ME 219

Chapter 4: Integral Approach

Flow past a sphere

Drag force on the sphere?

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Nasa.gov

Possible approaches

Measure pressure on several points on the surface of

sphere à Integrate à Feasibility

Measure velocities/pressure away from sphere in a

region à Which regions to choose? à How to find drag
force from this info? à Eulerian or Lagrangian approach?

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 Eulerian description of finite control volumes
Imaginary packet of volumes through
which mass and momentum pass through

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Nasa.gov

Eulerian
Lagrangian

Rate at which birds pass a certain location on their migration route (birds per
hour) – Eulerian description – flowrate at a given location as a function of
time
Tagging certain birds with transmitters and following their motion along the
migration route - Lagrangi an description – “position” of a given particle as a
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function of time.

A typical FINITE control volume

Control surface

Fluid in

Fluid out

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 OR In other words….
Exchange of mass, momentum and
energy with adjacent regions through
control surface

FINITE control volume vs infinitesimal CV/fluid element

L à 0
Recall Chapter 2, Used
Taylor series to
approximate

FINITE control volume Infinitesimal fluid element

• Overall transfer rates • Point to point info
• Integral approach • Differential approach

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 Eulerian, Finite CV Lagrangian, Infinitesimal CV

Eulerian, Infinitesimal CV Lagrangian, Finite CV

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Chapter 4 deals with….

Eulerian, Finite CV

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CONTROL VOLUME AND SYSTEM REPRESENTATIONS

Two approaches through which governing laws can be applied to a
fluid
• Control Volume Approach
• System Approach
System – is a collection of matter of fixed identity (always the same
atoms or fluid particles), which may move, flow and interact with its
surroundings
Control Volume – is a volume in space (a geometric entity,
independent of mass) through which the fluidmay move
In fluid mecha nic s – diff icu lt to iden tify a nd kee p t rack of a sp ecific q uant ity of
matter
Find ing th e fo rces acting o n a fan, a ir pla ne or aut omo bile by a ir flowing pa st the
object is m ore im por tant t han th e inf ormat io n obta in ed by fo llowing a giv en po rt ion
of air (system) as it flows along – control volume approach preferred 12

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Laws governing a system

• Conservation of mass, M = constant

• Conservation of momentum, F = D/Dt(MV)
•Conservation of energy

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Fixed control volume Fixed or moving control volume

Deforming Control Volume

Fixed or moving
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 In this problem, system is not undergoing any change in space
and time

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System or Lagrangian description – we follow the fluid and observe its

behaviour as it moves about
Control volume or Eulerian description – we remain stationary and
observe the fluid’s behaviour at its location

If a moving control volume is used, it virtually never moves with the

system - the system flows through the control volume

All of the governing laws are stated for system approach

The mass of a system remains constant
The time rate of change of momentum of a system is equal to the sum
of all the forces acting on the system

THE GOVERNING LAWS OF FLUID MOTION ARE STATED IN TERMS OF

FLUID SYSTEMS, NOT CONTROL VOLUMES 17

Differences between dm sys dmcv

and
dt dt

dm sys
=0 Time rate of change of mass within the system
dt

dmcv Time rate of change of mass within the control volume

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<0
dt decreases with time

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 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM

There is a needto describe the laws governing fluidmotion using both

system concepts (consider a given mass of the fluid) and control
volume concepts (consider a given volume)
An analytical tool from shifting from one representation to the
another – Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Derivation of Reynolds Transport Theorem

control volume – stationary volume within pipe between sections 1 & 2

At time t, SYS = CV
At time t+𝜹t, SYS = CV – I + II
II – outflow from the control volume from time t to t + 𝜹t
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I – inflow into the control volume from time t to t + 𝜹t

B – EXTENSIVE PROPERTY OF THE SYSTEM

B = mb

b=1 B - Mass
b = u,v B - Momentum
b=T B - Energy

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 AT TIME t,
Bsys (t ) = Bcv (t )

AT TIME t+ 𝜹 t, Bsys (t + δt ) = Bcv (t + δt ) − BI (t + δt ) + BII (t + δt )

δB sys B sys (t + δt ) − B sys (t ) Bcv (t + δt ) − B I (t + δt ) + B II (t + δt ) − B sys (t )

= =
δt δt δt

δBsys Bcv (t + δ t ) − BI (t + δ t ) + BII (t + δ t ) − Bcv (t )

