mushroom.
It is mainly produced by the more serious growers with a large capital base and sizable investment in training
concerning cultivation and management of the enterprise. Although the wholesale and supermarket prices are
higher than in the oyster mushroom, many newcomers are often worried about the higher prevalence of diseases
with button mushroom. This mushroom, being of temperate origin, requires a more strict management of
temperature while oyster mushroom can tolerate temperatures of up to 27& as it is of subtropical origin. Electricity
is expensive and few low capital investors tend to grow the button, as heaters or air conditioners are required. The
button mushroom is mainly grown in trays. Wheat straw and horse or chicken manure are mixed and used as
substrate.
+he :C?ter 7>?hr::7

The oyster mushroom bears close resemblance to some wild mushrooms found in Zimbabwe. This, and the fact that
it is easier to cultivate using low cost inputs makes oyster mushroom the favorite for smallholder farmers especially
those in rural Zimbabwe. Oyster mushroom has been popularized by organizations seeking to alleviate poverty
through employment creation. Other objectives include reduction in protein malnutrition and promotion of
environmental awareness. The Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ) has trained some rural farmers in Hwedza
and Venice Mine among other sites while the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) has initiated
training of orphans and other members of the community in Chakowa, located in Zimbabwe’s Lowveld region.
Two varieties of the oyster mushroom are grown: Pleurotus ostreatus in winter and P? saAorBcaAu in summer.
'C?ter ">?hr::7 C>5t6Eat6:A aAB &F*
$pa=A
Spawn production is perhaps the most important factor
limiting mushroom industry, not only in Zimbabwe, but in
other countries in the region as well. Although there are a good
number of people trained in microbiology, molecular
physiology or basic spawn production techniques, it is
unfortunate that setting up these laboratories and purchasing
such expensive equipment as autoclaves has been hindered
either by lack of capital or interest in this business. Spawn
production has, therefore, been historically performed by
mushroom enthusiasts as a hobby and only quite recently as a
Figure 2. Oyster mushroom spawn marketed in

money producing enterprise. Local spawn is widely viewed by
bottles(Photo courtesy of Mswaka) investors as inferior in quality. They prefer to import spawn
from South African companies. Although the Biotechnology
Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ) has cultured some high quality spawn at the Biological Science Department, University
of Zimbabwe, the spawn has been targeted mainly for the farmers who are involved in their programs. Local spawn
usually degenerates quickly and contamination levels are also high. Rural farmers usually do not have the facilities
to store spawn for a later spawning date. There is a poor network of spawn supply, and customers need to respond
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#)
to advertisements listed in newspapers.

Spawn is commonly sold in plastic packets, each weighing about 500g. Bottles are not very common nowadays
because of the higher cost attached.
Table 2. Prices of spawn in ;imbabwe
Variety Price per kg in USD

Oyster mushroom 10-15
Button mushroom (Local) 12-20
Button mushroom (imported) 40-50
There is a growing need to train farmers, especially those in rural areas on low cost spawn production in order to
improve the profitability and viability of their enterprises.
$><?trate
The most common substrate is wheat straw and grass. Banana leaves, although higher yielding and producing
higher quality mushrooms, are not usually favored because they give a delayed break and this substrate is not as
abundant as the other two. Water hyacinth, a problem weed on some of Zimbabwe’s most important lakes, e.g.,
Lake Chivero that makes the function as an important domestic and industrial water source for the capital city,
Harare, has been used in a project run by Margaret Tagwira in Mutare.
Gr:=6AH r::7?
There is a wide variability in terms of growing room construction. They range from mud and pole thatched huts in
the rural areas to modern state-of-the-art growing rooms in peripheral urban areas. One common growing room in
both urban and rural areas is the thatched wooden house. Thatch is important because it allows indoor temperatures
to remain cooler under hot weather. The emphasis has been on encouraging growers to use any locally available
materials to construct their growing rooms while at the same time ensuring that these rooms provide the right
environment required for the production of mushrooms.
Ir:Je??6AH
75% of the mushrooms marketed in Zimbabwe are fresh. About 40% of the oyster mushroom is sold dried while
virtually all the white button mushroom is sold fresh. With the recent trend towards partially processed foods, some
suppliers are now slicing these mushrooms and mixing them with such vegetables like broccoli, carrots and peas.
Packaging is often done in plastic packets with a net mass of 200 gram. Mushrooms are also sold from baskets in
both rural and urban markets.
"arKet6AH
The phrase “whoever has the market is a king” is very relevant in the mushroom business in Zimbabwe. Market
information especially on mushroom trade is kept in secret. The most common buyers are fast food chains (for
pizza and burgers mainly), hotels (usually served as a soup), restaurants, supermarkets especially in the leafy
suburbs and exporting companies. Although prices vary greatly, these are the general price guides:
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#*
! ! ! !
A. Banana leaves B. Groundnut shells C. Grass D. Wheat straw
Figure 3. Oyster mushrooms cultivated with substrates
! ! ! !
A. Banana leaves B. Groundnut shells C. Grass D. Wheat straw
Figure 4. Oyster mushroom yields from different substrates
Table 3. The prices of mushroom at market
Price per kg in USD

Wholesale Retail
Oyster mushroom 5-7.50 10-15.00
Button mushroom 7.50-10.00 12.50-17.50
+ra6A6AH
Although many people in both urban and rural Zimbabwe could benefit
immensely from mushroom production, there are very few trainers
available. Assistance in terms of funding to make this training feasible
and affordable to the general populace has been very limited. The
Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ) and the Intermediate
Technology Development Group (ITDG) have been very instrumental in
facilitating training and promotion of the adoption of mushrooms for
poverty alleviation in a number of communities in Zimbabwe. Figure 5. Trainees pasterurizing
Consultants often charge high fees, about ZWD160,000 (USD200) per substrate(Photo courtesy of Mswaka)
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research "#+
grower per day. Very few would-be growers can afford these fees, and those who can afford are usually not willing
to pass on this knowledge for free to other people interested in going into mushroom projects. Short courses,
although sketchy and done over six to eight hours spread over two days, are available in most urban centers. This
training costs about USD40-60. Unfortunately, trainees still need a follow-up consultancy to complement this
training. In rural areas especially, courses should be run over a number of weeks as this would allow the trainees to
master the art of mushroom growing and have enough knowledge to produce mushrooms in an environmentally
sustainable and financially profitable manner.
&e?earJh aAB BeEe5:p7eAt

Most research done on mushrooms in Zimbabwe has been centered
on improving the capacity of farmers with low resource bases to
adopt this vegetable as both an income-generating and diet-
supplementing crop. Examples of projects undertaken by some
undergraduate students at the University of Zimbabwe are:
- Evaluation of mushroom yields under different crop residues.
- Determination of suitable spawn carriers to achieve spawn run.
Wheat, millet, crushed maize and sorghum were tested and
wheat was determined to be a more suitable spawn carrier.
- Comparison of biological efficiencies of different strains of the
oyster mushroom on various substrates. Figure 6. A researcher culturing
- Post-harvest storage and handling of mushrooms Termitomyces spores(Photo courtesy of
Mswaka)
Breeding trials are currently underway and local scientists are
trying to select suitable strains for low rainfall and high temperature regions, where poverty is more common
due to higher risk of crop failure. Trials have also been done with culture spores from wild mushrooms, the
;ermitomyces in particular.
L>t>re ?t>B6e?
Mites, flies, pathogenic fungi and bacteria are all common problems that reduce yields and quality of mushrooms
produced in this country. There is a need to develop an integrated pest management programme to enable the small-
holder producers of mushrooms in Zimbabwe and neighboring countries to produce with minimum reliance on
chemicals. They have detrimental environmental effects and also increase the cost of production. This author seeks
funding to carry out this research project at the Masters of Philosophy level.
C:A?tra6At?
- There are still widespread misconceptions about mushrooms. Many people fear mushroom poisoning even in
cultivated mushrooms like the button and oyster.
- Lack of capacity for research due to limited funding from both the corporate and donor sector.
- The Mushroom Growers Association is little known and has not been helping growers to secure fair prices for
their produce. The buyers, not the growers, often decide prices.
- Growers lack knowledge of business management.
- Poor spawn quality and limited availability of both spawn and substrate in some areas.
/BE6Je ;:r Ir:?peJt6Ee Gr:=er? 6A -67<a<=e
Mushroom production may appear to be a lucrative business, but before one ventures into this business there are a
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research ",#
number of factors that should be considered to avoid disappointment at mushroom growing business.
- Is mushroom production a viable business?
Mushroom growing is one of the most viable enterprises when one uses low cost inputs to produce the crops.
Harvesting may be done a few weeks after spawning (planting) and it thus offers an earlier income. However,
unless one is able to secure a good market he is likely to earn low incomes. Mushrooms are highly perishable
and unless they are processed, they should be sold as soon after harvesting as possible. It is advisable that
growers are able to locate a suitable market prior to harvest.
- Which mushrooms should I grow?
You may grow any mushroom of your choice, as long as you can access the spawn and the market for that type
of mushroom. However, for a new grower it is advisable to start with oyster mushrooms which require low
capital investment and low level of management skill. This will afford the grower a chance to learn more about
the practices in mushroom production and prepare them for higher capital investments in such mushrooms as
the buttons, creminis and portabellas. Although many mushrooms can be cultivated, the market for specialty
mushrooms is still limited. The potential mushroom producer would be wise to thoroughly investigate the
demand for each species before committing large amounts of time and capital to the production stage of the
enterprise development.
- What does it take to grow mushrooms?
Perhaps the most critical input in any enterprise is skill. Prospective growers need to undergo training. This
training may be done over a short period of less than a week in some cases.
Another important element is time. Mushrooms are like children in that growing them involves dedication of
time, love and discipline. Management of the internal environment may be time consuming, especially where
investment in machinery like air conditioners and humidifiers is low or absent. Critical stages like substrate
pasteurization, bagging and harvesting may require one to hire extra labor.
- What is the risk of producing poisonous mushrooms?
The risk of mushroom poisoning is lower in cultivated mushrooms than in wild mushroom collecting where
similar looking mushrooms can, in fact, be toxic relatives of the edible mushroom. However, if one uses
substrates previously treated with chemicals, e.g. sawdust, the residual chemicals may find their way into the
mushroom body, accumulate and render the mushroom toxic. Accumulation of gases like ammonia in the
growing room as well as spoilage of the mushrooms may lead to stomach upsets when consumed.
- Which is the best substrate to use?
Mushrooms can be grown on a wide range of crop residues. In Zimbabwe, wheat straw, horse manure, and grass
are the most commonly used substrates although banana leaves, sawdust, water hyacinth, maize stover, and
groundnut shells have also been tried. It should be noted that the profitability of a mushroom enterprise will not
only be determined by the final yield attained at the end of the cropping season, but, as well, the cost of the
substrates used to produce that yield. Current training emphasis is on using what are readily available within
one’s locality. When harvesting the substrate, growers need to make sure that this action is in harmony with the
environment. In urban areas, women’s groups involved in mushroom production may benefit from the roadside
grass mowed by the city or town council to improve visibility for motorists, or they could sickle the grass
themselves and save their communities’ financial resources. Growers may also have to enter into contracts with
wheat farmers so that when the wheat crop has been harvested, they may come in and collect the straw.
- Is growing room environment manageable?
Efficiently managing of the growing room is perhaps the most critical stage in ensuring good yields. Growers
should be concerned with temperature, humidity, pests and diseases.
Most of the mushrooms cultivated are not adapted to local climates. Button mushroom originated from
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !hapter 10. Regional Research ",,
temperate regions and thus growers need to ensure that temperatures remain below 18& to allow for optimum
productivity. Always keep a thermometer in your growing room and check the temperature up to three or so
times a day. Enquire with your trainer or spawn supplier the temperature requirements for the mushroom you
intend to cultivate. The oyster mushroom does relatively better in the Zimbabwean climate and the challenge of
growing room management is lower. Use P? ostreatus in winter and P? saAorBcaAu in summer, as the latter is more
adapted to warmer temperatures.
Where mist blowers or humidifiers are not available, keep the floor continuously wet by pouring water on it.
Placing a plastic sheet below the sand floor will prevent water loss by infiltration. Keep a hygrometer and use
the readings to determine when to raise the humidity. A small difference between the two thermometers means
that humidity is very high!
- How do I manage diseases and pests?
Most trainers will emphasize the need to minimise use of chemicals to control pests of mushrooms. Organically
produced foods (without chemical application) are healthier to eat and will fetch a higher price. Management of
diseases and pests in mushrooms is possible without reliance on chemicals. Ensure thorough pasteurisation of
your substrate and practice extreme hygiene at every step of your production line. Too many people entering a
growing room should be avoided as they may introduce various insects and pathogens. Prevent entry of insects
which may transmit diseases by blocking any possible entry points. A grower friend of mine bought mosquito
nets to cover behind the doors and the windows! Mosquito net is a good way to keep out insects.
- How do I get an ‘Organic Certificate’?
The demand for organically produced foods is still low in developing countries like Zimbabwe, but a wider
market exists in Europe and USA. And early birds are already producing organic foods in Zimbabwe! ‘Organic
Certificate’ may be obtained from your local agriculture department after an inspector has verified a number of
factors. Neighbouring farms’ use of chemicals might affect one’s produce. If so, close attention should be made
to preclude this inadvertent chemical exposure.
- How can one best market mushrooms?
Produce high quality mushrooms. This is one of the best and self-evident ways to best market one’s products. In
Zimbabwe the major buyers of mushrooms are the high-income group who tend to be choosy and trendy. They
will not settle for poorly packaged and stale mushrooms. Sell your mushrooms while they are at their freshest
and invest enough money in packaging. Always secure a ready market prior to each harvest otherwise you risk
running around with your mushrooms trying to find a customer while your mushrooms become stale. Ensure
that you honour contracts by delivering the agreed quality and quantity on time. That will give you a good name
and more customers to go with it.
- How can I improve my market base?
A successful grower keeps old customers satisfied and goes on to get new customers. Some people only want
the slight mushroom flavour- not the whole gourmet. You may pack sliced mushrooms together with minimally
processed vegetables like carrots, broccoli and peas and recommend these for soups for mushroom beginners.
Try introducing mushrooms to vegetarian clubs or certain religious groups that do not eat flesh. The major
challenge facing mushroom industries in developing countries is low demands. Encourage consumption by
giving out spoonful of mushroom soups in large supermarkets where you intend to sell your crop. Beware; some
people may react to mushrooms! Local growers may also export regionally or to the international market. Visit
embassies of countries to which you wish to export get to know the buying companies and contact them. If you
have access to the Internet, you may also get your customers there, BUT, beware of con men!!
So, I wish you good luck in your chosen enterprise. You have chosen well. Now you need to work extra hard to
reap the mushrooms of your labour. And always ask when you are not sure.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )orld,ide Chapter 10. /egional /esearch "#"
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part $. Mushrooms Worldwide
Chapter 10
/egional /esearch
MUSHROOM CU)TI,ATIO. I. /IM0A0WE
Audrey /.S. Mab9eni

Intro7uction
Zimbabwe is located in southern Africa, surrounded by South Africa to the

South, Zambia to the north, Mozambique to the East, and Botswana to the
West. Its geographic co-ordinates are 20I 00’S and 30I 00’E.
The climate of Zimbabwe is moderated by the high altitude, the
proximity to maritime influence from the Mozambique Channel, the
influence of the mid-continental high pressure (the Botswana upper high)
and the volatile, warm, moist conditions of the intertropical convergence
zone (ITCZ). Three distinct seasons are discernible. The hot-dry season,
which begins in mid-August and lasts up to mid-November, is followed by
a warm-to-hot wet season characterized by thunderstorms from the onset
of the rains in November until March and April. The cool-to-warm dry
season, marked by warm sunny days, cool nights and high
Figure 1. *ap of /i0babwe
evapotranspirat
ion, lasts from May to August. Humidity changes (20%
in October to an uncomfortable 80% in Wanuary) depend
mainly on the season and the time of day. In most places
the air temperature varies within the temperate/sub-
tropical range of 10-28%. The climatic comfort is
generally optimum in most parts of the country, except
during the month of October, when the whole country is
extremely hot excepting the eastern highlands. The
general climatic favorableness notwithstanding, the
people living in the lowlands of the Zambezi and
Yimpopo valleys endure prolonged heat stress (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. 45e natural regions of /i0babwe and

t5e lo;ation of <wed=a > Bu5era distri;ts
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )orld,ide Chapter 10. /egional /esearch "#&
The country is divided into five natural regions as follows:

I. Natural region 1 (5,835km2)-High rainfall (900 -1,000mm/year), specialized, diversified farming.
II. Natural region 2 (72,745km2 )
(a) Moderately high rainfall (750-1,000mm/year), confined to summer months. Intensified farming region.
(b) Same as (a) More severe dry spells during rainy season or relatively short rainy seasons.
III. Natural region 3 (67,690km2 )- Moderate rainfall (650-800mm/year), semi-intensive farming.
IV. Natural region 4 (128,370km2 )- Fairly low rainfall (450-600mm/year), semi-intensive farming.
V. Natural region 5 (112,810km2 )- Yow and erratic rainfall (less than 650mm/year), extensive farming.
Mushroom Growin@ in /imbabwe
Intro7uction
In the past five years interest in mushrooms greatly increased in Zimbabwe. This is mainly due to the current
shortage of mushrooms on the local market, which has caused prices to escalate. Mushroom cultivation has
subsequently become a highly profitable activity.
The use of mushrooms as food crosses all cultural boundaries. Mushroom consumption in Africa and especially
in Zimbabwe, has deep traditional roots. Mushrooms have been gathered since time immemorial in Zimbabwe and
are featured in many local dishes, medicines, and appear in culture and folklore. Many Zimbabwean traditions
regard mushrooms as gifts presented to the people by their ancestral spirits in the forests. For this reason the sale of
wild mushrooms is strictly forbidden in certain areas of the country.
I7entifie7 species F collections

There are over 60 species of edible species of wild mushrooms found in Zimbabwe. The macority are found in the
Miombo woodlands, which cover over 60% of the country and are dominated by )rach+stegia and /u1ber3a4ia tree
species. Mushrooms play a very important in the dietary calendar of most resource-poor farmers. They occur soon
after the first rains in November and are available until March. They are eaten fresh and the surplus is sun dried for
consumption during the dry season. Mushrooms therefore assist in overcoming malnutrition among the low-income
groups in Zimbabwe.
Mushroom Cultivation
Despite their popularity, culinary uses, financial appeal and primary dietary role at the smallholder level, the
amount of wild mushroom gathered continues to decline due to deforestation. This realization necessitated the
development of suitable small-scale mushroom cultivation. If successful, this small-scale cultivation would make
them easy to get mushrooms any time and at more reasonable prices.
For the Zimbabwean smallholder farmers and resource-disadvantaged communities, mushroom cultivation
enables them to have a balanced diet at a relatively inexpensive cost (Mswaka, et a1., 2001). Edible mushrooms
rank above all vegetables and legumes (except soybeans) in protein content and have significant levels of Vitamin
B and C, and are low in fat (Stamets, 1993). Mushroom cultivation also enables farmers to utilize organic substrates
that would otherwise be regarded as waste products (Wood, 1985; Yabuschagne, et a1., 2000).
Iustification
A detailed socio-economic study of agriculture and horticulture in Hwedza and Buhera, commissioned by the
Zimbabwe Biotechnology Advisory Committee (ZIMBAC), was done by a local non-governmental organization
(NGO) called COPIBO-Zimbabwe (now VECO-Zimbabwe) in 1997. The study identified, among other constraints,
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a general lack of vigor among rural households. This tended to be linked to malnutrition among children. It was
recommended then in the report that poverty alleviation procects had to be introduced that would address these
macor problems and also have an income generation component for the household. Mushroom cultivation was
identified as one of the procects that could be introduced to address the problems highlighted. It was noted that
women traditionally collected mushrooms, would play a central role in mushroom cultivation without significant
distraction from other activities. The ultimate goal of the procect was to improve the nutrition and income of
resource-poor farmers (RPFs) through oyster mushroom cultivation (Mswaka, et a1., 2001). The specific obcectives
were: 1. To assist RPFs in establishing functional mushroom growing facilities. 2. To train selected RPFs and
agricultural extension officers in mushroom cultivation. 3. To produce and disseminate literature on mushroom
cultivation. 4. To carry out research on the cultivation of edible mushrooms.
Hwedza and Buhera were selected as pilot districts in Zimbabwe because these districts span natural farming
regions II(b) to V (Fig. 2). Results from these areas could be extrapolated to other areas with similar environmental
conditions. Oyster mushrooms (51eurotus sa7or8ca7u and 59 ostreatus) were selected by smallholder farmers
because of the adaptability of the cultivation technology (Wood, 1985), and also their similarity to local indigenous
mushrooms (Nzeve and Huvhe) (:er;ito;+cetes). Cultivation of oyster mushrooms by the smallholder farmers
would also help reduce the incidence of mushroom poisoning by providing known, well-identified edible species
(Alexoupoulous, et a1., 1979).
Oyster mushroom cultivation

#$%&' ()$$*+, (-)./0(
Spawn was produced in research laboratories at the University of Zimbabwe
(Department of Biological Sciences, Microbiology section) and at the Scientific and
Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC), Biotechnology Research Unit
(BRI). Standard procedures of oyster mushroom spawn production were followed.
The substrates used for the spawn were wheat (:riticu; sp.) and sorghum
(5e33isetu; sp.) grains (Fig. 3).
1)(2.--3 4.-&5'4 2-)(0 61789
The recommended MGH was a 8 ( 6m brick and mortar structure, with cement floor, Figure @. *us5roo0
spawn in;ubator at t5e
gable thatched roof with cute bags ceiling. The building was to have screened (wire AniBersity of /i0babwe
gauze) windows on all four sides, with 2 windows on one of the longer sides and a
door between the windows on the other longer side. Double doors were recommended, with the outer door being a
screen door (Fig. 4). At the selected sites, resources (money) were provided to acquire bricks, cement, window and
door frames and pay the builders. The community was to provide all the
other resources necessary to complete the mushroom growing houses. A
MGH ready for use was to have the floor covered with river sand up to a
depth of 2cm.
At the eleven sites, the participants modified the gabled roof to a flat
roof (Fig. 5), because the recommended roof type was expensive to put up.
The flat roof had its own drawbacks. All the roofs collapsed inwards
within the first year, and the participants had to repair the roofs. This
collapse also tended to damage the walls of the MGH, which had to be
Figure D. Stru;ture of re;o00ended periodically repaired. At one of the sites, the size of the MGH was reduced
oyster 0us5roo0 growing 5ouse because it was a family unit and there was a limitation on labour to work in.
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At all the adopter sites, the MGH was modified in various ways. At some sites, the structure was made of grass,
with a lining of plastic sheeting inside (Fig. 6). Generally, the size of the MGH was reduced to 4 ( 3m, with a flat
roof. At another site, the walls of the mushroom house were made of pole and dagga, with a flat thatched roof.
!!!!!!!!!! !!
Figure F. Ge;o00ended *G< a flat t5at;5ed roof Figure I. *us5roo0 growing 5ouse 0ade of grass
Other adopters modified already existing structures into mushroom growing houses. In some cases, traditional
kitchens (round huts) were renovated and modified into mushroom houses (Fig. 7a). In other cases, existing
structures in the homestead were partitioned and modified into mushroom houses (Fig. 7b).
! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
A. 4raditional Kit;5en B. Partitioned stru;ture
Figure M. *odified stru;tures into *G<
!!
Various reasons were given for the modifications observed. Generally, it was noted that the 8 x 6m MGH was too
big to be maintained by a family unit. The gabled roof was too expensive to put up, though it was easier to maintain
than the flat roof. The flat roof was cheap to put up, difficult to maintain and had to be replaced every year.
However, on the smaller MGH, the flat roof was considered ideal.
Yabour to work on the mushroom house was family-based. The work involved the construction of the MGH,
laying of sand for the floor, collection and processing of the substrate and spawning, and watering of the mushroom
house at least once a day. With the family as the labour source, all adopter sites constructed smaller mushroom
houses. The source of water and the distance between the water source and the MGH were very important factors
that determined the location and the size of the MGH.
Where resources were very limited, the family modified disused structures in the homestead. These included
round huts and partitioned structures in the already existing buildings. Resources were then channeled into
acquiring the spawn and plastic tubing, which were needed to grow the mushroom.
Uses of naturally available materials were demonstrated in MGHs that were constructed utilizing thatch grass, pole
and dagga. These materials are readily available, especially after the rainy season, and are normally free. One cust
has to have the labour to cut and collect.
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#):(;.%;0(
While the recommended substrates were used, the farmers
showed preferences for a particular type of substrate and they
also tended to use materials that were readily available and also
considered the amount of time and energy spent in collecting and
processing the substrate (Fig. 8).
Gondya was a favorite substrate when available. This type of
grass was easily collected in river valleys, and grows in very
large mats. It gets soft when soaked in water, as a result is very
easy to manipulate. Banana fronds, when available were also a
preferred substrate, because they are soft when soaked in water
Figure P. C5opping substrate Rbanana leaBesS and also readily available because bananas are normally grown
near homesteads. Mowed lawn was also preferred because no further processing was required after collecting. In
maize and wheat growing areas, residues from these crops were used as the mushroom substrates. Thatch grass
grows quite well during the rainy season, and it was also used as substrate on its own or was mixed with maize
stover or groundnut shells.
! ! ! !!! ! ! !
Figure N. Oo0en filling 0us5roo0 growing bags wit5 ;5opped and pasteuri=ed banana fronds
7.-&5'4 /-'<5;5-'(
Moisture and temperature are important factors that had to be monitored in the MGH. River-sand on the floor of the
MGH was used to maintain high humidity in the MGH (Fig. 10). Clean water was periodically sprayed on the
mushroom growing bags, especially during fruiting.
Those farmers who had readily available water flooded the cement floor, without the sand (Fig. 11). In the thatch
grass MGH, the walls were lined with plastic sheeting to prevent excessive water loss through the grass walls (Fig.
10). With the soil rammed floors, the floor was also covered with plastic before river sand was added. This
prevented excessive seepage into the ground. Where resources were limited, instead of buying a new hand sprayer
for the MGH, new traditional hand brooms were recommended. These would be dipped in clean water and used to
spray the bags.
Black or white plastic tubing could be used as mushroom growing bags (Fig. 12, 13). Some farmers preferred the
white tubing as this allowed them to monitor activities in the mushroom bag. Others preferred the black pockets
because they reduced the need to close up the MGH during the first 4 weeks when no light is required in the MGH.
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!! !! !
!
Figure 12. *us5roo0
Figure 1Y. GiBer sand ;oBering t5e Figure 11. *us5roo0 5ouse floor wit5out
growing bags Rbla;KST
floor of a 0us5roo0 growing 5ouse sand. Oater flooded onto t5e floor dire;tly
5anging on wooden bea0sT
Zoti;e t5e bla;K plasti; s5eeting
wit5 distin;t 0us5roo0
;oBering t5e grass wallsT to preBent
pin5eads s5owing after F
water loss
weeKs of in;ubation Rspawn
runS
8%.=0(;5'4 %'< 3%.>0;5'4
Oyster mushroom pinheads normally appear 5-6 weeks through the punched holes (Fig. 14) after the substrate has
been fully colonized by the oyster mushroom mycelium (Fig. 13). The bags are periodically sprayed with clean
water to avoid the drying of the mushroom pinheads. Within 3-5 days the mushroom fruiting bodies will be ready
for harvesting (Fig. 15), and the size at harvesting is dependent on the market demands.
Figure 1@. fully ;oloni=ed ;learUtransparent Figure 1D. Voung Figure 1F. Wyster 0us5roo0
0us5roo0 bags. Before 5oles are pun;5ed. fruitbodies on t5e bag ready for 5arBestingXsi=e at
45is is after t5e D to F weeKs in;ubation period 5arBesting is depent on t5e
0arKet de0ands
?/-'-35/( -@ -+(;0. 3)(2.--3 $.-<)/;5-'

(a) Growing bags: can be obtained from
(i) Farm and City at ZWDg350.00 per metre. These are narrower and not as strong as the ones used in the
procect.
(ii) Ecoplastics and Proplastics. The Procect buys from either. Their prices are the same. The minimum quantity
that they sell is 300kg, currently at ZWD7,000.00 per kg (ZWD2.1 million for 12 rolls). Each roll is
approximately 175m long. The cost works out at roughly ZWD1,000.00 per metre or ZWD175,000.00 per
roll.
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(b) Spawn: The actual cost of production is ZWD9,400.00 per kg, but currently sold to procect farmers and adopters
at ZWD3,000.00 per kg.
1kg of mushroom spawn seeds 5 bags, each 1 metre long. Each bag takes about 10kg of dry substrate. The
biological efficiency of oyster mushrooms is about 100%, that is, for every kg dry weight of substrate the yield of
mushroom is 1kg. Therefore you can expect to get 10kg mushroom from each bag in total (throughout the entire
harvest period), provided all production procedures are optimized. With 1kg of spawn and 5(10kg substrate, 50kg
of mushroom will be produced in a crop.
Production cost for 5 bags h ZWD32,000
Material: spawn (ZWD3,000) i bag (5m(ZWD1,000 h ZWD5,000) h ZWD8,000
Yabour: estimated at ZWD8,000 (!3 h ZWD24,000
Sales income for 5 bags h ZWD5,000.00/kg (!50kg h ZWD250,000.00
Net income for 1 bag h (ZWD250,000.00 - ZWD32,000) /5 h ZWD43,600 (USD53)
Remember that this profit is spread over the mushroom production cycle of 3-4 months. The more bags you have in
a production cycle, the more mushrooms they will produce and the higher the profit levels will be.
Figure 1I. Diagra00ati; presentation of oyster 0us5roo0 ;ultiBation fro0 substrate preparation to 5anging bags in
0us5roo0 growing 5ouse
\ /OD R/i0babwean DollarT /OD1!ASDY.YY12 in Feb. 2YYD
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/EFE/E<CES
- Alexopoulous, C. W. and C.W. Mims. 1979. <3tro4uctor+ =+co1og+. New York, U.S.A. Wohn Wiley and Sons, Inc.
869pp.
- Chang, S. T. and W.A. Hayes. 1978. :he )io1og+ a34 Cu1ti>atio3 o? @4ib1e =ushroo;s. New York, U.S.A.
Academic Press.
- Yabuschagne, P.M., A. Eicker, T.A.S. Aveling, S. Meillon, and M.F. Smith. 2000. Influence of wheat cultivars on
straw quality and 51eurotus ostreatus cultivation. )ioresource :ech3o1og+ 71: 71-75.
- Mswaka, A.Y. and M. Tagwira. 1997. Mushroom survey in Buhera and Hwedza. A Report submitted to the
ZIMBAC Technical Committee. 38pp.
- Mswaka, A.Y., C. Kashangura and W.Y. Chigogora. 2001. Making use of locally available cellulosic wastes:
mushroom cultivation by resource poor-farmers in Zimbabwe. )iotech3o1og+ (A Publication of the
Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe) 5: 4-7.
- luimio, T. H., S.T. Chang and D.W. Royse. 1990. Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in the Tropics.
FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 106, Rome.
- Stamets, P. 1993. AroBi3g Aour;et a34 =e4ici3a1 =ushroo;s. Berkely, U.S.A. Ten Speed Press. 574p.
- Wood, D.A. 1985. Useful biodegradation of lignocellulose. <3C 51a3t 5ro4ucts a34 the DeB :ech3o1og+
(K.W. Fuller m W. R. Gallan, eds.) Clarendon Press, Oxford.
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Mushroom TrowersU Handbook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art $. Mushrooms Worldwide
Chapter 1)
/egional /esearch
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION IN UGANDA
4ederica 5shemereir,e
6NCST; 6ganda
Introduction
The climate of 6ganda is mildly tropical. The temperatures range from 1B

to 3)% depending on the region; the northern part generally being warmer
and drier than the southern region. There are two rainy seasons (March to
Fune and August to October) in most parts of the country; the exception
being the northeastern arid area that gets very little rain and is inhabited by
nomadic pastoralists. 6ganda is bisected by the eLuator; but despite this;
the average room temperatures are around 2N% because of the high
altitude. There are highlands in the East; West and Southwest; which
possess most of the wild mushroom species and are the areas most suitable
for mushroom cultivation. &n the highlands temperatures are as low as
11% and as high as 2N%. All types of tropical crops can be grown most of
the year; and some temperate crops can be grown. !otential mushroom
Figure 1. Map of Uganda growing substrates include all crop residues of cereals and legumes;
corncobs; tree leaves; sawdust; coffee hulls; banana leaves; bagasse; cotton
waste; cotton seed hulls; brewers waste; papyrus reeds and elephant grass. 6ganda has also the largest fresh water
lake in the world; Lake Rictoria; as well as four other large freshwater lakes. The climate around the shores of these
lakes is warm and humid; suitable for cultivation of tropical mushroom species.
The maSor types of wild mushroom species are the Termitomyces species; with the most popular for consumption
being the Termitomyces microcarpus. Mushrooms are mainly consumed with vegetables; in soups; or mixed in
peanut sauce.
6gandan society is patrilineal; with men mostly dominating women. This results in women doing most of the
work; both farming and house chores; but they cannot own the land on which they work. &ndeed; land ownership
and the heavy workload are currently hot gender issues.
All 6gandans; except the nomadic pastoralists; appreciate mushrooms as a food delicacy and some tribes even
use them as medicine and as fertility enhancers. There is a thriving market for local edible wild mushrooms;
especially along motorways. There would be no problem at all in introducing any additional useful mushrooms into
the diets of people.
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Current Situation of Mushroom Industry
6cale o7 production: &t is not clear how many mushroom growers we have in 6ganda; nor the total production
amount as no census has been carried out. A national association has been formed to work on these problems. There
are; however; about six spawn centers that can serve as mushroom training and collection centers. 6gandan traders
are still importing mushrooms from Kenya and South Africa; but the Luantities imported are not known.
&t is assumed that there are over X)) mushroom growers in 6ganda; mainly concentrated in the southern and
central districts; where there is a problem of land shortage. Yue to the smallZscale nature of 6gandan agriculture;
substrates are also available on small scale; so the mushroom growers are also doing it on small scale. Most farmers
have 2)Z1)) bags of fruiting bags at a time; yielding only an average of 1Z2kg per day per farmer; sometimes less
depending on the humidity and season.
6pecies: Only oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.) of various strains are cultivated. Some people are now eager for
domestication of local wild edible mushrooms as they believe these would be more appreciated by the market.
6ubstrates: [armers in different districts use different substrates. &n the southwestern areas; where sorghum is the
main staple food crop; they use sorghum stover and inflorescence residues. They also use bean trash and sometimes
wheat and barley straws. &n the midwestern areas; they use mainly millet straws; bean trash and dry banana leaves.
&n the central areas; they use mainly cottonseed hulls.
Surprisingly; there are plenty of bagasse and brewery residues polluting the environment around the sugar
factories and breweries but nobody is using them due to the long travel distance to these factories; and also due to
the bureaucratic difficulties associated with entering and leaving factory premises.
Post harvest and mar>eting: The marketing of mushrooms is mostly informal; by the roadside; or in individual
arrangements with those growing the mushrooms. Yue to the smallZscale nature of 6gandaUs agriculture and
industry; there is an inadeLuate supply of substrates for mushroom cultivation. The mushroom growers; therefore;
operate on a small scale. This can be a hindrance to marketing; as buyers would like reliable; constant supplies of
set amounts. This problem can be solved by the formation of coZoperatives for the collection of substrates;
accessing spawn; and collective marketing. The recent National Seminar on Mushrooms in 6ganda has encouraged
such activity. Mushrooms are marketed fresh in areas near the capital; Kampala; but mainly in dried form in
outlying areas. The mushrooms are airZdried indoors. There has been an attempt
to develop inexpensive solar dryers; but still many farmers cannot afford them
at their scale of production. Moreover; the mushrooms dried in solar dryers
become brittle and easily break into powder during packing.
[resh mushrooms are sold at 6T\]N;)))/kg (6SY2.N/kg). Yried
mushrooms are sold at 6T\2N;)))Z3);)))/kg (6SY12.NZ1N.)).
Cultivation
6pecies: Cultures of different strains of !leurotus have been multiplied and

preserved on !otato Yextrose Agar media.
Cultures: [ruiting cultures are made on !YA in small gin bottles that are reZ
usable ([ig. 2). !YA is made locally by using potatoes boiled in water that is
then extracted and dextrose and agar are added to it; boiled then sterili_ed. Figure 2. Demonstrating how to
make PDA medium for
6pa,n: Trials on different spawn substrates have been done. Trials included mushroom culture
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wheat grain; finger millet; sorghum and corn. We eventually settled for sorghum ([ig. 3). We tried adding calcium
sulfate and lime to the spawn grain substrate; but this was expensive and yet did not significantly affect the yields.
! ! !
Figure 3. Mature spawn in the Figure 4. Inside the growing house, Figure 5. Oyster mushrooms growing
laboratory at Kawanda Resaearch mushrooms growing out of black out of a transparent plastic bag on
Institute, Uganda plastic bags on bamboo shelves sorghum stover as substrate
6ubstrates: Trial results with various substrates showed that cottonseed hulls
were the best; followed by cereal straws (wheat straw; rice straw; millet straw;
sorghum stover); then legume crop residues (beans and soy bean). Mai_e cobs;
grass and banana leaves had the lowest yields. We tried mixing wheat and mai_e
bran into the poorer substrates but this caused a lot of contamination and was
discarded.
Plastic bags: We have tried using black and transparent plastic bags and these
gave no significant differences in yields ([ig. X; N). We settled for the black bags
because when black bags are used; there is no need for a dark incubation room.
@umidity: We tried different ways of keeping high humidity in the cropping
rooms; including water filled clay pots; wet sacks and clothes around the walls;
wet sand on the floor and direct watering of bags ([ig. `). We settled for clay pots Figure 6. A farmer using
as these were easily available unlike sand that is available only in certain places. clay pots filled with water to
maintain high humidity in
The hanging wet clothes and sacks proved catastrophic as farmers started using all her mushroom cropping
types of unsightly old clothes that grew molds and became even more unsightly. room
Mushroom houses: We tried different housing units and settled for mud and
wattle walls with grass or papyrus roof ([ig. B). Where there are plenty of termites we recommend brick walls. AllZ
straw structures are too temporary and have to be reconstructed after every rainy season.
!
Post harvest and mar>eting: We tried direct sun drying; but the mushrooms changed color drastically and also
attracted flies. We tried a solar dryer but the mushrooms became brittle and were not easy to pack. We also tried
indoor airZdrying; and this is the method that we are currently using ([ig. a). Marketing is a bit difficult because of
inadeLuate infrastructure. We are now organi_ing the mushroom growers into associations for collective marketing
and accessing spawn and training. We have also set up N spawn centres in upZcountry districts; but these need
strengthening. They will in future also act as marketing centres.
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!!!!!!!
Figure 7. A growing house. In the foreground, a Figure 8. Drying oyster mushrooms indoors
wooden rack for draining the substrate (rice straws)
after pasteurization
The Next Step for Mushroom Industry in Uganda
This author thinks the next step is to develop; through adoptive research; cultivation techniLues for other species of
mushrooms; especially medicinal mushrooms (shiitake; Ganoderma; Agaricus blazei; and Auricularia). This is in
order to diversify and give people a choice; and also for future
development of the nutriceutical industry in 6ganda. The diversity of
species will also provide a broader base for income generation by
farmers as it will widen the market. There is also a need to actively
promote the consumption of mushrooms through Television; radio
talks; print media and posters; calendars TZshirts and seminars. This
will help create and expand the market for the growers. &f the
6niversity gets involved in Mushroom Science; there is also a
possibility of domesticating the saprophytic wild edible mushrooms.
Advice to Prospective Growers

Advice is to Soin the newly formed association in order to access
training; spawn supply and collective marketing ([ig. b). This will Figure 9. Training the Poor Claires nuns
and novices. Background, right,
also enable them to diversify the cultivated species and increase cottonseed hulls on a straining wire mesh
production. Then the possibility of exporting within the region can draining into a sink. The black plastic
become a reality. bags have been filled with the cottonseed
hulls and inoculated with spawn.
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!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part $. Mushrooms Worldwide
Chapter 11
Mushrooms /or the 1ro2i3s
GRO%ING GANODERMA MUSHROOMS

4*i3e )5 6hen
Specialty Mushrooms, U.S.A.
%hy Choo0e to Gro4 Ganoderma M50hroom07
Ganoderma lucidum, the most famous species in this group is a legendary

mushroom in China with a long fascinating history dating back over two
thousand years. Cot only it is a sparkling beautiful woody mushroom, but
more importantly, G2 lucidum is known as the mushroom of immortality and
is the number one medicinal mushroom in China. Dr. Andrew Weil, a most
popular authority in the West on Eastern medicine, recently advised readers
of his daily health tip to consume Reishi to prevent cancer. Reishi is the
Japanese name for G2 lucidum, while Hing Ihi is the Chinese name. Dr. B.K.
Kim, a world leader in research on Ganoderma in Korea showed that G2
Figure 1. !anoderma lucidum in a lucidum has an anti-AIDS property. AIDS is a worldwide problem,
kidney shape particularly in Africa and Asia.
2Photo courtesy of Henk Voogt:
Best known as an immune system enhancer and modulator with health
benefits, G2 lucidum is generally safe for long-term use. The HD 50 (lethal dose to kill 50% of the study subject) for
a single intraperitoneal injection dose of Ganoderma extract in rodents was as high as 38gWkg. The HD 50 of a
water-soluble polysaccharide fraction of G2 lucidum in rodent was higher than 5gWkg. Since the toxicWlethal doses in
rodent are quite high relative to conventional human dosages, they do not indicate significant limitations for
clinical dosages of Ganoderma (Chang, 1995).
The following section will discuss the methods for cultivation of G2

lucidum although other medicinal species in this group include G2 tsu4ae5 G2
sinense5 G2 applanatum, and G2 capense, whose cultivation methods are
similar to those for G2 lucidum. To bring this much-worshipped mushroom
alive to aspiring mushroom growers, the author will build up readers’
interest and knowledge as she describes why to choose this mushroom,
how many ways there are to grow them, and how Ganoderma mushrooms
grow. Such questions as what are the crucial stages in Ganoderma
Figure 2. !anoderma bonsai
cultivation, how to speed up the spawn run, how to control the
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! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s ""%
environmental factors, and how to produce Ganoderma mushrooms with caps will be addressed. Growers will
benefit by concentrating on the step-by-step instructions on how to cultivate this widely distributed species.
It is essential for growers to learn from successful cultivation examples of G2 lucidum first, and then adapt them to
their own local needs. G2 lucidum is fascinating to look at, beneficial to health, and has the possibility to generate
income for growers. Based on toxicity studies, it has the reputation of being safe for long-term consumption with a
large safety margin.
Selection o< Ganoderma lucidum Strain0
It is crucial for both new and experienced growers to understand the features and qualities of the best strains. This
knowledge gives a grower a good head start. The choice of a proper strain can determine success or failure. For
growing G2 lucidum to be used for their medicinal benefits, there are good strains from Japan, China, Korea and
Corth America.
!!!!!!!!
Figure 3. >eddish strain with a distinct white margin on

synthetic log Figure 4. Cellowish brown strain
with a growing edge on its cap
margin
1a9*e :5 Strain se*e3tion /or Ganoderma lucidum
A. Superior genetic make up.
B. Stability of the strains.
C. Strains producing prime fruiting bodies
- Well formed caps, broad kidney shape, with stalks attached laterally.
- Choose reddish strains or yellowish strains.
- Produce highly glossy lacquered surface.
- êllow underside at harvest, indicating high triterpenoid content.
- Thick fertile hymenium layer with long spore producing tubes, indicates high yield of triterpenoids and spores.
- Size of basidiocarps (fruiting bodies), 9-12cm (width) or above.
- Weight of basidiocarps, 15-30g or above.
- High contents of bioactive polysaccharides and triterpenoids, etc.
D. Vigorous and fast growth rate.
E. High mushroom yield.
F. Resistance to weed molds (unwanted mold contamination).
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s ""&
Synthetic Log C5lti@ation
PreBaration o< 05b0trate0

Substrate formulations
Table 2. Formulation for supplemented sawdust-bran substrate for Ganoderma bag cultivation
Oak sawdust 80% 400g

Wheat bran, coarse, unprocessed 18% 90g
Sucrose 1% 5g
CaCO3 1% 5g
Water approximately 67% 1H
(Source: Chen and Miles, 1966b; Chen, 1999)
Scale up according to your need. This formulation was developed on a laboratory scale first, and successfully
duplicated in scale-up operations by mushroom growers in US and Canada. In large-scale cultivation, well water
can be used. Be sure that the water is not contaminated with undesirable pollutants.
1a9*e <5 =ormu*ations o/ 3ommon*y use+ Ganoderma /ruiting su9strates
Sawdust Bran Supplement CaCO3 H2O References

80% 18% Sucrose 1% 1% 67% Chen and Miles, 1996b
80% 20% - a little 70% Hseu, 1993
78% 20% - 2% h Hiu et al., 1990
75% 25% - - h Hu and Chang, 1975
Quimio, 1986
87% 10% - 3% h Tong and Chen, 1990
93.5% 5% Mg SO4 0.2% - h Triratana et al., 1991
sawdust (alder) : wood chip (oak) j 1 : 1 (5lb Wbag wet wt.)
wood chips soaked and fermented in molasses-enriched water Stamets, 2000
(50mH of molassesW5 gal of water)
hAppropriate amount of water.