=
δt δt
δBsys Bcv (t + δ t ) − Bcv (t ) BI (t + δ t ) + BII (t + δ t )
= − +
δt δt δt δt
⎛ ⎞
∂⎜⎜ ∫ ρ b dV ⎟⎟
Bcv (t + δ t ) − Bcv (t ) ∂Bcv
Lim = = ⎝ cv ⎠
δ t →0 δt ∂t ∂t 22

BII (t + δ t ) = (ρ 2 b2 A2 V2 δ t )

B (t + δ t )
B! out = Lim II = ρ 2 A2 V2 b2
δ t →0 δt

BI (t + δ t ) = (ρ1 b1 A1 V1 δ t )

B (t + δ t )
B! in = Lim I = ρ 1 A1 V1 b1
δ t →0 δt
DBsys ∂Bcv
= + B! out − B! in
Dt δt
DBsys ∂Bcv
= + ρ 2 A2 V2 b2 − ρ 1 A1 V1 b1
Dt δt 23

DBsys ∂Bcv
= + B! out − B! in
Dt δt
Reynolds Transport Theorem is valid under the following assumptions
• Fixed control volume with one inlet and one outlet
• Uniform properties (density, velocity, and the parameter b ) across
the inlet and outlet
• Velocity is normal to sections 1 and 2

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Control volume and system for flow through an arbitrary, fixed control
volume

B! out - Net flowrate of the property B from the control volume

Addition of the contributions through each infinitesimal area element

of size 𝜹 A on the portion of the control surface dividing region II
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and
the control volume. This surface - CSout

Amount of the property B carried across the area element 𝜹A in the time
interval 𝜹t
δB = bρδV = bρ (V cosθ δt )δA
The rate at which B is carried out of the control volume across the small area
element 𝜹A
ρbδV ρbV cosθδt
δB! out = Lim = Lim δA = ρbV cosθδA
δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt
By integrating over the entire outflow portion of the control surface CSout
B! out = ∫ dB! out = ∫ ρbV cosθ dA 26
csout csout

B! out = ∫ dB! out = ∫ ρbV cosθ dA

csout csout
The quantity Vcos 𝜽 is the component of the velocity normal to the area
element 𝜹A.
∴V cosθ = V . n̂

B! out = ∫ ρbV .n̂dA 27

csout

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By considering the inflow portion of the control surface, Csin
The inflow rate of B into the control volume

B! in = − ∫ ρbV cosθ dA = − ∫ ρbV .n̂dA

c sin c sin
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n̂ points out from the control volume

-90o < 𝜽< 90o for outflow regions, the normal component of V is
positive;
V .n̂ is POSITIVE
90o < 𝜽 < 270o for inflow regions, the normal component of V is
negative;
V .n̂ is NEGATIVE 29

The Net Flux (Flowrate) of Parameter B Across The Control Surface Is

⎛ ⎞
B! out − B! in = ∫ ρbV • n̂dA −⎜⎜⎝ − ∫ ρbV • n̂dA ⎟⎟⎠ = ∫ ρbV • n̂dA
csout c sin cs

DBsys ∂Bcv
= + B! out − B! in
Dt δt
DB sys ∂
Dt
=
δt ∫
cv
ρbdV +
∫
cs
ρbV • n̂dA

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 DB sys ∂
Dt
=
δt ∫
cv
ρbdV +
∫
cs
ρbV • n̂dA

b=1 Mass
b = u,v Momentum
b=e Energy

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Conservation laws applied to system

DM sys in absence of nuclear

=0 reactions
Dt

DPsys
=F F is net force F on system
Dt

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 Linear momentum conservation

Time rate of change of the linear momentum of the system

= time rate of change of the linear momentum of the contents of CV
+
Net rate of flow of linear momentum through CS

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I = Ia + Ib + Ic+……………

II = IIa + IIb + IIc+……………

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Lagrangian D/Dt Eulerian

description description

System RTT Control

Analysis volume
analysis
Reynolds Transport theorem deals with finite size control volumes
Material derivative deals with infinitesimal fluid particles

BOTH HAVE LOCAL PART AND CONVECTIVE PART 36

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Steady effects

DB sys ∂
Dt
=
δt ∫cv
ρbdV +
∫
cs
ρbV • n̂dA

DBsys
ˆ
= ∫ ρ bV • ndA
Dt cs

0= ˆ
∫ ρ bV • ndA F= ˆ
∫ ρ bV • ndA
cs cs

Mass conservation Momentum conservation

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Unsteady effects in the system