(Source: Chen, 1999)!
Making the synthetic logs in bag cultivation

Synthetic logs are made by filling the bags (heat
resistant polypropylene or polyethylene) with the
chosen substrate. For G2 lucidum, a sawdust-bran
substrate with supplements is generally used.
Check the formulation of recommended
substrates in Table 2 and 3. Using heat-sealed
bags with microfilter windows, substrate is
usually fills two thirds of the bags to leave air Figure 5. Heat-sealed Figure 6. Cylindrical bags with plugs
bags with microfilter
space for ventilation. The substrate is sterilized windows
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! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s ""'
right after bagging, if possible, to avoid contamination. To sterilize the substrate is to ensure that it is germ free for
you to grow your chosen mushroom. Cylindrical bags with plugs can also be used.
Substrate sterilization
An autoclave is the standard equipment for sterilization. Cew growers or small growers with no autoclave may
contact the mushroom training center or university to obtain already sterilized synthetic logs in bags.
Substrate media is usually autoclaved by standardized sterilization at 121( (15 psi) for 15 minutes. Adjust the time
according to the amount of substrate to be sterilized. A greater amount of time is required for sterilization of
sawdust-based substrates. Do not sterilize for a longer than necessary time, to avoid a possible breakdown of
substrate components.
In a home laboratory, a pressure cooker can be used. For example, Stamets (1990) recommends sterilization of
17.50 k 8.25 k 4.75l bags of heat-resistant polypropylene, filled with 3 lbs wet weight of a sawdustWwood-chip
substrate, at 15 psi for two hours. On the other hand, 2-lb polyethylene bags, which are not heat resistant, should be
sterilized at a lower temperature of 85( for 72 hours. Again, depending on the nature and the bulk of the substrate,
sterilization of the woody substrate may need to be adjusted (Stamets, 2000).
The c5lti@ation Broce00
SBa4n and 0Ba4ning

Spawn is the seed inoculum used to inoculate the sterilized substrate after cooling. Many growers use grain spawn,
while some prefer liquid spawn. There are also sawdust-bran spawn, dowels, skewers and grooved woody plug
spawn. Choose spawn from the best strain with the most desirable qualities, including good genetic traits, stability,
production of quality fruiting bodies of high health benefits, and high yield. Use vigorous spawn of the right age.
Use fresh spawn that has not been stored, or with the least amount of storage time possible.
Methods of spawning (inoculation)

It is smart to follow up inoculation right after sterilization and cooling of the substrate to avoid uninvited
contamination (Chen and Moy, 2004). Cew growers may not be aware that the air is full of contaminants such as
uninvited fungal and bacterial spores. Inoculate under a hood in a clean place. There are two ways for spawning:
mthrough spawningl and mlocalized spawning.l Through spawning involves mixing the spawn throughout the entire
sterile substrate, by shaking for instance, while localized spawning involves depositing the spawn on top or on the
sides of the substrate block. The choice of spawning procedures should be based on the following desirable
characteristics. Growers should seek the lowest possibility of contamination by uninvited microorganisms, the
highest speed for inoculation, the greatest ease for handling, the least amount of labor, the most cost-effective
methods, the grower’s preference, and a fast spawn run.
How should the bags be arranged?

After inoculation, how should the bags be arrangedn In some growers in Taiwan, China, and the U.S.A., bags are
arranged vertically on shelves. In some growers in Thailand and the U.S.A., bags are arranged horizontally. Use
durable, strong and mold-resistant material for making the shelves. The bottom of each shelf should allow air
circulation. In Corth America, open lattice designs are usually chosen. Treated wood, bamboo, stainless steel and
high quality synthetic materials have been used by growers for shelves.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "")
How to control the environmental factors?

The environmental factors, such as humidity, light, and oxygen supply, and temperature are usually known as
growth parameters. As Ganoderma mushrooms grow from the mycelial stage to fully differentiated and mature
mushrooms, each stage has a unique set of requirements for the growth parameters. Since G2 lucidum is a
subtropical mushroom that can also be found in temperate climates, a high temperature near 30( supports rapid
mycelial growth and shortens the time required for spawn run. It has been suggested that spawn run in the absence
of light promotes the formation and accumulation of fungal food reserves such as glycogen and lipids. These
energy reserves are essential for producing macroscopic mushrooms from microscopic mycelia.
What are the crucial stages in Ganoderma cultivation?

Growers should pay special attention to transitional stages, such as the stage from vegetative phase to reproductive
phase when primordia (the initial stage for fruiting body formation) are beginning to form. The most crucial factor
during primordia initiation is high relative humidity, preferably 90-95%. Oxygen
supply, exposure to diffused dim light and inclusion of calcium in the fruiting
substrate are also important.
The most crucial management practice during pileus differentiation (the
specialized growth for mushroom cap development) is to increase ventilation to
reduce CO2 concentration, along with high humidity and diffused dim light. When
the temperature is too high, the fruiting bodies produced are very thin and of poor
quality. Differentiation of Ganoderma fruiting is highly sensitive to CO2
concentrations as these will determine whether antler-shaped fruiting bodies (CO2
o 0.1%), or fruiting bodies with well-formed caps (CO2 p 0.1%) will be produced.
Fresh air contains 0.03% CO2. Aim for reducing CO2 to 0.04-0.05%, as close to
fresh air as possible, for the production of mushrooms with caps (Table 5).
Humidity is provided by fine mist 1-2 or 3-4 times per day. Figure 7. Intler-shaped
fruit bodies
1a9*e @5 Ganoderma gro,th 2arameters
Stage Auration Bumi+ity Cight 6OE OE 1em2erature

(%, R.H.) (lux) (%) (Ventilation) ((*
Spawn run up to 2 months 60 -70% Cil TolerateW 0-1 exchange 25-30hor
high conc. lower (20)
Primordia 50-60 days 90-95% 100-200 0.1-0.5% O2 a plus 25-30hor
initiation after spawning or lower lower (20)
Stipe (stalk) 10-14 days in 70-80% or 0.1-1% 25-30hor
formation development higher 150-200 high conc. low lower (20):
(branching) thicker
Pileus (cap) 25 days or 150-200 25-30hor
differen- longer from 85-95% 12hr p 0.1% low conc. air lower (20):
tiation primordia to (onWoff) circulation thicker
harvest
For further 7-10 days 85% Additional incubation of after cap maturation
growth 50-60%
hSet temperature at 28(+ the actual temperature may become 2-3( higher (heat generated by massive mycelial
respiration).
(Source: Chen, 1999; Stamets, 2000)
1a9*e F5 6ontro* o/ 6OE 3on3entration to 2ro+u3e Ganoderma ,ith 3a2s
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "",
Fresh air 0.03%

Ganoderma with caps p 0.1% (Optimum: 0.04-0.05%)
Ganoderma with antler fruiting body o 0.1%
Ho4 Ganoderma m50hroom gro4
Vegetative phase (spawn run)

Spawn run simply refers to the growth and propagation of the mushroom mycelia in the colonized substrate bags
during the vegetative stage before the formation of mushrooms. Ganoderma spawn should be incubated in the
absence of light at 25-30( or lower, even as low as 20(. Almost all strains of G2 lucidum, regardless of the
geological location where the strain was isolated, have an optimal spawn run temperature of around 30(. Avoid
drying. When the substrate in the bag is fully covered by the whitish growing mycelia, it is time for fruiting. Hiquid
droplets and color may occur. Spawn run can be speeded up.
Bo, to s2ee+ u2 the s2a,n run
- Select a vigorous, fast-growing fruiting strain with a superior genome.

- Choose the best substrate formula. Provide an appropriate level of substrate moisture. Avoid the substrate’s being
waterlogged. Make sure that the substrate provides sufficient aeration. Check also for good substrate texture and
particle contact for excellent nutrient and water transport. Use the right amount of substrate and leave ample air
space in the bag.
- Choose a properly functioning bag system of the right size. When heat-sealed bags with microfilter windows are
used, bags of large diameters (not long and narrow) with ample air space above the substrate will facilitate
oxygen supply and air exchange.
- Use a generous amount of fresh, pure, vigorous and high quality spawn.
Avoid spawn being too old or too immature. Avoid long spawn storage, if any.
- Use through spawning by distributing the spawn throughout the substrate.
- Hight inhibits mycelial growth. Co light is necessary for spawn run.
- Set the highest optimal incubation temperature for spawn run (usually 30().
- Keep the inoculated bags free from contamination.
Trigger primordia formation

Primordia formation is triggered by exposure to light (100-200 lux), oxygen and high relative humidity (85-95%
R.H.). Cold shock is not necessary to trigger the formation of Ganoderma primordia. However, when occasionally
a few colonized blocks fail to respond to the standard triggering treatment, they can be transferred to a freezer over
night. The remedial cold shock can be applied to unresponsive vegetative blocks more than once. Brief exposure to
low levels of light is sufficient to initiate Ganoderma primordia.
Fruiting differentiation and development

Towards the end of the vegetative spawn run, whitish mature mycelia begin to form tighter growth in knots in
response to environmental stimulation. These centers of tighter mycelial growth gradually develop into primordia
and rise above the surface of the substrate as whitish rounded mounds, much bigger than the pin heads of white
Agaricus button mushrooms. Amorphous primordia mass may ooze out first.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "-.
These primordia elongate vertically in the air into whitish finger-like

young stalks. Growth of the stalks takes place by elongation and an
increase in diameter. Under favorable conditions, the tips of mature stalks
with color and shine on their lower parts begin to enlarge and give rise to
young mushroom caps that are laterally attached to the tips of stalks. The
young mushroom caps continue to grow and develop into typically broad
kidney-shaped caps, increasing in size at the cap margins. Meanwhile as
the cap matures, beautiful yellowish brown or reddish and then reddish
brown coloration appears, depending on the strains. Under the diffused
dim light, the mushrooms transform into sparkling specimens with
lacquer-like shining upper surfaces and glossy dark brownish stalks.
Hess visible to our eyes, but more important, is the differentiation of a
fertile layer called the hymenium on the underside of the mushroom cap.
The hymenium contains long fertile tubes in which basidiospores are Figure 8. Tips of mature stalks
produced. With our naked eyes we are only able to see the ends of these
tubes as pores when we turn the cap upside down. That is why Ganoderma mushrooms are woody polypores, quite
different from the fleshy shiitake mushrooms with gills and a centrally attached stalk. This knowledge is important
because a biomedically important component called triterpenoid is produced in this region. The thicker the
hymenium layer and the longer the tubes, the better, provided the physiologically active triterpenoids are produced.
This determines the medicinal value of the Ganoderma mushroom strain and whether it is worthwhile to grow it.
Nat5ral Log C5lti@ation
In the past, natural logs as long as 1m were used without sterilization in growing Ganoderma species in China. A
long incubation of two to three years was required to obtain mature fruiting bodies on such substrates. Since late
1980s, new trends have been developed that use short logs. Today, almost all Ganoderma natural-log growers adopt
the time-saving short-log cultivation. This is true in China, Japan, the United States and elsewhere. Here we focuses
on growing G2 lucidum on short natural logs enclosed in air-permeable synthetic bags during spawn run. Such a
strategy shortens the production time and ensures mushroom quality. Addressed here are the crucial factors and
methodology controlling growth and fruiting.
PreBaration o< log0
Tree species and log size

Most broad-leaf hardwoods can be used to cultivate Ganoderma lucidum and other Ganoderma species. Commonly
used species include oak, pecan, elder, choke cherry, and plum etc. (Chen, 1999; Stamets, 2000; Chen and Chao,
1997). To be avoided are conifers and hardwoods containing harmful aromatic compounds, such as camphor-
producing species, although these tree species can be used after fermentation. The standard log size used in
cultivation of G2 lucidum is 15cm in diameter or thinner, and 15-24cm long (Table 6). Commercial growers in
Fujian province in China harvest logs from about 30-year old hardwood trees. Moisture content in the log should be
taken into consideration.
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! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "-/
1a9*e G5 SiHe an+ moisture 3ontent o/ Ganoderma short natura* *ogs
6ountry Cog siHe Moisture 3ontent Ie/eren3e

J+iameter k *engthK
China 15 k 18-24cm 36-38% (tight ) Huang (ed.), 1993, p. 238
6-15 k 15cm 38-40% (loose) Chen and Chao, 1997, p. 514
Japan 15 k 15cm Mayzumi, OkamotoW Mizuno, 1997, p.365
U.S.A. 12.7 k 20.3cm Chen, 1999, p. 182
The correct time for harvesting the logs, air-drying and cutting into short logs
Cut logs from chosen hardwood species 15-20 days before spawning (Chen and Chao, 1997). Choose logs with
intact bark and a diameter of 15cm unless otherwise specified (Table 6). Harvest the logs during the dormant
season of the tree prior to the formation of new buds, when the tree trunks are full of sap and nutrients and before
these nutrients are consumed during the germination of buds (Chen, 1999; ôu, 1987). Hightly air dry the logs for
15-20 days in a clean and well-ventilated place to obtain the desirable moisture content in the logs. For logs with a
tight and firm woody texture, a lower level of moisture is required compared to logs with a looser texture (Table 6).
Cut into short logs, 15cm or so in length. Retain the bark, but trim the periphery of the logs by removing small side
branches, thorns, and any rough spots that may puncture a synthetic bag.
Choice of bag design, bagging and sterilization

Enclose logs singly in each bag, or two logs end to end in a bag having a diameter
slightly larger ( o 15cm in diameter), and a length of 25-50cm. Sterilize logs in
bags at high pressure (1.5kgWcm2) for 1.5 hours or at normal air pressure, or
100( for 10 hours. Heat-sealed polypropylene or polyethylene bags with
microfilter windows can be used. Permeation of air exchange of such bags is
regulated by the size, shape, number, locality and nature of the microfilter on each
bag, as well as air space above the colonized substrate in the enclosed bag.
Preparation of spawns
A variety of spawns, such as pure culture liquid mycelial spawn, grain spawn and
sawdust-bran spawn can be used. Pure-culture liquid mycelial spawn can be Figure 9. Mhort log in the bag
grown in potato-dextrose broth. For information on the sawdust-bran substrate before steriliNation
used for spawn (Table 2 , 3).
The c5lti@ation Broce00
Spawning
Apply spawn evenly on the cut surface, 3-5cm thick, usually 5-10g spawn for each log. When using freshly cut logs,
instead of sterilized logs, as in traditional log-cultivation in Japan, inoculation is applied immediately, or soon after
log cutting to avoid contamination, based on the fact that the interior of a healthy tree is sterile. Alternatively using
an inoculation gun, liquid mycelial spawn can be dispensed into the drilled holes on the periphery of the log.
Colonized dowels can also be used.
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! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "-"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Figure 10. Mpawning Figure 11. Mpawn run
Spawn run (mycelial penetration)

Special attention should be given to ensure proper mycelial growth in the log. Efforts should be made to encourage
mycelial growth throughout the interior of the log. Avoid having superficial mycelial growth on the log surface
only as a tough leathery mycelial coat (layer). The formation of superficial leathery mycelial coat on the log surface
only without mycelial penetration into the center of the log is related to the log oxygen and moisture content. Hack
of oxygen or poor aeration, such as water-logged, results in poor and slow growth. This is the opposite to Shiitake
synthetic logs cultivation, for Shiitake, a mycelial coat on the surface of the colonized log is desirable. For proper
management of the environmental factors during spawn run, refer to growth parameters. Hog spawn run also
tolerates fairly high CO2 concentration, and is carried out in the absence of light.
Primordia initiation
Same as Bag synthetic log cultivation, brief exposure to very little light triggers Ganoderma primordia. Oxygen is
also conducive to primordia formation. In contrast, spawn run is carried out in darkness, and less oxygen is
required. Ganoderma primordia are usually formed 50-60 days after spawning in natural log cultivation.
Embedding in soil
Embed the colonized logs directly in soil after primordia formation, leaving the primordia above ground. Then
cover the soil with chopped straw to retain moisture. During fruiting, at the primordia stage, the colonized logs
become resistant to microbial contamination in the non-sterile soil (Chen, 1996b). Embed the short logs vertically,
with the cut surface where spawning is applied facing upwards. Soil with good drainage, such as sandy soil, should
be used. Following is an example: embed only 16-21cm or 9W10th of the log in soil, leaving well-formed primordia
above ground (Chen and Chao, 1997). Hog moisture can be better conserved by burying the logs in soil.
Embedding logs in soil also enables mushroom mycelia to absorb nutrients, particularly minerals and trace
elements from the soil. Soil-buried log cultivation can be done in easily-constructed mushroom houses. Within the
mushroom house, low loop frames with covers usually in 2 rows, are routinely set up. Alternatively, soil-buried log
cultivation of Ganoderma species can also be carried out in the open air in the wild.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "--
!!!!! !
Figure 12. Tips of young mushrooms about Figure 13. short logs embedded with top soil in
to form caps nursery pots
Figure 14. !anoderma mushroom growing on Figure 15. !anoderma with further cap
Mhort logs growth
Har@e0t the M50hroom0
From primordia formation to fruiting bodies ready for harvest, takes approximately 25 days under favorable
conditions. Disappearance of the white growing margin at the edge of the yellowish brown or reddish brown
mushroom is a sign for harvest. Continue cultivation at reduced air humidity of 85% R.H. for an additional 7-10
days to encourage further growth in pileate thickness and firmness (50-60% R.H. in another practice). Harvest by
cutting the stipe (stalk). Keep only 2cm of the stipe with the pileus. If so desired, continue cultivation under the
optimal growth parameters for second and third flushes, although the subsequent flushes have lower yields,
especially the third flush.
Po0t Har@e0t
After harvest it is essential to avoid storage of the dried mushrooms under humid, damp, warm and soiled
unsanitary conditions. If not properly cared for, you could be shocked to find that the beautiful mushrooms you
grew have been deteriorated into powders by the infestation of miniature beetles called ‘cecids.’
Air dry harvested fruiting bodies under the sun or with heat (60() immediately. Complete drying within 2-3 days.
Place the fruiting bodies with the underside of the mushroom cap facing down. During cloudy or rainy days, apply
low heat (60(). Improper prolonged drying lowers the quality of the product by turning the underside pore surface
dark brown or becoming contaminated by molds.
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! Part III. Mushrooms )or*+,i+e Chapter 11. Mushroom /or the 1ro2i3s "-#
Di0c500ion and Concl50ion
Whether to use bag cultivation or natural log cultivation, growers should be thoroughly familiar with how the
mushrooms grow and what the proper environmental factors are for each developmental stage. The major focus is
high humidity for primordia initiation followed by an increase in ventilation during pileus differentiation to allow
an increase in the oxygen supply.
It is advisable to grow Ganoderma organically. Unsound practices with the risk of undesirable environmental
contamination have been detected in connection with log cultivation (Mushroom Growers’ Cewsletter, Sept., 2001).
The question arises as whether to use bag synthetic log cultivation or to use natural log cultivation for G2 lucidum.
Successful natural log cultivation produces Ganoderma mushrooms with superior quality. Thick and firm fruiting
bodies are produced with desirable coloring and luster that command good prices in the markets of Southeast Asia.
However, the yield could be lower, and the production time could be a little longer. The major issue is conservation
of the natural resource of the forest where the logs come from, which is a significant environmental concern.
Selection of logging should be carefully done, such as choosing very old forests within which some logging does
not have any significant environmental impact. Hong-term planning of forestation should be coordinated with log
cultivation.
SLCL61LA IL=LILM6LS
- Chang, R. 1995. Effective dose of Ganoderma in humans, Ganoderma6 S8stematics5 9h8topatholo48 and
9harmacolo48, Buchanan, Hseu and Moncalvo (eds). 39-40.
- Chen, A.W., and P.G. Miles. 1996a. Biomedical research and the application of mushroom nutriceuticals from
Ganoderma lucidum. In: Royse, D. J., (ed.). Mushroom ;iolo48 and Mushroom 9roducts. 161-176.
- Chen, A.W., and P.G. Miles. 1996b. Cultivation of Ganoderma bonsai, In: Royse, D. J. (ed.). Mushroom ;iolo48
and Mushroom 9roducts. University Park, PA: Penn State Uinv. Press. pp. 325-334.
- Chen, A.W. 1999. Cultivation of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.:Fr.) P. Karst. (Reishi).
=>MM 1 : 263-282.
- Chen, A.W. 2002. Catural log cultivation of the medicinal mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi). Mushroom
Growers’s Aewsletter5 3 (9): 2-6, Jan. 2002.
- Chen. A.W. 2003. A fresh look at an ancient mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi). Mushroom Aews 51 (2):
14-24, Feb. 2003.
- Chen, A.W., and M. Moy. 2004. Mushroom cultivation: building mold contamination. 9roceedin4s BCth =SMS
=nternational Con4ress, Miami,USA, Mar. 2004.
- Chen, K.H., and D.M. Chao. 1997. Hing Ihi (Ganoderma species). In: Hsu, K. T. (ed.). Chinese Medicinal
M8colo48 (in Chinese). Beijing, China: United Press of Beijing Medical University and Chinese United Medical
University. pp. 496-517.
- Kim, H.W., and B.K. Kim. 1999. Biomedical triterpenoids of Ganoderma lucidum (Curt:FR.) P. Karst.
(aphyllophoromycettideae). =>MM l: 63-67.
- Mayzumi, F., H. Okamoto, and T. Mizuno. 1997. Cultivation of reddish Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum, red). Dood
Eev2 =nt2 13: 365-382.
- Mushroom Growers’ Aewsletter, Sept., 2001.
- Stamets, P. 2000. Growin4 Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. 3rd. edition. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
!
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Why Choose Shiitake Mushroom?
Shiita>e is< b; @ar< the most :o:ular and im:ortant edible medicinal
mushroom in man; countries AChen< et al'< BCCCD Chen< BCC(D
Eumble< BCC(D Ro;se< BCC(D Stamets< BCCCG' Shiita>e< a name
originated @rom Ja:an< is >nown in China as Jiangu and in France as
lentin' L; using its scienti@ic name< Lentinula edodes< ;ou can be sure
that ;ou are tal>ing about the same mushroom with :eo:le in other
:arts o@ the world' First discoMered in China< this ancient Chinese
mushroom< :rimaril; in tem:erate climate< has a longNstanding
histor; as a culinar; delicac; and an immunit; booster< and :roduces
lentinan< which is recogniOed in Ja:an as an antiNcancer drug' 5n anti
E&P :ro:ert; has also been detected along with other health bene@its' Figure 1. shiitake
&t ma; come as a sur:rise that shiita>e can onl; be @ound as a natiMe s:ecies in Far Eastern countries such as
China< Ja:an and Rorea< but not in North 5merica nor in Euro:e' Recent sightings o@ shiita>e in the wild in ='S'5'
are li>el; mushroom runawa;s esca:ed @rom cultiMation< or coo>ing :re:arations' &n China< where shiita>e was
@irst @ound< Jiangu< the Chinese name< means @ragrant mushroom AJian means @ragrance< gu means mushroomG'
Two highl; :riOed @orms o@ Jiangu are dongu< the winter shiita>e Adong means winterG< and huagu< the @lower
shiita>e Ahua means @lowerG' Loth @orms with thic> meat; mushroom ca:s are :roduced at winterNli>e tem:erature'
Euagu< the most soughtNa@ter shiita>e and the most eJ:ensiMe< is a @orm o@ dongu with a @lowerNli>e crac>ing
:attern on the u::er sur@ace o@ the ca: AWu< BCCCG'
&t is onl; natural that China was the @irst to discoMer how to grow shiita>e almost a thousand ;ears ago' Credit
was giMen to Wu< Sang Rwuang in UheVian !roMince as the ingenious obserMer who @igured out how to enhance
shiita>e @ruiting on logs @ound in the wild during Sung W;nast; in ((CC 5' W' AMiles and Chang< (XYXG' Wuring
such earl; da;s< dri@ting shiita>e s:ores im:lanted s:ontaneousl; on< :erha:s< @allen tree trun>s or branches'
Scienti@ic methodolog; eMolMed much later< when Wr' ShoOaburo Minura in Ja:an deMelo:ed the techniZue o@
inoculating natural logs with :ure shiita>e m;celial culture in (X([ AStamets< BCCCG' Wuring the earl; twentieth
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !"%
centur;< !ro@' ChangNChich Eu< o@ JingNîng =niMersit; Anow NanVing =niMersit;G in NanVing< China< was one o@
the :ioneers :romoting shiita>e cultiMation in China< a@ter he returned @rom To>;o =niMersit; in Ja:an' _nl; about
two decades ago< in (X`X< a@ter a doOen ;ears or so in research< China succeeded in largeNscale shiita>e s;ntheticN
log cultiMation on substrate bloc>s in bags< a much @aster :roduction com:ared to cultiMation on natural logs
AEuang< (XX`G' Toda;< China remains to be one o@ the largest in :roducing< consuming and eJ:orting shiita>e' &n
the new millennium ;ear o@ BCCC< im:orts o@ shiita>e to Ja:an rose aab to [B<Cc` tons< with a Malue o@ =SWXa'dc
million' 5lmost all o@ the shiita>e im:orted to Ja:an came @rom China'
&n the ='S'5'< shiita>e cultiMation began to ta>e o@@ between (XYd to (XXd< @ollowing the li@ting o@ a ban on
im:orting li@e cultures o@ L1 edodes b; the =SW5 A=nited States We:artment o@ 5gricultureG in (X`B ARo;se< BCC(G'
Now< shiita>e in @resh :roduce< cultiMated b; 5merican growers is the leading s:ecialt; mushroom in su:ermar>ets
across the countr;< while dr; shiita>e has a longNstanding histor; as a mushroom treasure in _riental grocer; stores<
:articularl; in China towns and other _riental communities'
Shiita>e growing is widel; :racticed not onl; in Southeast 5sia AChina< Taiwan< Ja:an< Rorea< Singa:ore< the
!hili::ines< Sri ân>a and ThailandG but also in North 5merica A='S'5' and CanadaG< Euro:e Awith France leading<
\erman;< the Netherlands< S:ain< &tal;< England< SwitOerland< Lelgium< Finland and SwedenG< 5ustralia and New
Uealand A_ei< (XXdD Romanens< BCC(G' Shiita>e cultiMation is< indeed< a globalNwide industr;'
\rowing shiita>e in bags o@ s;nthetic logs is now the number one method used in China AWu< BCCCG' &t is also
the most common wa; to grow shiita>e in the ='S'5' âbor and material costs @or using the traditional natural log
@or shiita>e cultiMation a::ear to be less :ro@itable @or 5merican growers' Eere we @ocus on shiita>e bag cultiMation<
based on 5merican and Chinese methodolog;' To encourage consistent success< the author :roMides a dee:er
understanding on crucial and basic stages in growing shiita>e as a :ractical guide to the growers< including critical
selection o@ strains< :rogress in m;celial growth and maturit; in :re:aration o@ @orming mushrooms< how to control
the enMironment at each stage< how to trigger the mushroom @ormation< and how the mushroom grows' S:ecial
techniZues @or @orcing huagu Athe @lower shiita>eG< the most eJ:ensiMe @orm on global mar>ets are also described'
Shiitake Bag Cultivation (Synthetic Log Cultivation)
Strain Selection
To >now the im:ortance o@ shiita>e strain selection is crucial' Shiita>e strains Mar; widel;< :articular in @ruiting
tem:erature and m;celial maturation Aearl; or lateD shorter or longer :roduction timeG' 5lso strainNrelated are
substrate selectiMit;< growth rate Asome @ast strains ma; :roduce :reNmature @ruitingG< shiita>e mushroom Zualit;
Asha:e< siOe< thic>ness< color< @laMor and @ragrance< etc'G< ;ield and ecological ada:tabilit; to eJtreme tem:erature<
usuall; cold tolerance' Lased :rimaril; on Chinese s;stem< strains are classi@ied into [ categories according to their
@ruiting tem:eratures ATable (G'
Table AB 9hiitaCe straiD classi/icatioD largely base+ oD ChiDese system
Ho, temperature !i+ temperature :igh temperature )i+e-raDge temperature

(C& (CN(Y& BC& and aboMe cNac&
&n awa>e o@ intrusion o@ massiMe im:orts< Ja:anese deMelo:ed a number o@ cultiMation techniZueNde:endent new
shiita>e strains with large and thic> @ruiting bodies >nown as basidiocar:s AWatanabe< BCC(G' Loth :er@ormance and
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !"'
stabilit; o@ su:erior strains are im:ortant' EJ:erienced growers are aware o@ the :otential :roblems o@ strain
attenuation' For eJam:le re:eated subcultures and :rolonged storage o@ the stoc> culture ma; result in smaller
@ruiting bodies and lower ;ield AEuub EabetsG'
Substrate selection
5ged broadNlea@ sawdust is the :re@erence @or man; @or growing shiita>e' Fresh sawdust without aging b;
@ermentation can be used @or shiita>e onl; i@ it is @rom high Zualit; tree s:ecies' _a>< chin>a:in< hornbeam<
sweetgum< :o:lar< alder< ironwood< beech< birch and willow are eJam:les o@ commonl; used nonNaromatic broadN
lea@ hardwoods in the ='S' Sawdust @rom tree s:ecies o@ lower Zualit; must be aged b; @ermentation A_ei< (XXdG'
Select locall; aMailable and ineJ:ensiMe resource< @or eJam:le< @ermented eucal;:tus sawdust is used in 5ustralia'
There are growers who :re@er to use aged sawdust regardless o@ tree s:ecies' Loth substrate nutrients and :h;sical
teJtural :ro:ert; in aeration are im:ortant' Sawdust :articles should not be smaller than C'Ycmm'
Substrate formulation
For commonl; used su::lemented hardwood sawdust @ormulations< see Table B' Man; use a sim:le substrate with
sawdust< bran and (b CaC_a A_ei< (XXdG' (b sucrose is also @reZuentl; added' &n addition to hardwoods< the use
o@ :ine is a subVect o@ great interest< since :ine is a readil; aMailable @orestr; resource' Su::lemented :ineN
hardwood substrate ATable BNFormula CG was used as :artial substitute @or basal ingredient b; the Forestr;
Research &nstitute o@ New Uealand @or shiita>e :roduction with satis@actor; results' 5gricultural wastes< such as
cottonseed hulls< corncobs< bagasse and straw can also be used as alternatiMe basal ingredients'
Table JB KormulatioD o/ sa,+ust-base+ substrates /or shiitaCe cultiLatioD
5' LroadNlea@ sawdust based AWu< BCCCG

sawdust (CC>g
wheat or rice bran Ba'Bc>g
g;:sum B'c>g
calcium su:er:hos:hate C'c>g
sucrose (N('c>g
water (CCN([C>g
L' LroadNlea@ sawdust based AStamets< BCCCG
sawdust (CC lb Aor d[ galG
woodchi:s cC lb Aor aB galG
rice or r;e bran [C lb Aor Y galG
g;:sum Acalcium sul@ateG cN` lb Aor ( galG
water dCb
C' The Forestr; Research &nstitute o@ New Uealand
:ine sawdust d :arts AMontere; :ineN2inus radiataG
hardwood sawdust a :arts Abeech or :o:larG
grain ( :art Abarle;G
W' StrawNbased substrate A_ei< (XXdG
rice straw cC>g
wheat straw BC>g
sawdust BC>g
sucrose ('a>g
$
!"($
!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !"(
CaC_a ('c>g
citric acid C'B>g
CaS_[ C'c>g
Substrate sterilization
SteriliOation de:ends on the nature o@ bags A:ol;:ro:;lene or :ol;eth;leneG< bag siOe< nature and amount o@ the
substrate :er bag< and the total bul>' For sawdustNbran substrate< steriliOe @rom BNa u: to [Nc hours at (B(&'
\rowers are adMised to test their miJtures and adVust accordingl; AStamets< BCCCG'
Spawn and spawning

Fresh and Migorous s:awn o@ a::ro:riate age should be used' Select the best strain to match ;our interest' &n
general< through s:awning As:awn thoroughl; miJed with the entire substrateG in larger bags is used in the ='S'<
while to: or localiOed s:awning As:awn is le@t on the substrate sur@ace or the inoculation holeG in smaller bags is
used in China and 5ustralia' Through s:awning giMes a much @aster growth rate' EeatNsealed larger bags with
micro:orous breathing @ilters< :artl; @illed with the substrates< allow the mani:ulation o@ miJing the s:awn with the
substrate b; sha>ing mechanicall; or manuall;' Smaller bags with ring nec>s and :lugs that are @ull; loaded
without leaMing an; air s:ace in bags do not lend themselMes to through s:awning'
How to control the environmental factors?

Stamets ABCCCG summariOed the growth :arameters @or shiita>e cultiMation in Table a'
Table MB :o, to proLi+e the right eDLiroDmeDt /or gro,iDg shiitaCe
9pa,D ruD 7D+uctioD o/ primor+ial KruitiDg +eLelopmeDt

Tem:erature B(NB`& (CN(d&) dNB(&)) (dN(Y&) B(NB`&))
A`CNYC*G AcCNdC*G AdCN`C*G AcCN`C*G AdCNYC*G
@or all strains tem:erature @luctuation
Eumidit; XcN(CCb R'E' XcN(CCb R'E' dCNYCb R'E'
&ncubation ca' (NB months cN` da;s cNY da;s
strainNde:endent
C_B e (C<CCC ::m< tolerant f (<CCC ::m f (<CCC ::m
Pentilation CN( [N` ghour [NY ghour
AoJ;genG oJ;gen oJ;gen
îghting cCN(CC luJ cCCNB<CCC luJ cCCNB<CCC luJ
at a`CN[BCnm AgreenNuMG f cCC luJ Along stemG
hcold tem:erature ASourcei Stamets< BCCCG
hhwarm tem:erature
Le sure to remember that as a :rimaril; tem:erate s:ecies< shiita>e mushrooms are best :roduced at low
tem:erature and little @luctuation o@ tem:erature and humidit;< although high tem:erature strains are now aMailable'
How shiitake mushrooms grow in cultivation

!roduction o@ shiita>e inMolMes both a MegetatiMe :hase o@ m;celial growth and maturation< and a re:roductiMe
:hase o@ @ruiting bod; @ormation' &t is im:eratiMe @or growers to obserMe closel; the s:awn run with man; stages o@
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !"+
intricate :h;siological changes and mor:hogenesis Achange in :h;sical @eatures in growthG< @ocusing on the
transition @rom the MegetatiMe :hase to the re:roductiMe :hase' \rowers should stud; the cultiMation sections @or
details and chec> the seZuence o@ shiita>e :hotos'
Spawn run (mycelial growth and maturation)

For s:awn run this intricate MegetatiMe :hase consists o@ c stages' 5ll shiita>e strains show o:timal m;celial growth
at Bc&' The duration o@ s:awn run is usuall; (N[ months< de:ending on the strains and methodolog;' No light is
necessar; during s:awn run< howeMer some light in the da;gnight c;cle towards the end o@ the s:awn run is
conduciMe to induction o@ :rimordia' Wi@@erent a::roaches can be used< such as :roMiding light towards later stage
in s:awn run< short eJ:osure to light o@ [Nhourgda;Nnight c;cle ARo;se< BCC(G< or use a low leMel o@ light cCN(CC luJ<
throughout s:awn run AStamets< BCCCG' The dramatic change @rom MegetatiMe m;celial growth to the :roduction o@
macrosco:ic @ruiting bodies in the re:roductiMe :hase reZuires an enormous amount o@ energ; reserMes' 5 Migorous
s:awn run is o@ ultimate im:ortance' &t should be noted that strains Mar; greatl; in duration @or m;celial maturation'
For one strain< dC da;s is su@@icient to mature< whereas this would be insu@@icient time @or another strain which ma;
:roduce de@ormed mushrooms AMiles and Chang< (XYXG'
Mycelial growth
&mmediate @ollowing s:awning AinoculationG< whitish shiita>e m;celia
begin to grow on the su::lemented substrate< until coloniOation is
com:leted' This is an actiMe assimilation :hase with a high @ungal
metabolic rate' EnO;mes are actiMated to brea> down com:leJ substrate
com:onents Ae'g' cellulose< hemicellulose and ligninG into sim:ler
molecules which can be absorbed b; the m;celium as nutrients @or growth
and :ro:agation under @aMorite growth conditions'
&n s:ecial cultiMation :ractices< coloniOed m;celial bloc>s are subVect to

higher tem:erature toward the end o@ s:awn run' &n Ja:an< coloniOed Figure 2. Spawn run
bloc>s are o@ten eJ:osed to tem:eratures o@ BcNB`& @or a wee> be@ore
@ruiting AWatanabe< BCC(G' &n China< coloniOed m;celial bloc>s are sometimes eJ:osed to tem:eratures at the u::er
limit o@ B`NaC& @or a :eriod o@ time AMiles and Chang< (XYXG' The rationale o@ these methodologies is based on the
conVuncture that while such higher subNo:timal tem:erature does not :romote m;celial growth< it ma; @acilitate the
degradation o@ sawdust' &t is not clear whether such claims haMe been su::orted b; inde:endent studies on
decom:osition o@ lignocellulose in sawdust' 5lso a::lied is the use o@ water s:ra;ing to coloniOed m;celial bloc>s
without bags to :romote m;celial maturation and browning AWatanabe< BCC(G' \rowers should be aware that these
e@@ects ma; Mar; de:ending on the strain'
&t hel:s to >ee: in mind that some @astNgrowing strains ma; :roduce uneJ:ected :reNmature @ruiting be@ore
m;celial maturation< which is not desirable' Care should be ta>en to moMe the bloc>s as little as :ossible during
s:awn run as moMing or an; :h;sical shoc> ma; trigger :reNmature @ruiting' Fast growth and shorter :roduction
times ma; not be the best choices' The resulting mushrooms ma; not haMe the meat; teJture desired in 5sian
mar>ets< but the; could be acce:table in newer mar>ets elsewhere' =suall;< slow growth at winterNli>e tem:erature
:roduces high Zualit; dongu< the winter shiita>e or huagu< the @lower shiita>e< the most eJ:ensiMe and soughtNa@ter
shiita>e< which are @ormed at cold and dr; tem:eratures with diurnal @luctuations'
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,-
Mycelial coat formation

_n the outer sur@ace o@ the coloniOed substrate bloc>< a la;er o@ thic> m;celial coat< initiall; white in color< is
deMelo:ed BN[ wee>s a@ter s:awning N the later stage o@ s:awn run' 5t high C_B concentrations< a Mer; thic>
m;celial coat could be @ormed'
Bump formation 6blister stage9 or popcorn stage:

Clum:s o@ m;celia a::ear as blister or :o:cornNli>e bum:s o@ Marious siOes are @ormed on the sur@ace o@ the
m;celial coat in most strains< usuall; when the coloniOation o@ white m;celia coMers the entire substrate in the bag<
or sometimes earlier' !rimordia are :roduced at the ti:s o@ some o@ these bum:s' EoweMer< most bum:s abort and
neMer deMelo: into @ruiting bodies' The time o@ bum: @ormation Maries with strain< substrate and tem:erature'
Lum:s usuall; @orm (C da;s @aster at Bc& than at (c& AMiles and Chang< (XYXG' Fluctuation o@ tem:erature and
high C_B concentrations encourage bum: @ormation' \rowers should lower the C_B concentration in the bag b;
cutting slits on the bagin< when bum:s become too numerous' &n an; case< some aeration should be :roMided
during this time'
Browning and bark=formation 6pigmentation and coat=hardening:

There are two di@@erent a::roaches< browning outside o@ the bag Mersus browning inside o@ the bag' Some growers
remoMe the entire bag when browning coMers (ga to (gB o@ the m;celial coat in the bag A_ei< (XXdG' Ro;se ABCC(G
ado:ts browning outside o@ the bag' Lags are remoMed be@ore :igmentation' Timing o@ bag remoMal is crucial' jield
can be a@@ected i@ bag remoMal is too earl; or too late' \rowers should maintain dCN`Cb R'E' to aMoid
contamination a@ter bag remoMal' 5ir enhances browning b; oJidation' When eJ:osed to air< m;celia turn reddish
brown at the sur@ace and eMentuall; @orm a dar> brown :rotectiMe< dr;< and hardened sur@ace which @unctions li>e a
tree bar>' The inner substrate becomes so@t and moist as a conseZuence o@ @ungal metabolism' The inner moisture
content can be as high as YCb A_ei< (XXdG< ideal @or @ruiting bod; @ormation< eJce:t @or strains that do not turn
brown'
Fruiting induction to trigger primordia formation

\rowers should remoMe the bag towards the end o@ the s:awn run be@ore or a@ter browning' The; should a::l;
@ruiting induction when the s:awn reaches :h;siological maturit; and a@ter browning and bar> @ormation' Water
soa>ing is commonl; used @or @ruiting induction a@ter browning and bar> @orming' &n general< the @ollowing @actors
:romote @ruiting'
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Figure 3. Plastic bag-removed substrate blocks
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,.
Table NB KruitiDg iD+uctioDO /actors promotiDg primor+ia iDitiatioD iD >entinula edodes
water soa>ing< most common ARo;se< BCC( i BN[ hours at (B&/ Stamets< BCCC i B[N[Y hoursG
water s:ra;ing AWatanabe< BCC(G
tem:erature @luctuation
high humidit;D @luctuation o@ humidit;
remoMal o@ C_B< or increase o@ oJ;gen su::l;
stab Awith a long metal needleG and inVect Awith waterG
turn the bloc>s u:sideNdown
:h;sical shoc>s Aagitation< disturbanceG Ahal@Nwa; during s:awn runi Watanabe< BCC(G
beating Ae'g' natural logsG
electric stimulation
ASourcei _ei< (XXdD Watanabe< BCC(G
Basidiocarp formation
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Figure 4. Basidiocarps on the synthetic logs
N :rimordia @ormation at the ti: o@ the bum: AblisterG

N :rimordia deMelo: into ;oung mushroom button Adar> brownG
N elongation o@ the sti:e Astal>G as the button increases in siOe
N mushroom increases in siOe and thic>ness while color becomes lighter
N eJ:anding Ao:eningG o@ the mushroom ca: @rom ;ounger stage when the margin o@ the ca: inNrolled downward
Harvest, post harvest and subsequent flushes

\rowers should lower the humidit; to dCb R'E' @or dN(B hours be@ore harMesting @or better shel@ li@e' EarMest
when the edge o@ the mushroom ca: is still inNrolled< or when the mushroom ca: is onl; :artl; eJtended AdCN`CbG'
This is the @orm desired b; the 5sian mar>ets' \rowers should handN:ic> the mushrooms b; holding the mushroom
stal>s and gentl; twisting them @rom the substrate bloc>' The; trim the end o@ the stal> o@ the harMest when
necessar;< and cut o@@ residual stubs o@ stal>s @rom the substrate' Remnants o@ residual stubs inMite microbial
contamination' 5@ter mushroom harMest< the humidit; is lowered to aCNcCb R'E' at B(&< @or `N(C da;s o@
dormanc; AStamets< BCCCG< then soa> the substrate bloc> @or u: to (B hours @or the second @lush< and u: to (Y hours
@or the third @lush ARo;se< BCC(G' ârger bags with more substrate used b; 5merican growers :roduce more @lushes<
u: to cNd @lushes' EarMested mushrooms are dried at dC&'
&n China and Ja:an< shiita>e Zualit; is determined b; sha:e Arounded with downward inNrolled edge be@ore the
ca: is @ull; eJtended and central stal>G< teJture Athic> and tight conteJt< the meat; :artG< siOe< color< @laMor
$
!,!$
!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,!
Aenhanced b; coo>ing es:eciall; the @resh shiita>eG and @ragrance Aenhanced b; dr;ingG< in addition to @reshness
and being @ree @rom contamination< :ests and im:urities'
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Figure 5. Fruitbodies
Growing shiitake in U.S.A.