ˆ
∫ ρbV • ndA =0
cs Inflow = outflow

DBsys ∂
= ρ bdV
Dt δ t cv∫

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Unsteady effects

DB sys ∂
Dt
=
δt ∫
cv
ρbdV +
∫
cs
ρbV • n̂dA

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Moving control volume
Determine force F that the water puts on the vane

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Since velocity of CV and that of system are not necessarily same,

there is a flow through moving CV (just as in the stationary CV)

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Relative velocity W – Fluid velocity relative to CV, seen by

observer riding on CV
Absolute velocity V – seen by stationary observer in a fixed
coordinate CV
Relative velocity W – carries fluid across a moving CS
Absolute velocity V – carries the fluid across the fixed CV
Velocity of CV, Vcv = V – W
Or
V = Vcv+W

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 49

Reynolds Transport Theorem for moving, non-deforming CV

DBsys ∂
= ˆ
ρ bdV + ∫ ρ bW • ndA
Dt δ t cv∫ cs

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Selection of a CV

Determine pressure at 1

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Example of moving CV, Mass conservation
An airplane moves forward at a speed of 971 km/h as shown in Fig.
The frontal intake area of the jet engine is 0.8 m^2. and the entering
air density is 0.736 kg/m^3. A stationary observer determines that
relative to the earth, the jet engine exhaust gases move away from
the engine with a speed of 1050 km/h and the exhaust gas density is
0.515 m^3. Estimate the mass flowrate of fuel into the engine in kg/hr.

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For exhaust gases For inlet

Vcv = V – W Vcv = V – W
Vcv = -971 km/h Vcv = -971 km/h
V = 1050 km/h V = 0 km/h
W = 1050+971 W = 971

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 More examples

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The pipe flow in Fig. fills a cylindrical tank as shown. At time t

= 0, the water depth in the tank is 30 cm. Estimate the time
required to fill the remainder of the tank.

System and coincidental CV

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For a control volume enclosing the tank and the portion of the pipe
below the tank,
d
[ ρ dv] + mout − min = 0
dt ∫
dh
ρπ R 2 + ( ρ AV )out − ( ρ AV )in = 0
dt
dh 4 π 2
= [998( )(0.12 )(2.5 − 1.9)] = 0.0153m / s
dt 998(π )(0.752 ) 4

Δt = 0.7 / 0.0153 = 46sec

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Air flows steadily between two cross sections in a long, straight
portion of 10 cm. inside diameter pipe, where the uniformly
distributed temperature and pressure at each cross section are given.
The average air velocity at section 1 and 2 are 67 m/s and 305 m/s.
Assume uniform velocity distributions at sections 1 and 2. Find
frictional force exerted by the pipe wall on the airflow between
sections 1 and 2.

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 64

Water flows through a nozzle attached to the end of a laboratory

sink faucet with a flowrate of 0.6 liters/s. The nozzle inlet and exit
diameters are 16 and 5 mm, respectively, and the nozzle axis is
vertical. The mass of the nozzle is 0.1 kg. The pressure at section
(1) is 464 kPa. Determine the anchoring force required to hold the
nozzle in place.

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w
w

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 m1 is –ve, w1 is –ve
m2 is +ve, w2 is -ve

w1 and w2 are based on flow rate and respective areas. W = Q/A

m1 = m2 = rQ
Weight of water is based on volume of truncated cone 67

Example of moving CV, Mass conservation

68

W is relative to CV.
Surface of CV at nozzle moves with sprinkler velocity
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Surface of CV at base is stationary with respect to inlet flow

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A horizontal jet of water exits a nozzle with a uniform speed of V1,
strikes a vane and is turned through an angle q . Determine the
anchoring force needed to hold the vane stationary, if gravity and
viscous effects are negligible.

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A vane on wheels moves with constant velocity when a stream of

water having a nozzle exit velocity of is turned by the vane. The speed
of the water jet leaving the nozzle is V1, and the vane is moving tothe
right with a constant speed of V0. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the force, F, exerted by the stream of water on the vane
surface.
Moving CV

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 Weight of water
= 𝞺gA1L

For inlet For outlet

Vcv = V1 – W1 m1 = m2
Vcv = V0 𝞺 A1W1 = 𝞺 A2W2
W1=V1-V0
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the power 𝑃 delivered to the cart.

the cart velocity for which
-the force 𝐹𝑥 is a maximum and
-the power 𝑃 is a maximum

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Conservation of energy / First law of thermodynamics

D ⎛ • •
⎞ ⎛ • •
⎞
∫ eρ dV = ⎜ Σ Q in − Σ Q out ⎟ + ⎜ Σ W in − Σ W out ⎟
D t sys ⎝ ⎠ sys ⎝ ⎠ sys

D ⎛• •
⎞
∫ eρ dV = ⎜ Q net ,in + W net ,in ⎟
D t sys ⎝ ⎠ sys

V2
e=u+ + gz
2
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 ⎛• •
⎞ ⎛• •
⎞
⎜ Q net ,in + W net ,in ⎟ = ⎜ Q net ,in + W net ,in ⎟
⎝ ⎠ sys ⎝ ⎠coincident _ CV

D ∂
ˆ
∫ eρ dV = ∂ t cv∫ eρ dV + cs∫ eρV • ndA RTT
D t sys

∂ ⎛• •
⎞
∫ ˆ
eρ dV + ∫ eρV • ndA = ⎜ Q net ,in + W net ,in ⎟
∂ t cv cs ⎝ ⎠CV

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Recall from thermodynamics

Heat absorbed by the system = q+ (positive)
•Heat evolved by the system = q− (negative)
•Work done on the system = w+ (positive)
•Work done by the system = w− (negative)

Similarly for CV

Heat transfer into CV is positive, out is

negative

Work done on contents of CV by surroundings is positive

otherwise negative. e.g pump work +ve, Turbine work –ve

Work can be transferred across CS

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Shaft work (rotary devices etc)

Work is transferred across CS by a moving shaft i.e
when CV cuts through shaft material

• • •
W shaft,net,in = Σ W shaft,in − ΣW shaft,out For many shafts

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 Work transfer across CS associated with normal stresses

Fluid normal stress, s= -p

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Work due to normal stress on all fluid particles on CS (or on CV),

•
ˆ = − ∫ pV • ndA
W normal _ stress = ∫ σ V • ndA ˆ
cs cs
Since Power = F*V

∂ • •
ˆ
eρ dV + ∫ eρV • ndA ˆ
= Q net ,in + W shaft ,net ,in − ∫ pV • ndA
∂ t cv∫ cs cs

Work done against pressure

while transporting a fluid
∂ p V2 • •

∫ eρ dV + ∫ (u + + ˆ
+ gz ) ρV • ndA = Q net ,in + W shaft ,net ,in
∂ t cv cs
ρ 2
80

∂ p V2 • •

∫ eρ dV + ∫ (u + + ˆ
+ gz ) ρV • ndA = Q net ,in + W shaft ,net ,in
∂ t cv cs
ρ 2

0 for steady

p V2 p V2 • p V2 •

∫ (u + ρ + ˆ
+ gz ) ρV • ndA = ∑ (u + + + gz ) m − ∑ (u + + + gz ) m
cs
2 flow _ out ρ 2 flow _in ρ 2

p V2 p V2 • p V2 •

∫ (u + ρ + ˆ
+ gz ) ρV • ndA = (u + + + gz )out mout − (u + + + gz )in min
cs
2 ρ 2 ρ 2

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 One dimensional energy equation for steady flow

• ⎡ ⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ V 2 − Vin 2 ⎤ • •
m ⎢uout − uin + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + out + g ( zout − zin ) ⎥ = Q net ,in + W shaft ,net ,in
⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠out ⎝ ρ ⎠in 2 ⎦

Enthalpy h

p
h=u+
ρ

• ⎡ V 2 − Vin 2 ⎤ • •
m ⎢ hout − hin + out + g ( zout − zin ) ⎥ = Q net ,in + W shaft ,net ,in
⎣ 2 ⎦

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A pump delivers water at a steady rate of 300 gal/min as shown in Fig.

Just upstream of the pump [section (1)] where the pipe diameter is 3.5
in., the pressure is 18 psi. Just downstream of the pump [section (2)]
where the pipe diameter is 1 in., the pressure is 60 psi. The change in
water elevation across the pump is zero. The rise in internal energy of
water, , associated with a temperature rise across the pump is 93 ft
lb/lbm. The pumping process is considered to be adiabatic. Determine
the power (hp) required by the pump

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A steam turbine generator unit used to produce electricity
is shown. Assume the steam enters a turbine with a velocity
of 30 m/s and enthalpy, , of 3348 kJ/kg. The steam leaves the
turbine as a mixture of vapor and liquid having a velocity of
60 m/s and an enthalpy of 2550 kJ/kg. The flow through the
turbine is adiabatic, and changes in elevation are negligible.
Determine the work output involved per unit mass of
steam through-flow

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A 128 m waterfall involves steady flow from one large

body to another. Determine temp. change associated with
this flow

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