&n contrast to growers in Southeast 5sia< such as China< larger heatNsealed bags
with micro@ilter breathing windows are generall; used b; growers in North
5merica @or shiita>e cultiMation' These bags< each @illed with BNa>g< or more
Ac'c>gG o@ substrate in wet weight< :roduce more @lushes o@ mushrooms in a shorter
:roduction time b; using through s:awning' These bags are in general less laborN
intensiMe< less timeNconsuming< and eJ:erience less contamination' &n methodolog;<
through s:awning< browning outside o@ the bag and inside o@ the bags< and water
soa>ing @or @ruiting induction are all commonl; :racticed here' Mushrooms are
:roduced under indoor controlled growth :arameters' The more so:histicated
growers use mechaniOation' There is a tendenc; @or North 5merican growers to use
@aster growing strains< es:eciall; the new growers< in order to gain con@idence' The
mar>ets o@ @resh s:ecialt; gourmet mushrooms in North 5merica are @airl; new
Figure 6. American
and include :erha:s some less so:histicated consumers'
style
Shiitake Natural Log Cultivation
êt us eJamine the traditional natural log cultiMation to see how

shiita>e has been grown @or nearl; a thousand ;ears' ôg cultiMation
toda; :re@ers indoor log cultiMation under sheltered or controlled
enMironments< instead o@ leaMing it entirel; to nature' _utdoor natural
log cultiMation is still in :ractice howeMer< and ma; be best suited as
the @irst ste: @or growers who haMe limited resources'
Figure 7. Shiitake on log
Selection of tree species for logs to match specific strains

NonNaromatic hardwood logs @or growing shiita>e are strainNs:eci@ic' Selecting the right tree s:ecies to match the
chosen shiita>e strain is indis:ensable' FaMorite tree s:ecies to use in shiita>e natural log cultiMation in the =nited
States are oa>s A3uercusG< Chin>a:in ACastano$sisG< hornbeam ACar$inusG and tan oa> ALithocar$usG' So@twoods
such as alder and birch< although the; haMe shorter shiita>e :roduction time aMailable can also be used' \rowers
should chec> to see what >ind o@ suitable trees are aMailable locall;'
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,"
Felling of trees and preparation of logs

Felling or cho::ing down the tree should be done during dormant season when log nutrient content is the highest
and the bar> tightl; attached to the wood' Trees with intact bar> are selected' ôgs `N(ccm AB'cN`kG in diameter are
cut into (m length' ôgs thic>er than Bccm A(CkG should be s:lit lengthwise' \rowers should drill inoculation holes
B'ccm a:art< lengthwise eMer; (ccm< and start the adVacent row midwa; at the to: A:lacing holes in diamond
sha:esG as m;celium s:reads @aster along the wood grain than across' îme water can be a::lied to the eJ:osed
sur@aces at the end o@ the log to :reMent uninMited weed molds'
$ $ $
Figure 8. Tree felling in dormant Figure 9. Drilling inoculation holes Figure 10. Spawning
season
Spawn and spawning (inoculation)

\rowers should select and :re:are Aor obtainG s:awn o@ the best matching strain with the right tem:erature range
and duration @or maturit; Asee strain selection in bag cultiMationG' &n China su::lemented sawdust bran s:awn is
used @or s:awn< while wood :lug s:awn is :re@erred in the =nited States' \rain s:awn is unsuitable because it
could be eaten b; rodents and in@ected b; @lies' \rowers should use @resh s:awn to inoculate the log (cNaC da;s
a@ter @elling< when log moisture is reduced' Since Lentinula edodes is a sa:ro:h;te< it can onl; grow on dead wood<
and not on newl; @elled trees still containing liMing cells' S:awnN@illed inoculation holes should be sealed with hot
waJ or a miJture o@ hot waJ and resin to :reMent contamination and eMa:oration' &n China< ca:s made o@ tree bar>s
or :lastic @oams haMe been used to seal the inoculation holes'
Temporary laying for spawn run

&n a la;ing ;ard indoor or outdoors< lined with :ebbles on the bottom< inoculated logs should be stac>ed neJt to
each other' The stac> should be loosel; coMered to encourage s:awn run' \rowers should >ee: in mind that BcN
BY& is the o:timum tem:erature @or s:awn run and aMoid eJcessiMe moisture or drought' This stage is when the
inoculation becomes established and begins to coloniOe and digest the wood; substrate< as Lentinula edodes is a
white rot @ungus' Most m;celial coloniOation occurs during this :eriod'
Figure 11. Temporary laying for spawn Figure 12. Permanent laying for spawn run
$
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!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,,
Permanent laying for spawn run

ôgs are stac>ed indoors Ain greenNhouses in the winterG in Marious arrangements< such as chrisNcross Merticall;
with one log s:ace a:art< to :roMide Mentilation @or continued s:awn run' &n China< during la;ing< logs are turned' &@
too dr;< the; should be s:ra;ed with water' &t ta>es dN(Y months @or logs to be @ull; coloniOed b; shiita>e m;celium'
The rate o@ the s:awn run de:ends on such @actors as shiita>e strain< tree s:ecies< log siOe< log moisture content and
tem:erature'
Raising for fruiting

When the logs are @ull; coloniOed< the; are agitated b; banging the logs
with a hammer or dro::ing on end be@ore the; are moMed to the raising ;ard
@or @ruiting' Raising ;ards with shade cloth coMer to aMoid direct sunlight
are usuall; cooler and :roMide more ambient moisture< which is conduciMe
to @ruiting' Small tree branches and straw can also be used @or coMer' For
winter< green houses can be used' &n such cases< soa>ing in water< a
common :ractice< is used @or @ruiting' Water tem:erature should be (aN(Y&'
&n the winter< logs are soa>ed @or (dN[Y hours< while in the summer< @or dNY Figure 13. Water-spraying on the
hours A_ei< (XXdG' 5 steel :i:e on to: o@ the logs :reMents @loating' Wuring logs for fruiting induction
soa>ing C_B in the log is re:laced b; the water< giMing the log enough
moisture @or the @lush o@ mushrooms' The re:laced C_B a::ears as bubbles' When the bubbles are no longer seen< it
is an indication that the logs haMe soa>ed long enough' &n China< logs are agitated within ad hours be@ore soa>ing<
while in =S Mibration is a::lied :rior to soa>ing' Soa>ing times should not be oMer [Y hours' &n the raising ;ard<
logs are stac>ed to allow air eJchange @or @ruiting and ease @or harMest'
Primordia and fruiting body formation

!rimordia brea> through @rom under the bar> usuall; within a wee> @ollowing
soa>ing' \rowers should maintain YCb R'E' @or @ruiting deMelo:ment ASee
control o@ enMironmental @actors and how the mushroom Abasidiocar:G growsG'
Subsequent flushes
Following harMest o@ mushrooms< logs should go through a dormant stage<
then an incubation :eriod o@ a months to build u: the nutrients and Figure 14. Young fruiting body
re:lenish with water in soa>ing @or the neJt @lush' This ma; be re:eated c
times under o:timal conditions' The second and third ;ears are the :rime :roduction :eriods when `cb o@ the total
;ields are :roduced'
Production of Huagu, the Flower Shiitake
Euagu< the @lower shiita>e< occurs s:ontaneousl; in nature during cold and
dr; winter months when mushroom s:ores are de:osited b; chance' Euagu is
not a characteristic o@ a :articular genot;:e< and it is not a geneticall;
inherent trait' _n the contrar;< huagu< the shiita>e mushroom with a uniZue
mor:hological @lowerNli>e crac>ing :attern on the u::er sur@ace o@ the ca:< is
:roduced through mani:ulation o@ growth :arameters' Success in cultiMation
Figure 15. Huagu
$
!,#$
!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,#
o@ huagu can bring growers considerable eJtra income when the; are growing @or domestic and @oreign
consum:tion' Model huagu :roduction s;stems can be @ound'
The principle of huagu formation

Wuring the @ormation o@ shiita>e basidiocar:s A@ruiting bodiesG< under winter winterNli>e conditions< or when the
;oung mushroom buttons Anot :rimordiaG reach BNacm in diameter< dr; air and cold tem:erature @orce the :ilial
Aca:G sur@ace into dormanc;' =nder such adMerse enMironmental conditions< with drastic diurnal @luctuation o@
tem:erature and humidit;< a :rotectiMe dr; sur@ace is @ormed on the ;oung mushroom ca:' EoweMer< the inner
conteJt continues to grow at a slow :ace with water aMailable solel; @rom the substrate' When @aMorable growth
conditions return< the sur@ace grows at a retarded rate< while the inner conteJt deMelo:s at a normal :ace' =nder
these conditions< shiita>e mushroom buttons grow with the alternation o@ dormanc; and growth< and a considerable
di@@erential growth rate between the sur@ace and the inner conteJt' &n time< the ra:id growth o@ the inner conteJt
ru:tures the mushroom sur@ace< :roducing a @lowerNli>e crac>ing :attern on the ca: sur@ace< thus the name< huagu'
Selection of strains
ôw tem:erature< high Zualit; and ecologicall; ada:table strains with cold tolerance are selected @or huagu
:roduction' Strains towards the lower tem:erature margin in midNtem:erature range can also be used' EJam:les o@
desirable Chinese huagu strains arei ^NB[(N(< JeanNjin l(< jeeNjou lc< `[CB< NNCd' Strain characteristics should
be thoroughl; studied be@ore cultiMation' For @ruiting outdoors< the time o@ s:awning should be coordinated with
the maturation characteristics in order to bene@it @rom the winter stimulation' For eJam:le< strains `[CB< NNCd< late
maturing strains< should be inoculated earl; during March and 5:ril< while XC(Y< ê BC[< earl; to midNmaturing
strains< should be inoculated in Ma;NJune in LiNjang< China Aju< (XXYG' \rowers should adVust @or their local
weather'
Timely application of forcing of huagu

Euagu @orcing is initiated when the mushroom buttons reach BNacm diameter' &@ huagu @orcing is a::lied too earl;
when the buttons are smaller than ('ccm diameter< these @ragile ;oung buttons ma; die o@ drought or @reeOing' &@
the techniZue is a::lied too late when the mushroom has alread; reached a'ccm diameter or larger< the mushrooms
do not res:ond readil;'
$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $
Figure 16. Huagu, flower shiitake Figure 17. Growing houses in Biyang, China
Conclusion
Shiita>e cultiMation on s;ntheticNlog or natural log is a worldNwide industr;' Recent trends suggest that @uture
shiita>e :roduction will be li>el; on s;nthetic logs that will shorten :roduction time and :roMide ;earNround @resh
$
!,%$
!art &&&' !ushrooms )orl+,i+e Cha$ter ((' !ushroom /or the Tropics !,%
shiita>e @or most mar>ets'

&n growing shiita>e< the correct strains must be used @or a giMen methodolog;' Close attention should be giMen to
the intricate stages in the MegetatiMe :hase< the s:awn run< and the transition to the re:roductiMe :hase' The
im:ortance o@ tree bar> on natural logs and the arti@icial bar> Athe browned and hardened coatG on s;nthetic logs
cannot be oMerem:hasiOed' 5s shiita>e logs age b; going through the :roduction o@ @lushes< bar>s on logs become
loose< detached or slough o@@' !roduction o@ shiita>e mushrooms sto:s in areas where the bar> is detached @rom the
wood' &n cultiMation< growers should be >eenl; aware that L1 edodes is :rimaril; a tem:erate s:ecies' mualit;
shiita>e mushrooms are :roduced at low tem:erature and @luctuations in tem:erature and in humidit; between `C
and XCb R'E' AStamets< BCCCG' Constant tem:erature is not conduciMe to @ruiting'
With these detailed descri:tions on crucial stages in growing shiita>e and MiMid :hotos< it is ho:ed that growers
in countries with urgent economic needs will be ins:ired to use agricultural waste to cultiMate this worthwhile
mushroom which can be a delicious and nutritious su::lement to dail; @ood as well as :roMiding medicinal bene@its
and :ossible income' \rowing shiita>e< i@ success@ul< ma; also lead to Vob creation' Ja:an alone em:lo;s more than
BC<CCC :eo:le in the shiita>e industr;'
9=H=CT=P 5=K=5=8C=9
N Chen< 5lice W'< Noel 5rrold< and !aul Stamets' BCCC' Shita6e Culti7ation Systems1
N \riensMen Aed'G' Science and Culti7ation of Edible Fungi1 Rotterdam< The Netherlandsi Lal>ema'Pol' &&'
N Chen< 5lice W' BCC(' CultiMation o@ Lentinula edodes on s;nthetic logs' Mushroom GrowersB Newsletter (CA[Gi
aNX'
N Eumble< T' BCC(' Shiita>e in Euroland< Mushroom News< Feb' BCC(< ::' ([N(X'
N Euang< N'^' (XX`' Shiita>e &ni Esu \' T' Aed'G' Chinese Medicinal Mycology' LeiVing Medical College gChinese
=nited Medical College'
N RoOa>< M'E'< and J' RrawcO;>' (XXa' \rowing shiita>e mushrooms in a continental climate' Field and Forest
2roducts' !eshtigo< W&'
N Miles< !'\'< and S'T' Chang' (XYX' Edible Mushrooms and Their Culti7ation' Loca Raton< Fli CRC !ress' ::'
(YXNBBa'
N _ei< !' (XXd' Mushroom Culti7ation with Em$hasis on TechniEues for Fe7elo$ing Countries' êiden< the
Netherlandsi Tool !ublications< ::' (BdN(a`< XaNBC['
N !rO;b;lowicO< !'< and J' Wonoghue' (XXC' Shiita6e GrowersB Handboo6' WubuZue< &5i Rendall gEunt !ublishing
Co'
N Romanens< !' BCC(' Shiita>e< the Euro:ean realit; and cultiMation on woodNchi:s logs in SwitOerland' (cth North
5merican Mushroom Con@erence< âs Pagas< ='S'5'
N Ro;se< W' BCC(' Culti7ation of Shiita6e on Natural and Synthetic Logs' =niMersit; !ar>< !enn State< !5i College
o@ 5gricultural Sciences< Coo:eratiMe EJtension' (B::'
N Stamets< !' BCCC' Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms' Ler>ele;< C5 i Ten S:eed !ress'
N j=< C'L' (XXY' Hi Yang Hua Gu Model System' Li jang M;cological &nstitute'
N Watanabe< RaOuo' BCC(' Current cultiMation techniZues o@ shiita>e on sawdust media in Ja:an' Nara Forest
Research &nstitute< Nara< Ja:an' (cth North 5merican Mushroom Con@erence< âs Pegas< ='S'5'< Feb' BCC('
N Wu< J'^' Aed'G' BCCC' Shiita6e 2roduction in China' LeiVing< Chinai Chinese 5gricultural !ress'
$
$
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "#$
Mushroom VrowersS HandMook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
!art III' Mushrooms Wor0dwide
Chapter ((
!"#hr&&'#(/&r(the(1r&p-3#(
"R$WI'" PADD+ STRAW M/S0R$$MS
4e5at&(78(4e9e#:;(<=ar-#t&(>8(>?e**a:;(@"'-&(<A"3h-B;(1&'&aC-(D-E-'aB;(!-9at&(F-AaC-B(
a5+(1r-3-ta(F8(G"-'-&H(
(
5entra0 7u8on State :ni;ersity, the !hi0i>>ines
?
@okyo :ni;ersity oB Cgricu0ture, Fa>an
G
:ni;ersity oB the !hi0i>>ines 7os BanIs, the !hi0i>>ines
0istorical $verview
!addy straw mushroom JVolvariella volvaceaK is the

most >o>u0ar mushroom in the rura0 areas oB the
!hi0i>>ines and was common0y known to Li0i>inos e;en
MeBore the generation oB a techno0ogy Bor its artiBicia0
cu0ti;ation was 0aunched in the country' @his mushroom
is ca00ed kaMuteng dayami or kaMuteng saging My
Li0i>inos since it natura00y grows on >addy straw and
Figure 1. Paddy straw mushrooms at different decom>osing >i0es oB Manana 0ea;es and >seudostems'
development stages
5ommercia0 mushroom growers, who were at the same time rice Barmers used >addy straw and Manana 0ea;es'
Howe;er, due to the intensiBication oB rice >roduction Ji'e' Brom one cro>>ing season to twoK as a resu0t oB eBBicient
irrigation >ractices and the a;ai0aMi0ity oB highOyie0ding Mut short duration rice ;arieties, most mushroom growers
Mecame Bu00 time rice growers'
:n0ike the commercia0 >roduction oB >addy straw mushroom in neighMoring countries such as 5hina, Pietnam,
Indonesia, and @hai0and, >roduction in the !hi0i>>ines is sti00 a Mackyard undertaking' Cttem>ts to u>grade its
>roduction were made in the ear0y >art oB the (QQRSs with Binancia0 assistance Brom internationa0 donors J@harun,
(QQGT Lerchak and 5roucher, (QQGK' Sti00, >addy straw mushroom >roduction has Meen out >aced My the new0y
introduced !0eurotus mushrooms, des>ite the aMundance oB suMstrates, a;ai0aMi0ity oB techno0ogy and high market
demand' C rough estimate oB >addy straw mushroom growers in the !hi0i>>ines indicates the eUistence oB
a>>roUimate0y Bi;e hundred growers in the entire country'
C numMer oB agencies scattered throughout the archi>e0ago are acti;e0y in;o0;ed in the >romotion oB >addy straw
mushroom cu0ti;ation' @he >artici>ation oB these agencies in the dissemination oB inBormation ;aries Brom research,
training, and eUtension ser;ices to s>awn >roduction' State co00eges and uni;ersities are >rimari0y in;o0;ed in
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "#%
research, training, and the >ro;ision oB starter cu0tures, whi0e go;ernment and nonOgo;ernment agencies are acti;e
in the s>reading oB cu0tura0 techno0ogy, most >articu0ar0y in the rura0 areas'
!roduction oB >addy straw mushroom in the !hi0i>>ines is sti00 a hit and miss >ractice since growers 0ack
necessary Baci0ities Bor the maintenance oB contro00ed >hysica0 conditions Jtem>erature, 0ight, re0ati;e humidityK'
@hough indoor techno0ogy had a0ready Meen introduced, most growers sti00 ado>t the traditiona0 method due to its
sim>0icity and 0ow in>ut' Maintenance oB en;ironmenta00y contro00ed conditions is one oB the necessary Bactors to
attain staM0e and re0ati;e0y higher >roduction, and wou0d u0timate0y ensure the regu0ar a;ai0aMi0ity oB >addy straw
mushroom in the market'
Most oB the >addy straw mushroom >roducers who are sma00 sca0e growers are not suBBicient0y trained in
Musiness management' @hese traditiona0 growers >osses the technica0 ski00s Bor Mackyard >addy straw mushroom
>roduction which they acWuired and de;e0o>ed Brom the seminars and trainings s>onsored My the diBBerent agencies
in;o0;ed in the dissemination oB the techno0ogy' XU>ansion oB their sma00Osca0e >addy straw Musiness undertakings
is deterred My 0ack oB Bunds and insuBBicient Musiness ski00s' Moreo;er, un0ike their counter>arts in de;e0o>ed
countries such as Fa>an, Li0i>ino sma00Osca0e mushroom growers do not ha;e a strong coo>erati;e s>irit that cou0d
assist their marketing and technica0 needs' XBBorts are Meing made My some rura0 growers and ;arious academic
grou>s to create a ;iMrant rura0OMased mushroom industry' Yura0OMased mushroom growers ha;e Meen assemM0ed
into grou>s in order to estaM0ish marketing 0inkages'
In order to increase the sca0e oB >roduction, the BaMrication oB eWui>ment My 0oca0 contractors is Meing
encouraged' @he 0oca0 go;ernment units and indi;idua0 entre>reneurs ha;e now started to estaM0ish their own rura0O
Mased and >ractica0 0aMoratories uti0i8ing this BaMricated eWui>ment'
Paddy Straw Mushroom Production Technology
@he two >roduction techno0ogies Bor Bruiting Mody >roduction that are Meing ado>ted My the growers inc0ude
outdoor and indoor techniWues'
$utdoor cultivation of paddy straw mushrooms

@he traditiona0 outdoor method uses the MedOty>e a>>roach and uti0i8es a numMer oB agricu0tura0 wastes 0ike dried
>addy straw, rice stuMM0es, water 0i0y, Manana 0ea;es, and sta0ks JYeyes and CMe00a, (QQGK' @he use oB these wastes
as mushroom suMstrates de>ends on their 0oca0 a;ai0aMi0ity' @he Bo00owing is a descri>tion oB the ste> My ste>
>rocedure Bor the >re>aration oB mushroom cu0ti;ation Meds'
!!!!!!!!! !
Ligure ?, G' BedOty>e >roduction oB >addy straw mushroom under the mango trees
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "#&
#$%& '&(&)%$*+ ,+- ./&.,/,%$*+
Vrowers shou0d choose an area that is Bree Brom >otentia0 insect >ests such as ants, termites and rodents' @he
se0ected site shou0d >reBeraM0y Me under trees with a wide cano>y' In order to ensure that the se0ected site is >est
Bree, growers can s>read rice hu00s onto the area and Murn them unti0 they turn into ashes' @his >hysica0 method oB
e0iminating >ests a0so reduces the occurrence oB soi0OMorne >athogens'
0*((&)%$*+ ,+- ./&.,/,%$*+ *1 2&--$+3 4,%&/$,('

@he Medding materia0s co00ected Brom the Bie0d shou0d Me sun dried' Vrowers shou0d trim and Mund0e the suMstrates
into Mund0es twe0;e inches 0ong with a diameter oB two inches' @he Mund0ed suMstrates shou0d Me soaked Bor twe0;e
hours and washed with c0ean water'
5,6&/$+3 *1 27+-(&- '72'%/,%&' $+%* 2&- ,+- '.,8+$+3

@he Mund0ed suMstrate shou0d Me drained oB eUcess water to attain a Z[\
moisture content' Vrowers shou0d >i0e the Mund0ed suMstrates one aBter
the other into the Med Borms' On to> oB e;ery 0ayer, s>awn shou0d Me
s>rink0ed thin0y o;er the Mund0ed suMstrates' Cn idea0 Med si8e consists
oB siU 0ayers and has a 0ength oB three meters'
9+)72,%$*+ ,+- 1/7$%$+3

Figure 4. Spawning
C >0astic sheet shou0d Me used to co;er the entire mushroom Med' @his
sheet maintains the a>>ro>riate tem>erature Bor the myce0ia0 ramiBication JGROG['K and Bruiting Mody Bormation
J?ÔGR'K' It usua00y takes (RO(_ days MeBore the Birst B0ush oB marketaM0e Bruiting Modies JMutton stageK come out
Brom the edge oB the mushroom Med'
!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 5. Covering the mushroom bed of dried Figure 6. Paddy straw mushrooms in the
rice
banana leaves straw bed
:,/;&'%$+3
With Mare hands, growers shou0d har;est the Mutton stages oB V. volvacea My sim>0y >u00ing the c0uster out Brom the
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "()
Med'
D5+&&r(3"*t-=at-&5(&/(pa++9(#tra,('"#hr&&'#(
C more im>ro;ed techno0ogy that is now gaining interest among >otentia0 growers is the indoor >roduction
techno0ogy' @his method, which uti0i8es >addy straw as the main suMstrate, has three sa0ient Beatures` com>osting,
>asteuri8ation, and cu0ti;ation inside a mushroom house'
5om>osting is an im>ortant >rocess that a00ows the microMia0 decom>osers to 0oosen the tensi0e strength oB
>addy straw' @his >rocess a0so >re>ares the >addy straw to Me easi0y co0oni8ed My myce0ia oB V. volvacea Jauimio,
(QQ(K' !asteuri8ation is a critica0 >rocess that e0iminates the undesiraM0e microorganisms that may com>ete with V.
volvacea during the >roduction >ro>er' @his >rocess a0so renders the com>osted >addy straw more easi0y aM0e to Me
successBu00y >ermeated My the mushroom myce0ia' @he cu0ti;ation oB mushrooms inside a growing house a00ows Bor
the contro0 oB the B0uctuations oB tem>erature and re0ati;e humidity which may Me ha8ardous to the myce0ia0 growth
and Bruiting Mody >roduction' In the !hi0i>>ines, two methods oB indoor cu0ti;ation ha;e Meen de;e0o>ed and
introduced' @he key Beatures oB Moth are simi0ar, Mut the manner My which s>awn is inocu0ated into the suMstrates
diBBers' @he indoor cu0ti;ation oB auimio J(QQGK is a standard method that is a0so used aMroad, and Beatures the
actua0 s>awning on the mushroom Meds' @he other method >romotes the use oB wooden she0;es or crates which
Baci0itate the easy hand0ing oB suMstrates JYeyes and CMe00a, (QQGK' @he Bo00owing section descriMes the ste> My ste>
>rocedures Bor the indoor cu0ti;ation oB P' ;o0;acea`
#*,<$+3
Yice straw oB any ty>e can Me used as suMstrate Bor the indoor cu0ti;ation oB V. volvacea' Yice stuMM0es cou0d a0so Me
used' @he rice straw shou0d Me soaked Bor (? hours in c0ean water' @his >rocedure 0oosens the suMstrates as a
>re0ude to com>osting'
0*4.*'%$+3
@he >re;ious0y soaked suMstrates shou0d Me >i0ed u> and s>rink0ed with (\
mo0asses and R'[\ com>0ete Berti0i8er' Vrowers shou0d co;er the >i0e oB
suMstrates with >0astic sheets and com>ost the >i0e Bor (_ days' On the
se;enth day, the >artia00y com>osted suMstrates shou0d Me turned with a
s>ading Bork in order to ensure e;en com>osting' Ct this stage, the >o>u0ation
oB thermo>hi0ic decom>osers starts to >i0e u>' Vrowers shou0d now add (\
agricu0tura0 0ime, re>0ace the >0astic sheets and continue the com>osting
>rocess unti0 com>0eting the reWuired Bourteen day com>osting >eriod'
Figure 7. Composting of rice straw
0/,%$+3 ,+- '%&,4$+3
Vrowers shou0d dis>ense the com>osted suMstrates on (? U ?_ U (^ inches
wooden crates that are o>en on a00 sides' Moisture content oB the suMstrate
shou0d Me Z[\ Jno dri>>ings oB water when sWuee8ed Metween BingersK'
Vrowers shou0d make sure that the suMstrates are com>act0y >0aced inside the
wooden crates, and shou0d de0i;er the crated suMstrates into the steaming
room My >i0ing them one on to> oB the other' Vrowers shou0d then start
introducing the steam into the mushroom house' Steaming usua00y 0asts Brom
Bour to siU hours, and the tem>erature shou0d maintained at ZRO^R''
! Figure 8. Steaming of rice straw

! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "(*
#.,8+$+3
@he neUt morning aBter steaming the suMstrates, growers shou0d check the tem>erature oB the steamed suMstrates'
@he tem>erature shou0d Me GR' in order not to harm the myce0ia oB V. volvacea'
9+)72,%$*+ ,+- 1/7$%$+3

In order to encourage myce0ia0 >ro0iBeration oB V. volvacea, the mushroom house shou0d Me sea0ed' buring this
stage, it is ;ery im>ortant to maintain the desiraM0e tem>erature Bor myce0ia0 ramiBication JGROG['K with no
;enti0ation and 0ight' @he s>read oB myce0ia takes Brom se;en to ten days aBter s>awning' CBter this >eriod, growers
shou0d check the status oB the suMstrates' Lruiting initia0s shou0d start to a>>ear' Ct this >oint, the tem>erature
shou0d Me 0owered Brom G[ to ?^'' @his can Me done My s>rink0ing c0ean water on the B0oor oB the mushroom
growing house' @hree to Bi;e days aBter the a>>earance oB these Bruiting initia0s, the Birst har;est oB the Mutton stages
oB V. volvacea can Me >erBormed'
Figure 9. Mushroom growing house Figure 10. Fruiting bodies
Production of Spawn
C numMer oB 0oca00y a;ai0aM0e suMstrates are Meing used as s>awning materia0 Bor >addy straw mushroom' In
corthern 7u8on Bor instance, toMacco midriM, a waste >roduct oB the cigar industry, is Meing used My the s>awn
>roducer oB !angasinan in corthern 7u8on' @oMacco midriM that has Meen soaked in water Bor three days and 0ater
washed and air dried is miUed with sawdust' @he miUed Bormu0ation is then >0aced in em>ty mayonnaise Mott0es
and steri0i8ed My autoc0a;ing' In 5entra0 7u8on, the 5enter Bor @ro>ica0 Mushroom Yesearch and be;e0o>ment at
the 5entra0 7u8on State :ni;ersity de;e0o>ed and introduced the use oB rice hu00, a waste materia0 Brom rice mi00ing'
Yice hu00 is moistened and miUed with (R\ oB either corn mea0 or rice Mran and dis>ensed in heat resistant
>o0y>ro>y0ene Mags and microwa;eaM0e >0astic trays' In other areas oB the country where 0ea;es oB 0eguminous trees
0ike Gliricidia and Leucaena are aMundant, dried 0ea;es oB these trees are soaked Bor three days and 0ater air dried'
@he 0ea;es are then miUed with sawdust and rice Mran at a rate oB se;en >arts 0ea;es, three >arts sawdust and one
>art rice Mran' 5oBBee hu00s are a0so Meing used in areas where coBBee is grown' Moisture content oB a00 the
>re>arations is Z[\'
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "("
!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 11. Tobacco midribs in glass bottles Figure 12. Tobacco midribs in polypropylene bags
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Figure 13. Autoclave for large scale Figure 14. Simple autoclave and Mr. Eduardo
preparation of culture media Matic, a mushroom grower cum innovator
and the author
Feasibility of Paddy Straw Mushroom Production
Gconomic potential
@he su>>0y oB Bresh >addy straw mushroom in the domestic market is sti00 0acking since this commodity is genera00y
>reBerred My the Li0i>ino consuming >uM0ic' Its a;ai0aMi0ity in the market is sti00 erratic which makes it a 0uUury Bood'
C ki0ogram oB Bresh mushroom Bruits se00s at ([RO(^R >esos Ji'e' :SbGOG'[K'
Technical and environmental feasibility
@he !hi0i>>ines are a tro>ica0 country and ha;e a maUimum tem>erature ranging Brom GR to G[' and a rainBa00
ranging Brom [[ to ??[mm J!hi0i>>ine Statistica0 dearMook, (QQZK' @he >re;ai0ing tem>eratures and rainBa00 in its
three major is0ands oB 7u8on, Pisayas and Mindanao are re0ati;e0y the same, and this makes the management oB
en;ironmenta0 conditions Ba;oraM0e Bor >addy straw mushroom country wide' Mushroom suMstrates such as >addy
straw, water 0i0ies and Manana 0ea;es are aMundant throughout the year'
'utriceutical benefits
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "(+
@hough >addy straw mushroom is known >rimari0y Bor taM0e consum>tion due to its nutritiona0 content, its use as a
Bunctiona0 Bood has started to Me recogni8ed' C numMer oB studies on its immunoMio0ogica0 acti;ities ha;e Meen
re>orted JKishida et al', (QQ?T Kishida et al', (Q^QT Misaki et al', (Q^Z and Sone et al', (QQ_K' @hus, its additiona0
use as a nutriceutica0 cou0d Me an additiona0 Bactor in marketing this ty>e oB mushroom'
Hero farm wastes technology

!addy straw mushroom cu0ti;ation uti0i8es 0arge ;o0umes oB >addy straw as suMstrates Bor Bruiting Mody >roduction'
Hence, tons oB mushroom s>ent are a0so generated which resu0ts in the accumu0ation oB wastes in the Borm oB
mushroom s>ent' IB im>ro>er0y dis>osed, these wastes might >ose en;ironmenta0 ha8ards' @raditiona00y, the
mushroom s>ent oB >addy straw mushroom is Murned in order to get rid oB contaminants' @he s>ent Brom >addy
straw mushroom >roduction can Burther Me eBBicient0y uti0i8ed to harness its Bu00 >otentia0 Bor Bood >roduction' It has
shown >romising resu0ts as >otentia0 suMstrates Bor Pleurotus7 Auricularia, Ganoderma and Coll:bia, Bish>ond
Berti0i8er Bor ti0a>ia JOreochromis niloticusK and Beed Bor Mroi0er chickens JYeyes and CMe00a, (QQgT CMe00a et al',
(QQZT bi;ina et al', (QQZa and MT Yeyes and CMe00a, (QQGK'
Figure 15. Efficient utilization of agricultural wastes for mushroom, crop and animal production
I<J<C1<L(4<@<4<MC<I(
(
!
! !art III' !"#hr&&'#()&r*+,-+e Chapter ((' !"#hr&&'(/&r(the(1r&p-3#( "(#
O C0icMusan, Y'P', and P'M' X0a' (QZg' Mushroom cu0ture' Technical Bulletin No. @' :ni;ersity oB the !hi0i>>ines'
5o00ege oB Cgricu0ture'
O 5hang, S'@' (QQZ' Mushroom research and de;e0o>mentOeWua0ity and mutua0 MeneBit' In` Yoyse, b'F' Jed'K'
Mushroom Biolog: and Mushroom Products- Proceedings of the End International Conference' !ennsy0;ania
State :ni;ersity, :'S'C'
O 50ara, L'M' (QGg' 5u0ture oB ediM0e mushrooms in the !hi0i>>ines' Philippine Gournal of Agriculture ^J?K` ??[O
?G?'
O Lerchak, F'b', and F' 5roucher' (QQG' !ros>ects and >roM0ems in commercia0i8ation oB sma00 sca0e mushroom
>roduction in South and Southeast Csia' In` 5hang, S'@', F' C' Buswe00, and S' 5hiu' JedsK' Mushroom Biolog:
and Mushroom Products' Hong Kong` 5hinese :ni;ersity !ress' >>' G?(OG?G'
O Philippine Statistical Yearbook' (QQZ, Makati, !hi0i>>ines'
O auimio, @'H' (QQ^' 7etSs grow mushrooms' UPLB Museum of Natural Histor:' GR>>'
O auimio, @'H' (QQG' Indoor cu0ti;ation oB the straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea' Mushroom Research' ? J?K`
^gOQR'
O auimio, @'H' (Qg^' Indoor cu0ti;ation oB Pleurotus ostreatus' Philippine Agriculturist Z(` ?[GO?Z?'
O auimio, @'H' (QgZ' CrtiBicia0 cu0ti;ation oB Taingang daga JAuricularia s>>'K Farm Bulletin OP' :ni;ersity oB the
!hi0i>>ines at 7os BanIs' ^>>'
O Yeyes,Y'V', X'C' CMe00a, @'H' auimio, M'F'@ @ayamen, and B'7' Varcia' ?RRG' !hi0i>>ine wi0d macroBungi with
commercia0 >otentia0` continuing search and cha00enge' Transactions of the National Academ: of Science and
Technolog:-Philippines' ?[ J(K` gÔgQ'
O Yeyes, Y'V', and X'C' CMe00a' (QQg' Myce0ia0 and Masidiocar> >erBormance oB Pleurotus saQor-caQu on the
mushroom s>ent oB Volvariella volvacea' Proceedings of Internatrional Seminar on the Development of
Agribusiness and its Impact on Agricultural Production in Southeast Asia' @okyo cObCI !ress' >>' _Q(O_Qg'
O Yeyno0ds, b'Y' (QZZ' @aUonomic consideration oB a mushroom under cu0ti;ation in :!5C, !hi0i>>ines'
Philippine Agriculturist _Q` [ÔgZG'
O Yoyse, b'F' (QQ[' S>ecia0ty mushrooms` cu0ti;ation on synthetic suMstrates in the :'S'C' and Fa>an'
Interdisciplinar: Science Reviews ?RJGK` ?R[O?(_'
O @harun, V' (QQG' !romotion oB mushroom >roduction and Miocon;esion oB wastes Bor income generation in rura0
areas' 5bVOSXC!OSs Biotechno0ogy @raining !roject' In 5hang, S'@', Buswe00, F'C', and 5hiu, S' JedsK'
Mushroom Biolog: and Mushroom Products' Hongkong` 5hinese :ni;ersity !ress' >>' GRgOG(^'
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "##
Mushroom Growers’ NandbooL 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part III. Mushrooms /orldwide
Part $. Mushrooms /orldwide

(
(
!"a$%er(11
Mushrooms for the Tropics
GROWING P"#$R&T$S T$*#RR#+,$-
Omoanghe 8Omon9: S9 Isi=huemhen> ? David S9 LeCauerD

1
North Carolina 89: State <niversity, <S8.
@
<niversity oA CaliAornia, <S8
Introduction
History and distribution

:he Bing :uber Eyster Mushroom, )leuro%u-( %u.erre/ium FFr.H Singer is a tuberous
basidiomycete. Consumption is widespread in Nigeria and across many tribes in subK
Saharan 8Arica. <nliLe most other wild and cultivated mushrooms, it has a sclerotia
stage in its liAecycle that is resistant to eMtreme environmental conditions Aound in some
parts oA its distribution areas, Aor eMample, the hot dry season in /est 8Arica. Figure 1
shows @Lg sclerotium collected in the wild.
Sclerotia can be stored Aor many years beAore used as Figure 1. Anwar lbrahim
holding a 2kg sclerotium
Aood, medicine or inoculum and induced to produce
sporophores FAruitbodiesH. Fruitbodies FFig. @H harvested at a young stage are delicious
edibles that may be eaten Aresh or dried Aor Auture use. :he local people who use this
Aungus Aor Aood and medicine usually collect the sclerotia Arom the wild, but it is
getting diAAicult to Aind sclerotia due to the depletion oA its Aorest habitat. Nowever,
easy growing method oA this Aungus is established to produce sclerotia using many
lignocelullosic agricultural wastes as cultivation substrates.
)2(%u.erre/ium(is indigenous to tropical 8Arica and the 8ustralasianKPaciAic regions

Figure 2. Ebikare oA the world FPegler, 1OPQR IsiLhuemhen e%( al., @SSSaH including subKSahara 8Arica,
Isikhuemhen holding
Madagascar, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Northern 8ustralia, New Caledonia,
large mushrooms
induced from sclerotium Indonesia, Myanmar and the Uunnan province oA China.
Vemand Aor sclerotia all over the world remains high while harvest Arom the wild is
reduced. :he natural habitat oA this mushroom is declining with deAorestation and the conversion oA Aorests into
agricultural AieldsR meanwhile wild sclerotia have become scarce and very eMpensive, especially during the dry
season FEctober to 8prilH when it is not easy to collect them in the wild. 8Aricans who have leAt their home and
reside in Aoreign lands usually, taLe their eating habits with them, which is why today powdered sclerotia can be
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "#%
Aound in 8Arican Aood stores across the <S, Canada and many Xuropean. Powdered sclerotia sold at such stores are
always imported Arom 8Arica. 8s the wild source is lost, the demand Aor cultivation oA this mushroom is liLely to
continue its increase. /ide adoption oA cultivation by indigenous people will permit continued use oA )2(
%u.erre/ium in the diet and provide income. Yarious Linds oA available agricultural wastes can serve as an ideal
substrate Aor its growthR the cost oA production can be Zuite low and adaptable to low technology methods.
Mushroom collection and usage by the local people

Indigenous peoples oA Nigeria incorporate collected mushrooms, including )2( %u.erre/ium, into their diet and
medicine FEso, 1O[[, Egundana, and Fagade 1OP@R 8Lpa\a e%(al., @SSQH. Similarly, people in Ghana FEbodai e%(al.,
@SS]H, Cameroon FBuyper e%( al., @SS@H and Republic oA Benin FYictor XLun, personal communicationsH collect
wild mushrooms and use as Aood and medicine. Sclerotia and Aruitbodies oA )2(%u.erre/ium are also collected Arom
the wild and then either consumed or preserved Aor later use. /omen and children collect and sell sclerotia at
roadside stands Aor seasonal income and some Ainancial autonomy. :he Igbo people are the ma\or consumers oA )2(
%u.erre/ium throughout Nigeria, using the Aungus in place oA meat as well as Aor its medicinal properties F8Lpa\a e%(
al., @SSQH.
Life Cycle
:he liAeKcycle described here is based on previously reported observations FIsiLhuemhen e%(al., @SSSa, Eso 1O[[,
Pegler 1OPQH in nature and eMperiments conducted on the cultivation oA )2(%u.erre/ium FIsiLhuemhen e%(al., @SSSbH.
In nature, dead wood is colonièd either by mycelia in the soil or airborne spores discharged Arom individual
Aruitbodies. )2( %u.erre/ium is a white rot Aungus, which derives nutrients Arom the degradation oA lignocelullosic
material Fusually hardwoodH. Vuring the rainy season it is possible to see a decaying log Ailled with Aruiting
mushrooms during early years oA its coloniàtion. Ence the substrate is Aully colonièd and has reached an
advanced stage oA decay, sclerotia will Aorm at the end oA the rainy season. :he sclerotia survives the dry and hot
season until the rain returns, at which point the sclerotia will either continue to enlarge or Aorm sporophores
FmushroomsH.
Sclerotia are a compact mass oA mycelia tissue that serves to store Aood during unAavorable conditions and able to
Aruit when Aavorable conditions return. Sclerotia are darL brown on the surAace, white inside, spherical to ovoid in
shape and as large as QScm in diameter. Sclerotia weighing up to 6Lg are commonly harvested and sold between
June and September in Nigeria FEso, 1O[[H. :hese are harvested Arom the wild Arom decaying logs and ad\acent
soil. :hese are either used as sclerotia or buried and watered regularly to induce Aruit bodies FELhuoya and Xtugo
1OOQR Eso, 1OO[H.
:he sclerotia stage is not common among whiteKrot Aungi. 8mong cultivated mushrooms, only Morc"ella spp. is
Lnown to Aorm sclerotia as part oA their liAecycle. Nowever, only the sclerotia oA )2(%u.erre/ium are valued as Aood
and medicine independent oA its ability to produce mushrooms. Not all strains oA )2( %u.erre/ium Aorm sclerotiaR
some strains Arom 8ustralia and Indonesia have been observed to Aruit directly without ever Aorming sclerotia
FIsiLhuemhen, @SSSaH. :he sclerotia stage provides a uniZue advantage to the cultivation oA this species because it
eliminates the need Aor costly Aruiting conditions and because sclerotia may be stored Aor many years without loss
oA viability.
<nder cultivation, it is common to Aind 1 and up to Q sclerotia per 1Lg Fdry weightH bag oA sawdust substrate.
8borted sclerotia primordial less than 1Scm diameter may be more numerous on wheat straw substrate, which is
incapable oA generating new mycelium thereAore unsuitable Aor use in propagation techniZues described below
FIsiLhuemhen e%( al., @SSSbH. /ild strains Arom Nigeria have eMhibited slower coloniàtion and greater yield on
wheat straw when compared to strains Arom 8ustralasianKPaciAic regionsR some hybrid strains were highest yielding
FIsiLhuemhen e%( al., @SSSbH. Recently, we have obtained biological eAAiciency oA [Q.cd using improved strain
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! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "#&
grown on supplemented sawdust in laboratory eMperiments FIsiLhuemhen and Yaughans, unpublishedH.

Generally, )2(%u.erre/ium as a tropical mushroom grows best around QS'. Fruiting reZuires high humidity to
provide the large volume oA water reZuired Aor mushroom Aruit body development.
Products and Uses
Food
Sclerotium can be soaLed in water Aor 1@K@] hours and aAter the sLin is peeled oAA, the whitish inner tissue is milled
into paste. :his paste is used to substitute in part or whole Aor the melon seeds F!i%rulu-(lana%u-H in the preparation
oA eegusi’ soup, or miMed with corn Alour and Aried FIsiLhuemhen and ELhuoya 1OOcR NwoLolo 1OP[H. /hen
sclerotia are induced to Aorm sporophores, the ideal stage Aor harvest is cK[ days aAter emergence, beAore the cap
becomes upturned. :hese mushrooms are cut into pieces and used as meat in soups FNwoLolo 1OP[H. 8nalysis oA
both sclerotia and sporophores shows that they are rich in carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, and minerals, while low
in Aats FNwoLolo 1OP[R ELhuoya and 8\erio 1OPPH.
Medicine
:he sclerotium oA )2(%u.erre/ium has long been used Aor Aood and medicine by various tribes oA Nigeria F8Lpa\a e%(
al., @SSQR IsiLhuemhen and ELhuoya, 1OOcH. :he Igbo use it to treat heart problems, while it is used to treat asthma,
cough, and obesity among people oA the Xdo State FIsiLhuemhen 1OOc, IsiLhuemhen e%(al., @SSSaH. Ether Lnown
uses include treatment oA headache, stomach ailments, colds and Aever, smallpoM and high blood pressure FEso,
1O[[H. ELhuoya e%( al., F1OOPH reported that in Ghana they are used in medicine Aor illness that relates to
malnutrition and anemia in children and in the rural areas it is used as one oA the ingredients in the embalming oA
dead bodies.
Materials
In this chapter, we discuss speciAic materials used as substrates. Nowever, it should be noted that )2(%u.erre/ium
can be cultivated on a variety oA lignocellulosic substrates, including many agricultural byproducts, sawmill waste,
and even cardboard. :he Aarmer should Airst assess what substrates are readily obtainable at low cost, and
eMperiment with combinations oA substrates to determine which produce greatest yields. Corn, rice, and wheat straw
F6ea(ma7-, Or79a(-a%i:a, and ;ri%iucm(ae-%i:umH, oil palm Aruit Aiber, cassava FMani"o%(e-cunlen%aH, banana leaves,
corncobs, cotton waste, hardwood sawdust, paper, and cardboard are all suitable substrates. /here available, oil
palm Aruit Aiber is not matched Aor yield and low incidence oA contamination FELhuoya and ELogbo 1OOSH.
Bags: Bags made speciAically Aor mushroom cultivation with gasKeMchange Ailters are available Arom <nicorn
Fwww.unicornbags.comH, though grocery bags are a suitable alternative.
Spawn
Starter culture
:he method you want to employ in the cultivation oA this Aungus can determine your starter culture or material. IA
you want to cultivate this Aungus on sterile substrate using a semiKintensive or intensive cultivation process, you can
isolate pure culture Arom mushroom Aruit bodies germinated Arom sclerotia. Ebtaining a pure culture Arom wild Aruit
bodies, sclerotia, or spores is possible using standard tissue culture techniZues outlined by Stamets F1OP]H. 8 pure
culture oA the mycelium oA this Aungus can be obtained by incubating tissue Arom inside the stipe near the base oA
the cap or Arom inside the sclerotia on standard malt eMtract agar in a Petri dish incubated at QS'. /e have
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! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "#(
observed that isolating pure cultures directly Arom sclerotium can be diAAicult at times due to contamination
problems associated with inherent microbial load in wild sclerotia. Pure cultures oA this Aungus are available Arom
the author and ma\or culture banLs all over the world.
Preparation of substrate for spawn production

Many substrates can be used Aor spawn preparation. :hose reported so Aar are oil palm Aruit Aiber FElaei-(
/uineen-i-H hereaAter reAerred to as EPF, wheat bran F;2( ae-%i:umH supplemented sawdust and whole grains:
untreashed rice FO2( -a%i:aH, millet F=e%aria( macroc"ae%aH, sorghum or Sudan grass F=2( .icolorH and wheat F;2(
ae-%i:umH. <se oA the above grains Aollows standard methods Aor using grains to prepare spawn FStamets 1OP]H.
Nere we provide a variety oA spawn production methods that have been used in the past to prepare spawn, starting
with our standard wheat grain.
Wheat grain
<nthreashed wheat grain is Airst soaLed in water overnight and then parboiled Aor 1S min. XMcess water is drained.
Calcium carbonate FCaCEQ H is added at 1d wgw and grains are spread out to air dry Aor @S minutes. Spawn bags
are made with cSSg oA these grains and sterilièd at 1@1' Aor QS minutes. 8Ater cooling, bags are inoculated with
PK1S agar blocLs FapproMimately 1cm@H colonièd by actively growing mycelium oA )2( %u.erre/ium. :his
inoculation process is best done under sterile airAlow such as under a laminar Alow hood to decrease contamination.
Inoculated spawn materials are incubated either in incubators or clean rooms at QS'. Coloniàtion oA cSSg spawn
substrate bags usually taLes less than ten days FIsiLhuemhen e%( al., @SSSbH. 8t lower temperatures, total
coloniàtion will reZuire more time. Care should be taLen to avoid contamination, and any contaminated bag
should be removed and autoclaved beAore disposal. Colonièd spawn can be stored at cK1S' without loss oA vigor
or vitality Aor up to siM months. Nowever, longer storage periods can increase the chances oA spawn becoming
contaminated. <sing pieces oA agar Arom sclerotia collected in the wild is not recommended Aor inoculation spawn
oA this nature, because in most cases you will have contamination problems. It is possible to use pieces oA
sclerotium cultivated on sterile substrate Aor spawn inoculation, but the rate oA contamination is still much higher
than when pure cultures on agar blocLs are used.
Sawdust
:he supplemented sawdust recipes used by commercial mushroom growers FStamets, 1OP]H worL well Aor this
species. Nardwood sawdust supplemented with @Sd wgw wheat or rice bran and wet to 6cd moisture content
supports healthy spawn growth. <nder less sterile conditions, spawn can be made by adding sclerotia pieces to
sawdust at 6cd moisture, which has been boiled Aor Q hours. /hen sterile conditions are not available, sawdust
should not be supplemented.
1il palm fruit fiber

Eil palm Aruit Aiber FEPFH can be used Aor spawn preparation. It is Lnown to have low incidence oA contamination,
which is attributed to its nutrient content that allows )2( %u.erre/ium to grow ZuicLly to coloniè the substrate
FELhuoya and ELogbo, 1OOSH. EPF is an abundant waste generated Arom oil palm Aruit processing, a ma\or industry
in many tropical countries where )2(%u.erre/ium is Aound. Fresh EPF is soaLed in water Aor siM hours, drained and
loaded into spawn bags, sterilièd, inoculated and incubated as per grain spawn above. <sually, @Lg bags prepared
as such achieve total coloniàtion within seven days at QS', Aorming a compact mass that can be easily broLen
down into smaller pieces and used Aor inoculation.
EPF is also a very good material to use Aor spawn preparation under sub optimal sterile conditions. Fresh EPF
can be soaLed in water Aor siM hours, boiled at 1SS' Aor Q hours and the water drained beAore inoculation with the
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "#)
inner parts oA Areshly collected or presoaLed sclerotia pieces. In a similar manner, sawdust spawn can be prepared.
Nowever such sawdust should not be supplemented to reduce incidence oA contamination. In some cases, we have
been able to maLe spawn Arom Aresh sawdust that was wetted to 6cd water content and inoculated with pieces oA
sclerotia. :hese methods oA spawn preparation under subKoptimal or nonKsterile conditions can be very useAul in
developing countries where sterile Aacilities may be too eMpensive to obtain.
:he direct use oA sclerotia as spawn, i.e. inoculation oA cultivation substrate with pieces oA sclerotia is also
common. Nowever, the contaminant load Arom wild collected sclerotia is very high. :o do this we recommend
soaLing the sclerotia in water over night iA they are dried or have been stored Aor over three months Fthis is not
necessary iA collected AreshH. :he soaLed sclerotia are clean washed in boiled water Aollowed by removing the outer
sLin with a clean LniAe. :he whitish inside core oA the sclerotia are cut into pieces Fusually not less than @cmQ a
pieceH and used Aor inoculation.
It is reported that soaLing in bleach solution have been used to achieve surAace steriliàtion, but we do not
recommend it due to the Aact that compounds or by products resulting Arom its degradation or breaLdown may be
toMic to human health :his is especially so iA the produce is to ZualiAy as organic Aood or aimed at eMport to
countries where there are stringent control on the chemicals used in Aood production and processing.
Substrate
Bulk substrate preparation

Many lignocellulosic wastes can support growth oA )2(%u.erre/ium FFasidi and Elorumaive 1OO]R IsiLhuemhen and
ELuoya 1OOcR ELhuoya and Xtugo 1OOQR ELhuoya and ELogbo 1OOSH. Sawdust and straw are readily available at
little or no cost, easy to preKtreat, and are less prone to contamination compared to other agricultural wastes.
Straw
Vried straw is shredded with a wood chipper or lawn mower and placed in a pile. 8s the pile grows, periodic
watering combined with AreZuent turning over oA the substrate can help to bring the water content to optimum Fratio
oA 1:Q, straw: waterH within a @]hour period. 8lternatively, proper moisture content can be achieved by soaLing
Fcomplete immersion oA substrate in waterH over night and allowing the soaLed substrate to drain Aor at least Q hours
beAore heat treatment. 8Ater achieving proper water content, substrate can be loaded into cultivation bags beAore
pasteuriàtion or bulL heatKtreated. Cultivation bags that can contain up to cLg wet substrate can be heat sterilièd
at 1SS' Aor 1 hour on @KQ consecutive days. Steam steriliàtion can be done in ccgallon drums Ailled to @Scm with
water and heated over a Aire or propane stove, maLing sure to maintain water in the drum during steaming. BricLs
or wire should be used to Leep bags above water. BulL pasteurièd substrate can be achieved by steaming the bulL
substrate at 1SS' in a suitable chamber, but bulL substrate oA more than cLg should be given longer hours oA
eMposure to steam to ensure all substrate reaches 1SS' during heat treatment on @KQ consecutive days.
NeatKtreated substrate should be allowed to cool down to at least ]c' beAore inoculation with spawn. In the case
oA bags, spawn should be added FcK1Sd wgwH and careAully shaLen down to allow even spawn distribution
throughout the bag. 8Aterward, the bag is either heatKsealed or the mouth oA the bag is Aolded to a tight Lnob and
closed with a rubber ban. For the bulL substrate, spawn materials should be added at similar rate and careAully
miMed into the substrate beAore or during loading into cultivation bags. :his process is more eAAicient, but is not as
eAAective at controlling contamination, which may be introduced during spawning. <sually substrate inoculation
with spawn is done under sterile airAlow in a laminar Alow hood. Nowever, a clean room can be used Aor this
process with low incidence oA contamination, provided strict personal hygiene rules are observed.
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! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%*
Composted sawdust and 1PF

Fresh hardwood sawdust and EPF is collected and sunKdried. En a cement platAorm, sawdust and EPF are miMed in
a ratio oA 1 : 1 FwgwH. /ater is added at a substrate: water ratio oA 1 : @. Substrate is piled into @m diameters and
1.cm tall heaps and covered with a blacL plastic sheet. Solar and metabolic heating will occur. :he pile is turned
and miMed once per weeL Aor Aour weeLs. Substrate becomes partially Aermented and low in contaminants.
Substrate can then be loaded into bags and steamed sterilièd as above beAore spawning FFig. QH.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Figure 3. Cultivation of !. tuberregiu+ in Figure 4. Rhizomorphic mycelia from

column bags sclerotia inoculated sawdust
colonizing unsterile substrate
Substrate not used immediately aAter Aermentation can be dried in the sun and stored Aor Auture use, but will
reZuire bring water content to optimum capacity F1 : @ to 1 : Q, substrate: water rationH and sterilièd immediately
prior to use. In more rural areas where steriliàtion eZuipment is not available, pasteurièd substrate can be
inoculated with sclerotia pieces. In this case, sclerotia pieces should be larger FcK1ScmQH and rate oA spawning at
least 1Sd per weight oA substrate. /hen sclerotial is used to inoculate semi or unsterilièd substrate, it has high
power to overcome contaminants liLe blue mold F;ric"oderm sp.H. :he mycelia growing out oA the sclerotial
inoculums aggregates into rhiòmorphic strands that is used to penetrate and coloniè contaminated areas oA the
substrate FFig. ]H.
Supplemented sawdust
!!!!!!!
Figure 5. Sclerotia growing on supplemented Figure 6. Cultivation of !. tuberregiu+ in sawdust

sawdust substrate bed cased with garden soil. Marked spots are
points where sclerotia are forming and breaking
through the casing material.
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! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%+
ViAAerent hardwood sawdust has been tested in the cultivation oA )2(%u.erre/ium. ELhuoya e%(al., F1OOPH reported
various levels oA sclerotial yield on diAAerent tropical hard wood sawdust. Xven Aor the best sawdust substrates,
supplementation with diAAerent source oA organic nitrogen can improve sclerotia yield signiAicantly, Aor eMample
using one oA our selected strains, we have obtained [Qcg Aresh sclerotia Arom 1Lg sawdust substrate with cd wheat
bran supplementation FFig. cH. Contaminant loads may be high without suitably sterile Aacilities. 8 @Sd wgw
supplementation is recommended, and cultivation on this substrate should be done in bags to minimiè
contamination. Nowever, Aresh unKsupplemented sawdust can be laid in beds and used Aor cultivation either on
Aloors oA unused rooms, Aorest Aloors or under plantation crops liLe rubber F?e:ea(.ra-ilen-e-H Cocoa F;"eo.roma(
cacaoH or EPF. In a study oA this type oA cultivation method, sawdust beds oA dimension 1m@ laid in rooms gave
yield oA ].S E S.c[Lg FAesh weightH per bed FIsiLhuemhen, 1OOQH. Similarly, 8Lpa\a and Begho F1OOOH have
produced sclerotia Arom cultivation beds laid under a rubber plantation. Sawdust oA suitable hardwood is collected,
ad\usted Aor water content F1 : Q subsrate: water ratioH and lay out in beds on concrete Aloors or on plastic sheets lay
on Aorest or plantation Aloors. In this case no heat treatment may be done and inoculation is best by direct sclerotia
pieces as described above.
Bed cultivation oA )2(%u.erre/ium reZuires casing, usually done soon aAter complete coloniàtion on the bed is
observed. :his is because sawdust beds can dry up very easily under tropical weather conditions. Generally, when
sawdust substrate colonièd by mycelia it is diAAicult to water as applied water will \ust Alow away or stay on top
the bed till it evaporates. Nowever, by casing, water content oA the substrate is conserved and the casing layer helps
to hold the water adder to maintain water levels in the bed until it is slowly absorbed into the bed. Normal casing
material used in A/aricu- production can be used: peat moss supplemented with lime. Nowever there are reports oA
the use oA top garden soil FFig. 6H. Sclerotia Aormation will be visible within two weeLs oA casing. It taLes longer Aor
colonièd and uncased bed to begin sclerotia Aormation. Nowever, the mechanism by which casing hastens sclerotia
Aormation on beds is not understood.
;ogs
Nardwood logs approMimately 1SK@Scm diameter and 1m long can be used to produce both sclerotia and Aruit
bodies. ELhuoya and ELogbo Funpublished dataH tested diAAerent logs Arom diAAerent hardwood species and Aound
that almost all tested logs were able to produce sclerotia. Nowever relatively less dense hard wood was earliest to
produce sclerotia and in some case, liLe oil palm log, both sclerotia and nonKsclerotia associated Aruit bodies were
produced. hogs oA less economic values, liLe leAtover branches Arom logging operations and stumps or storm
LnocLed down logs can be used Aor the cultivation oA )2( %u.erre/ium to obtain sclerotia. :he time it taLes to
produce sclerotia on logs depends on the tree species, log diameter, and strain oA )2(%u.erre/ium.
Standard methods Aor log inoculation used in shiitaLe cultivation are applicable to this process. En suitable logs,
holes FS.c , @cmH are drilled into a diamond pattern with 1ccm spacing and spawn in\ected into such holes with a
plunger, Aollowed by waMing with cheese or bee waM. hogs are stacLed Aor one year in shade and prevented Arom
drying out. 8ny local material oA organic origin can be used to cover the inoculated holes, since its Aunction is
mainly to prevent the in\ected spawn Arom drying up beAore the mycelium grow into the logs. In the Xsan tribe oA
Nigeria, pomade Arom palm Lernel, EriKeyo Fpronounced oriKehyorH could be Aor this purpose. Inoculated logs can
be laid on Aorest Aloors Aor coloniàtion and production oA sclerotia. harge Aallen trees can be inoculated in(-i%u and
allowed to coloniè and produce sclerotia. In such cases, the log can be source oA sclerotia year aAter year till the
logs are completely rotted.
/e have observed that sclerotia produced on logs under natural conditions are more condensed, heavier and
generally store longer than those Arom on straw or hardwood sawdust substrates.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%"
Cultivation Methods
Inoculation of bulk substrate

/hen spawn material is Aully colonièd, it will be a compact mass oA mycelia and substrate. In Aront oA a laminar
Alow hood, spawn is cut into bits @K]cmQ, which are then ready to inoculate the Ainal substrate. In unsterile or semiK
sterile environments, where Aor eMample, EPF is used to generate spawn Arom sclerotia, the spawn can as well be
cut into pieces and used Aor bulL substrate inoculation.
Spawn run and sclerotia formation
Spawn run is Aastest at QS' and i PSd relative humidity. Spawn run will
taLe @SKQS days depending on substrate. Spawn run and sclerotia production
can be done in beds iA an appropriate growing Aacility is available or in bags
similar to those used Aor the production oA spawn. For largeKscale production,
growing houses will maMimiè productivity and eAAiciency. 8lternatively,
using bags allows production to be adapted to a variety oA scales and
eliminates the need to maintain humidity. Cultivation in bags can also
decrease contamination. hight is not reZuired Aor sclerotia Aormation FFig. [H.
Cased beds of bulk substrate Figure 7. Sclerotium under

formation in a cultivation bag filled
Substrate is laid into 1m@ beds to a depth oA @Scm. Bamboo FAam.u-a sp.H with sawdust substrate.
houses with cement Aloors and palm leaA rooAs are suitable. RacLs can be
used to stacL beds and maMimiè the use oA space. Substrate beds are inoculated at a rate oA cK1cd FwgwH
depending on contaminant load and steriliàtion method used.
In tropical climates, water loss Arom beds can be high. /ater should be added at a rate oA chgm@ every other day Aor
the Airst three weeLs beAore coloniàtion is complete. 8Ater three weeLs, bowls containing water placed on available
spaces will maintain humidity. <ntil coloniàtion is complete, windows are Lept closed eMcept Aor one hour during
the night.
Casing is done when substrate is completely colonièd, usually siMKeight weeLs aAter spawning. :opsoil Arom the
garden, sand, or peat is used to cover the colonièd beds to a depth oA ]Kccm. Casing moisture is maintained by
occasional watering. @K] weeLs aAter casing, sclerotia will emerge through the casing material. Casing has been
shown to increase yields in a number oA mushroom species FStamets 1OP]H including )2(%u.erre/ium Aruit bodies
FELhuoya and ELoobo, 1OOSH though the eAAect oA casing on sclerotia yield has not yet been reported. 8t this stage,
watering is increased to prevent sclerotia Arom drying out. /indows can be opened Aor siM hours during the day to
allow ventilation and lower the ambient temperature. Uoung sclerotia are white, turning darL brown with time.
<sing this method with proper management can yield @K]Lg sclerotiagm@.
>ag method
Substrate may also be inoculated in bags up to PLg each. 8 rate oA cd FwgwH spawn is added. Substrate may be
inoculated Arom spawn or directly Arom sclerotia pieces. Nowever where sterile Aacilities are not available and the
possibility oA even pasteuriàtion oA substrate is remote, pieces oA sclerotia can be used to inoculate sawdust
substrates loaded into bags aAter miMing with water. <nder such condition, inoculation at the rate oA 1Sd spawn can
be successAul. /hen unsterilièd substrate is used, supplementation with organic nitrogen sources such as grain
should never be used, because contaminants will outKcompete the Aungus and reduce yields. Sclerotia can be
cultivated in the bags with Ailters similar to those used Aor spawn production, with the same variety oA substrates
discussed and not reZuiring casing. Cultivation in bags reZuires only that temperature be maintained around QS',
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%-
as moisture will be retained. Sclerotia will be ready Aor harvest within 1@ weeLs, when Aast growing and high
yielding strains are used.
Harvest and storage

8t maturity, the sclerotia are harvested, washed clean with water, and air dried For sun driedH Aor one weeL. Fresh
sclerotia are approMimately cSd water. Vried sclerotia will maintain viability Aor at least two years iA stored at cK
1S', or Aor one year at @P'. Vr Roy /atling was able to Aruit a sclerotium collected in Cameroon aAter seven
years in the green house in Xdinburgh Fpersonal communicationH. Uields oA 1Sd Aresh sclerotia Arom wet substrate
FapproMimately cd dry mass Arom dry substrateH can be eMpected.
Induction of sporophores from sclerotia

:o induce mushroom Aruiting Arom sclerotia, Airst soaL the sclerotia in water Aor 6K1@ hours Fdepending on sièH. It
is necessary to bury the sclerotia in peat, sand, or soil. Sclerotia may be placed in trays or into shallow holes dug in
the ground and covered with a casing layer oA peat andgor soil. 8mbient humidity should be greater than Pcd, and
it may be necessary to water the casing layer daily with approMimately ]Smhg sclerotia. Fruit body Aormation
should occur within cK1c days.
Mushrooms intended Aor eating should be harvested beAore the cap eMpands, approMimately QKc days aAter
emergence under temperature conditions oA @cKQS'. :wo and possibly more Alushes can be eMpected depending on
the siè oA the sclerotium. Sclerotia will Aorm iA substrate is colonièd at a high temperature, usually in less than OS
days. Nowever, Aruiting may be inhibited at this temperature, and will not occur while inside the bag. /e have
Aound that @c' is ideal Aor Aruiting and ELhuoya and ELogbo F1OOSH reported that the use oA casing material
increases yield on a variety oA substrates. Mushroom yield will be approMimately @cd oA sclerotia weight, and OSd
moisture. Mushroom yield Arom sclerotia and mushroom Zuality is not comparable to other Pleurotus spp. on
similar substrates.
Marketing and Export

)2( %u.erre/ium is not as widely cultivated or well understood as other cultivated mushrooms such as A/aricu-(
.i-$oru-Fbutton mushroomH and Ben%inula(edode-FshiitaLeH, which are multiKbillion dollar industries in the western
world. Nowever, the sclerotia oA )2( %u.erre/ium are very important because oA its multiple uses as Aood and
medicine F8Lpa\a e%( al., @SSQ, NwoLolo 1OP[, Eso 1O[[H. :he sclerotia are an essential commodity Aor local
consumption, especially in the /est 8Arican subKregion, has also become a commodity Aor eMport to developed
countries, since they are sold in specialty Aood shops across the many continents. :he possibility Aor increased
eMport is predicted on two ma\or Aacts:
1. People Arom the regions oA the world where the sclerotia is used Aor Aood and medicine, who now live in Xurope
and 8merica actively search Aor this material in 8Arican Aood shops in those continents. IsiLhuemhen has Aound
powdered sclerotia in shops in the <B, <S and Canada.
@. :he second drive Aor eMports are due to recent scientiAic studies that is showing sclerotia oA this Aungus to contain
polysaccharides and other compounds with positive medicinal beneAits. Publications Arom 8sia have shown that
Aresh sclerotia oA this Aungus have high content oA useAul compounds liLe !Kglucan and lectins that are promising
medicinal properties Fjhang e%(al., @SSQR /ang and Ng, @SSQH. In our laboratories we are Ainding this Aungus to
have antibiotic properties as well as inhibition oA diAAerent cancer cell lines in(:i%ro FIsiLhuemhen and GoLtepe,
unpublishedH. 8t the IMC [ in Eslo, @SS@, Vr. Jae Sung hee oA Vepartment oA Biochemistry, Ueungnam
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%.
<niversity, Borea told us that they were testing incorporating sclerotium powder into bread, as a cheap source
oA supplement to increase the protein content oA bread.
:he world is becoming aware oA the importance and health beneAits oA natural Aoods and supplements. :he
sclerotia and sporophores oA )2(%u.erre/ium are some oA such natural Aoods. It is very eMpensive to produce sclerotia
in places where temperatures are suboptimal Aor this Aungus because oA the overhead cost in environmental control.
:he production we do to obtain sclerotia Aor our research is done in incubators set at QS' all year round. :hat will
be eMpensive Aor a commercial operation to adopt in a place liLe central and northern Xurope and most part oA
North 8merica and 8sia. Nowever, the same Aungus can be produced, even under open or outdoor cultivation,
without need Aor environmental control in places across subKSaharan 8Arica FArom /est to XastH, Madagascar,
southern India, China and Southeast 8sia. :hereAore, wherever there will be need Aor the sclerotia oA this Aungus, it
will be more economical to import Aorm the regions where they are easily cultivated. Fortunately, the regions
mentioned above are mostly in developing countries.
:he method described above Aor the cultivation oA )2(%u.erre/ium is simple and cheap to operate and it is suitable
Aor use in developing tropical countries. Nowever, this model can be ad\usted in both directions with little or no
modiAications, either Aor use by rural dwellers Fespecially womenH, as small or hobbyist producer, smallKscale
enterprise or a large commercial producer.
Feasibility of these Methods for Developing Tropical Countries

:he methods outlined here were developed speciAically to provide methods oA cultivating Aungi Aor Aood and
medicine in developing countries with limited technological resources. :o this end, we have described the use oA
agricultural wastes, which are readily available at little or no cost. /e have described a variety oA methods
applicable to various situations. EPF and EPFgsawdust are recommended Aor greatest yield, low contamination,
ease, and applicability to Aarmers with limited resources. IA good sawdust spawn can be produced, log cultivation
maMimiès substrate inoculation and production Arom small amounts oA spawn, and has a minimal risL oA
contamination. 8nother advantage to logs is that they produce Aor many years. /hen a sterile lab is available, use
oA sawdust spawn to inoculate straw, EPF, or other bulL substrates is recommended.
8 beginner or untrained mushroom cultivator may have diAAiculty in the development oA pure cultures and pure
spawn because this reZuires some technical sLill and is most eAAective when a laminar Alow hood and autoclave are
available. :his can be overcome by obtaining spawn Arom commercial spawn manuAacturers or creating a
cooperative to develop a single spawn production Aacility to serve many Aarms. Etherwise, low nutrient substrates
such as unKsupplemented EPF or sawdust will not host most contaminants.
Contamination by other weed Aungi and pathogenic organisms can be minimièd by Aollowing the instructions
given here Aor spawn and substrate preparation and by maintaining strict hygienic conditions within and around the
cultivation premises. 8 clean room Aor spawn production and substrate inoculation is recommended. Growing
rooms should be thoroughly cleaned between crops. Screened windows and doors can Leep the ma\ority oA insects
away. /e have not observed insects attracted to Aruit bodies oA this Aungus as much as we see Aor other )leuro%u-
species.
Acknowledgements
:his chapter is dedicated to Magda and XbiLare IsiLhuemhen, and Joseph and Joslin heBauer. /e are grateAul to
our mentor, Vr. Rytas Yilgalys FVuLe <niversity, Vurham, <S8H Aor his continuous support and availability Aor
some oA our research on Pleurotus species. /e wish to acLnowledge the support oA <nicorn bags
Fwww.unicornbags.comH Aor the supply oA bags we used Aor cultivation and :he Golden heaA Foundation
Fwww.goldenleaA.orgH that is providing Ainancial support Aor our continuous research on specialty mushrooms
including )2(%u.erre/ium.
!
! Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide !"a$%er 11. Mushroom for the Tropics "%#
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various Aarm wastes. M. Sc. thesis. <niversity oA Benin, Nigeria.
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Ma\estyms Stationary EAAice ISBN SK1 1K@]@6@[K1.
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K Stamets, P. @SSS. GroOin/(Gourme%(and(Medicinal(Mu-"room-. :en Speed Press. BerLeley, C8.
K /ang, N. and :.B. Ng. @SSQ. Isolation oA a novel NKacetylglucosamineKspeciAic lectin Arom Aresh sclerotia oA the
edible mushroom )leuro%u-(%u.erJre/ium2()ro%ein(EV$re--ion(and()uriEica%ion(@O:1c6K16S.(
K jhang M, h. jhang, P.C.B. Cheung and J. Vong. @SSQ. Fractionation and characteriàtion oA a polysaccharide
Arom the sclerotia oA )leuro%u-( %u.erJre/ium( by preparative sièKeMclusion chromatography. Dournal( oE(
Aioc"emical(and(Aio$"7-Qcal(Me%"od-I(c6: @P1K@PO.(
!
! !"#$ &'( Information Sources Chapter )*( Mushroom Cultivation Information "##
914>#--. Q#-R3#4S C"+?6--O 1
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Chapter )*
Mushroom Cultivation Information Sources
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
5 Cultivation of Mushrooms 67 8(9( :1;;"#

<16=/4>3? 67 0>-#37 !16+4
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5 Mushrooms : Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact, Second Edition
67 0>15@/+; A>"+; et al(
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5 Mushroom Terms : Polyglot on Research and Cultivation of Edible Fungi 67 C(A( 83=45J-+/+; et al(
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5 Mushroom Cultivator : A Practical Guide to Growing Mushrooms at Home

67 !"1= 0$".3$4K N( 0( A>/=$-+
5 Mushroom Research and Development - Equality and Mutual Benefit

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5 Penn State Handbook for Commercial Mushroom Growers 67 !"1= N( I134$ et al(
<16=/4>3? 67 !3++47=W"+/" 0$"$3 X+/W( !#344
5 Pennsylvania Mushroom Integrated Pest Management

<16=/4>3? 67 !3++47=W"+/" 0$"$3 X+/W( !#344
5 Shiitake Growers Handbook : The Art and Science of Mushroom Cultivation

67 !"1= !#L767=-R/2LK N->+ :-+-;>13
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5 Simon & Schuster’s Guide to Mushrooms 67 Q"#7 C( Z/+2-,,

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5 Science and Cultivation of Edible Fungi (Mushroom Science) 67 &+$3#+"$/-+"= 0-23/$7 914>#--. 02/3+23
5 Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in the Tropics 67 @(C( [1/./- et al(
5 The Biology and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms 67 0( @( A>"+; K I( P( C"734

<16=/4>3? 67 P2"?3./2 !#344
5 The pests of protected cultivation ; the biology and control of glasshouse and mushroom pests 67 \( I(
C14437
<16=/4>3? 67 P.3#/2"+ E=43W/3# !16( A-(
5 Tropical Mushrooms : Biological Nature & Cultivation Methods : Volvariella, Pleurotus, & Auricularia 67
0( @( A>"+;K @( C( [1/./-
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!
!o#$r&'h)! +,,- b$ Mush2or3d 533 r&'h)s reser7ed8
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "#$
Mushroom GrowersN Handbook 1
!"#$%&'()#*&++,'-).$/01$/+2
Part IV( Information Sources
Chapter 12
Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation Sources
"#$%&&#'(#( )#*+,-#+
$./01230145
Fungi Perfecti http:::www(fungi(com

Growing Mushrooms the Easy Way http:::www(mycomasters(com
TeagsacBIrish Agriculture http:::www(teagasc(ie:agrifood:mushrooms(htm
F Food Gevelopment Authority
HRI mushroom research http:::www(hri(ac(uk:sile2:research:path:pathmic(htm
Mushroom Council http:::www(mushroomcouncil(org:
Mushroom Cultivation and Marketing http:::www(attra(org:attraBpub:mushroom(html
Mushroom http:::www(mycosource(com:info(htm
Cultivation Information
Mushroom GrowersN Newsletter http:::www(mushroomcompany(com:
Mushrooms(com http:::www(mushrooms(com:
Mushrooms on the Move http:::aginfo(psu(edu:PSA:s99:contents(html
Penn State Mushroom http:::mushroomspawn(cas(psu(edu:
Spawn Laboratory
Specialty Mushrooms http:::www(hort(purdue(edu:newcrop:proceedings199R:v3B
TRT(html
The International Society http:::www(hri(ac(uk:isms
for Mushroom Science
6780 9 :187387
Crop Profile for Mushrooms in California http:::cipm(ncsu(edu: cropprofiles:docs:camushrooms(html

GrowersN Information Site http:::mushgrowinfo(cas(psu(edu:siteindeU(htm
HRI mushroom research http:::www(hri(ac(uk:sile2:research:path:pathmic(htm
Mushrooms on the Move http:::aginfo(psu(edu:PSA:s99:contents(html
&7:1;153/ <.8=>44<
Beta Glucan Health Center http:::www(glucan(com:catalog:catalog(html

Christopher HobbsN The Virtual Herbal http:::www(christopherhobbs(com:
!
Copyright! +,,- by MushWorld 5ll rights reserved.
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "#%
GWN International http:::www(dUn2u(com:

Elitelands(com http:::www(elitelands(com:
Fungi Perfecti http:::www(fungi(com
Garuda International Inc( http:::www(garudaint(com:amush(htm
GloriaNs Health Castle http:::www(geocities(com:HotSpring:
spa:RR3X:herbYprevious(html
Hawaiian Health ProductsZ Pacific Myco Products http:::alohamedicinals(com:
Home of PSP http:::www(psp(bc(ca:indeU(html
International [ournal of http:::www(begellhouse(com:\ournals:
]0XaeRXdRTb1]c_2(html
&7:1;153/ &.8=>44<8
Mushroomcity http:::www(mushroomcity(com:
Mushroom Science http:::www(mushroomscience(com:msstore:
aboutYmushrooms(htm
MycoBiotech Ltd( http:::www(everbloomBmushroom(com(sg:
North American Medicinal http:::www(nammeU(com:MedicinalMushroomBooks(html
Mushroom EUtracts
Pub Med http:::wwwT(ncbi(nlm(nih(gov:PubMed:
+4;170178 9 4>?351@301458
Alberta http:::www1(agric(gov(ab(ca:app21:rtw:indeU(\sp
Australian Mushroom http:::www(o`Bmushrooms(com(au:
GrowerNs Associastion
British Columbia Mushroom http:::www(bcmushrooms(org:
Marketing Commission
Boston Mycological Club http:::www(bostonmycologicalclub(org:
Copenhagen School of Shiatsu http:::www(shiatsu(dk:
Gepartment for EnvironmentZ Food
and Rural Affairs aUnited cingdomd http:::www(defra(gov(uk:
Food and Agriculture Organiàtion http:::www(fao(org:
Forestry Agency a[apand http:::www(rinya(maff(go(\p:
Fu\ian Edible Fungi http:::www(edibleBmushrooms(com:
Strains Station a[apand
German Mycological Society http:::www(dgfmBev(de:
Horticulture Research International http:::www2(hri(ac(uk:
Institute of Microbiology http:::www(biomed(cas(c`:mbu:mbu(html
catholieke Hogeschool SintBLieven http:::www(kahosl(be:
cinokonet http:::www(kinokonet(com:
corean Society of Mycology http:::www(mycology(or(kr:
MantarYkulu aTurkishd http:::www(mycology(or(kr:
Mushrooms of Middle and South Ural http:::www(geocities(com:VoyagerService
Software:artemiev:mushroom:indeU(htm
Mycological Society of San Fransisco http:::www(mssf(org:indeU(html
!
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "&'
Pecurke(c\b(net http:::www(pecurke(c\b(net:
aCudesni Svet Gl\ivad aYugoslaviad
Persian Gulf Biotechnology Research Center http:::www(pgbrc(com:
P R Bureau Champignons http:::www(champignons(org:
SkalZ certification organic production http:::www(skal(com:
Swedish Mycological Society http:::www(svampar(se:indeU(asp
USGA B Annual Mushroom Production Report http:::usda(mannlib(cornell(edu:reports:nassr:other:`muBbb:
The American Mushroom Institute http:::www(americanmushroom(org:
The Australasian Mycological Society http:::www(munchkinsoftware(com:mycology:
The International Society for http:::www(hri(ac(uk:isms:
Mushroom Science
The Mushroom PeopleZ IrelandNs http:::www(themushroompeople(com:default(asp
Mushroom Community Online
The WWW Virtual Library http:::mycology(cornell(edu:
United States Gepartment of http:::www(usda(gov:
AgricultureNs Home Page
Vancouver Mycological Society http:::www(geocities(com: RainForest:Andes:XX9R:
)1/: <.8=>44<
EleenNs Mushroom Mania http:::www(geocities(com: kitonka:MushroomMania:

Fungus Image on the Net http:::www(in2(dk:fungi:
cinokoBya http:::www(cU(sakura(ne(\p:gkinoko:01eng:0eYhome(htm
Mykoweb http:::www(mykoweb(com:
NathanNs Fungi Page http:::collectivesource(com:fungi:
R(A( ChiltonNs Homepage http:::www(chilton(uBnet(com:fungi(htm
Red Angels http:::fly(to:redangels
The Hidden Forest http:::www(hiddenforest(co(n`:
Tom VolkNs Fungi http:::botit(botany(wisc(edu:tomsYfungi:
Treasures from the cingdom of Fungi http:::www(fungiphoto(com:
+A3B5
Amycel http:::www(amycel(com:
Field and Forest Products http:::www(fieldforest(net:
Golden Oak Spawn http:::www(oakshire(com:
HescoBInc( http:::www(hescoBinc(com:
ItalSpawn http:::www(italspawn(com:english:homeYeng(html
Laboratorium Gr`ybni http:::www(gr`ybnia(pl:
Mushroom Adventures TM http:::www(mushroomadventures(com:
Mycelia http:::www(mushroomadventures(com:
Northwest Mycological Consultants http:::www(nwmycol(com:
Sylvan Inc( http:::www(sylvaninc(com:
Wylie mycologicals http:::www(interlog(com:h]Ewylie:low:main(html
$4<A480
!
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "&(
McArdle group http:::www(mcardleBmushrooms(com:

McGearyNs Group http:::www(compostBireland(com:
Thilot Holland http:::www(thilot(nl:
Walsh mushrooms http:::www(walshmushrooms(com:
Supplement F casing
Bas Van Buuren http:::www(euroveen(nl:

Champfood http:::www(champfood(com:
Fafard http:::www(fafard(com:
Harte peat http:::www(hartepeat(com:
McArdle Group http:::www(mcardleBmushrooms(com:
micelios FUNGISEM s(a http:::www(fungisem(es:
Premiere Pro B Moss http:::www(premierhort(com:
Stockosorb http:::www(stockosorb(com:
Sun Gro http:::www(sungro(com:
Sylvan Inc http:::www(sylvaninc(com:
Theriault F Hachey http:::www(theriaultBhachey(com:
Topterra Holland bv http:::www(topterra(com:
Trouw nutrition http:::www(trouwnutrition(com:
$./0.>7 044/8 9 ?>4B15? C108
Field F Forest ProductsZ Inc( http:::www(fieldforest(net:

Gourmet Mushrooms and http:::www(gmushrooms(com:
Mushroom Products
Mushroom Adventures TM http:::www(mushroomadventures(com:
Myco Supply http:::www(mycosupply(com:
SporeWorks(com http:::www(sporeworks(com:indeU(html
Wylie Mycologicals http:::www(interlog(com:h]Ewylie:low:spawn(html
*3? 9 ;4503157>
Fardis http:::www(fardis(org:
MycoBag http:::www(mycobag(com:
Norseman Plastics http:::www(norsemanplastics(com:
SACO2 Microsac http:::www(mycelia(be:
Unicorn Bag http:::www(unicornbag(com:
&3;=157>D 9 7E.1A<750
Alcoa http:::www(alcoa(com:
Bran i Luebbe http:::www(branBluebbe(de:
Chrisko http:::www(christiaensgroup(com:
!
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "&"
Christiaens http:::www(christiaensgroup(com:
Galsem http:::www(dalsem(nl:
GLV http:::www(dlv(nl:
Gofra http:::www(dofra(nl:
double T ejuipment http:::www(doubletejuipment(com:
Embridge http:::www(cgc(enbridge(com:
Fancom http:::www(fancom(com:
Geraedts http:::www(geraedts(nl:
Gicom http:::www(gicom(nl:
Grundfos http:::www(grundfos(com:
GTI http:::www(gti(nl:
Hoving Holland http:::www(hovingBholland(nl:
Installatievedri\f VerhoevenBGrunen http:::www(verhoevenBdrunen(nl:
[anssencessel http:::www(christiaensgroup(com:
cubota http:::www(kubota(com:
Limbraco B(V( http:::www(limbraco(nl:
Modern Mushroom Farms http:::www(modernmush(com:
Namsan E(N(G( http:::www(namsan(co(kr:
NoordBOost Nederland bv http:::www(non(nl:
Panbo system bv http:::www(panbo(nl:
RTM products Pty(Z Ltd( http:::www(rtmproducts(com(au:
Steam Engineering http:::www(steamengineering(ca:
Techmark Inc( http:::www(techmarkBinc(com:
Ten cate nicolon http:::www(tencateBnicolon(com:
Traymaster http:::www(traymaster(co(uk:
Ummels http:::www(etrade(nl:etrade:klant:1_T1:
Van rens bv http:::www(christiaensgroup(com:
Viscon http:::visserite(com:viscon:
&.8=>44< A>4:.;7>8
All Seasons Mushrooms http:::www(allseasonsmushrooms(com:

Continental Mushroom Corporation Ltd( http:::www(continentalmushroom(ca:
Elitelands http:::www(elitelands(com:
Garden City Fungi http:::www(gardencityfungi(com:
Golden Gourmet Mushrooms http:::www(goldengourmetmushrooms(com:
Highline Mushrooms http:::www(highlinemushrooms(com:
carol cania I Synowie Sp( `( o( o http:::www(kania(net(pl:
Lost Creek Mushroom Farm http:::www(cowboy(net:cmf:
MoneyNs Mushrooms Ltd( http:::www(moneys(com:indeUa(htm

Monterey MushroomsZ Inc( http:::www(montereymushrooms(com:
MushMush http:::www(mushmush(nl:
Myco Biotech Ltd http:::www(everbloomBmushroom(com(sg:
Myco Supply http:::www(mycosupply(com:
!
! Part IV( !nformation Sources Chapter 12( Mushroom Culti4ation !nformation "&)
Oakshire Mushroom Farm Inc( http:::www(oakshire(com:

Organic mushroom Co( http:::www(organicmushroom(com:
OstromNs http:::www(ostromfarms(com:
Phillips Mushroom Farms http:::www(phillipsmushroomfarms(com:
Prairie Mushrooms http:::www(prairiemushrooms(com:
Shanghai Edible Mushroom http:::www(shBmushroom(com:
Shiitake Mushroom Center http:::www(shiitakecenter(com:
ToB[o Fresh MushroomsZ Inc( http:::www(toB\o(com:
Verbruggen Paddestoelen http:::www(verbruggenpaddestoelen(nl:
$458./03508
Blaak http:::www(eblaak(com:
C point http:::www(cpoint(nl:
Northwest Mycological Consultants http:::nwmycol(com:
$=7<1;3/8
Amvac chemical corporation http:::www(amvacBchemical(com:

Aventis http:::www(aventis(com:main:homeYstatic(asp
CERTIS http:::www(thermotrilogy(com:
Curtis GynaBfog http:::www(dynafog(com:
Grummond American http:::webapp1(drummondamerican(com:drummond:
homePage
Ehrlich Gistribution http:::www(ehrlichdistribution(com:
International GioUcide Inc( http:::www(idiclo2(com:
Micro Bio http:::www(microbiogroup(com:
Notional Chemical Laboratories http:::www(nclonline(com:
Well mark http:::wellmarkinternational(com:
(180>1F.04>8
Florida MushroomsZ Inc( http:::www(flmushroom(com:

LilN Shop of spores http:::lilshopofspores(com:
MelissaNs:World Variety ProduceZ Inc( http:::www(melissas(com:
Micron Magick Mycology Market http:::www(micronmagick(com:
MycoLogical Natural Products http:::www(mycological(com:
!

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ISSN 1739-1377

Free from Poverty

Mushroom Growers Handbook

Published by MushWorld - HEINEART Inc.

Distributed mainly to developing countries for free

Printed in Republic of Korea

!art > provides overall information on mushroom and its Dultivation.

!art >> foDuses on various aspeDts of oyster mushroom Dultivation.

!art >>> offers Dase studies on mushroom growing worldwide.

!art >P lists useful information sourDes;

<bella8 U-aristo <; Kentral ^u>on Pate Wni-ersity C%e P%ilippines

V%an8 <%:la9 Pa:istan

Part II. Oyster Mushrooms

Part III. Mushrooms Worldwide

Part IV. Information Sources

MushWorld’s Profile 274

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!"e$r&t$( sp. 2*/&per4&5 e/h,5at$0

!he"",5$( :a$0,, instant noodle, Korea Canned mushrooms, China

Straw mushroom and eryngii, china Various mushroom snacks, Thailand

89ar,/$( mushroom cream soup, France Mushroom shabu-shabu, Korea

Sandwich with shiitake, China 89r&/*:e sp., Thailand

Dried shiitake (Huagu), China Wild mushroom market, U.S.A.

Wild mushrooms, Thailand (by Tawat) Matsutake on display, Japan

Local market, Mexico (by Armando Lopez) Local market, Switzerland

Bags hung in a wall formation Horizontal shelf with bags

Inoculated logs of 2e5t,5$"a e4&4e( Bottles of king oyster mushroom

Shelf cultivation of C&pr,5$( /&0at$( Bags of shiitake mushrooms in a green house

Bag cultivation of C&pr,5$( /&0at$(

A-frame shelf with bags

Shelf cultivation of !"e$r&t$( sp.

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>"a00$",5a =e"$t,pe(, Bottle, Korea C&pr,5$( /&0at$(, Shelf, China

?a5&4er0a "$/,4$0. Alice W. Chen, U.S.A

C&pr,5$( /&0at$(, Eunjoo Lee, Canada

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@&"et$( e4$",(, Rick Gush, Italia!

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Song Baek Cho

Table 9: ;ingdom Fungi

Mushrooms breed by spores (seeds for plants). Under the proper

1). Fruitbodies release spores in order to produce the next generation.

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# Epigeous Growing on (or close to) the ground.

WHY GROW MUSHROOMS

Mushrooms in History and Different Regions

Mushrooms ha2e been part o5 our human diet sin=e time

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Benefits Derived from Mushrooms and Growing Mushrooms

Nutrition of the mushrooms

MushroomsY !rotein NFO Fat Nal=ium >hiamine Zibo5la2in Iron [ia=in

As health food and medicinal

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