Three Types of Chemical Bonds are Important in Biology

 Chemical bonds are all due to electrical attractions

Type of Bond Characteristics Biological Importance

Bonding electrons shared This type of bond holds together the
Covalent
between 2 atoms. long chains of macromolecules.
Complete transfer of Compounds with ionic bonds split into
electron from one atom to ions in water. Ions conduct electricity.
Ionic
another. Oppositely charged Gives specialized cells (nerve, muscle)
atoms attract one another. excitable properties.
Water: makes water molecules stick
Weaker than covalent or together. Responsible for many of the
ionic bonds. Formed strange properties of water.
between a hydrogen
Proteins: cause protein chains to
covalently bonded to O or N
Hydrogen spiral and bend, giving unique shapes.
and a second O or N. The
second O or N may be on DNA: hold together the 2 chains to
the same molecule or on form the double helix. Allow chains to
another nearby molecule. "unzip" for replication and
transcription.

Water is Very Special in Biology

 Most abundant chemical of life

 Special properties:
Property Biological Applications
Chemical reactions take place readily in liquids. Useful
1. Liquid over wide
for circulatory systems. Many organisms live in a liquid
temperature range
matrix.
Good for chemical reactions, waste removal, delivery
2. Excellent solvent
of food materials.
Ionizes salts, makes conductive solutions. Important
3. Ionizing solvent
for nerves and other excitable tissues.
Ice floats on lakes and ponds. Less chance of freezing
4. Floats when it freezes
to bottom. Important for fish survival in winter.
5. Low viscosity (flows Important for circulatory systems. Less work for the
readily) heart.
Allows trees to pull water hundreds of meters upward
6. High tensile strength
(transpiration) without breaking the column of water.
7. High surface tension
Allows many small animals to walk on water (water
(surface acts as though
strider, basilisk lizard) or hang from the surface.
coated with tough film)
Reduces daily temperature fluctuations. Climate is
8. High heat capacity (large
moderate near bodies of water (such as the bay).
amount of heat required to
Useful for moving large amounts of heat in circulatory
raise water temperature)
systems.
9. High heat of vaporization Has a cooling effect on lakes and other bodies of
(large amount of heat water. Used in mammals for sweating (the only way the
removed when water body can lose heat if the ambient temperature is above
evaporates) body temperature).
Useful for removing the heat produced by biological
10. High heat conduction
reactions. Prevents overheating of the body.
 These properties arise from the anatomy of the polar water molecule: a dipole with slight negative
charge on the oxygen atom and slight positive charges on the hydrogen atoms- cause water
molecules to stick together by hydrogen-bonding
 "If there is magic on this planet it is in water." Loren Eiseley

Cells are Very Sensitive to pH

 H+ and OH-ions get special attention because they are very reactive
  Substance which donates H+ ions to solution = acid
 Substance which donates OH- ions to solution = base
 pH = - log [H+] (logarithmic scale); [H+] must be in moles/liter
Approximate pH Common Examples
Strong Acids 0-2 Stomach acid (HCl), battery acid (H2SO4)
Weak Acids 3-6 Lemon juice, vinegar, rainwater
Neutral 7 Pure water
Weak Bases 8-11 Bicarbonate solution
Solutions of lye (NaOH), oven cleaner
Strong Bases 12-14
(KOH)
 Human blood pH is 7.4
 Blood pH above 7.4 = alkalosis
 Blood pH below 7.4 = acidosis
 Human body must get rid of ~15 moles potential acid/day (mostly CO2)
 Fluctuations in pH change charges on molecules, especially proteins

pH is stabilized by buffers

Biological Buffering Systems

The Mammalian Body Regulates pH in Several Ways

 Buffers (such as bicarbonate/CO2) minimize pH change

 CO2 is eliminated by the lungs
 Other acids and bases are eliminated by the kidneys

Blood pH Must be Kept Close to 7.4 in Mammals

 Blood pH is set at a slightly alkaline level of 7.4 (ph 7.0 is neutral)

 A change of pH of 0.2 units in either direction is considered serious
 Blood pHs below 6.9 or above 7.9 are usually fatal if they last for more than a short time

Buffers are Mixtures of Chemicals Which Stabilize pH

 Buffers are mixtures of two chemicals that resist pH changes:

o if the pH is too low one chemical will bind some of the hydrogen ions and raise the pH
o if the pH is too high the other chemical will donate some hydrogen ions to lower the pH

The Chief Mammalian Blood Buffer is a Mixture of Bicarbonate and Carbon Dioxide

 All body fluids, inside or outside cells have buffers which defend the body against pH changes
  The most important buffer in extracellular fluids, including blood, is a mixture of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
 CO2 acts as an acid (it forms carbonic acid when it dissolves in water), donating hydrogen ions
when they are needed
 HCO3- is a base, soaking up hydrogen ions when there are too many of them
 There are also other buffers in blood, such as proteins and phosphate, but they are less important
 Blood pH is determined by a balance between bicarbonate and CO2

Too Much CO2 or Too Little HCO3 Will Cause Acidosis

 The balance will swing toward a low pH, producing acidosis, if CO2 is raised or HCO3 lowered
 CO2 can be raised by hypoventilation (pneumonia, emphysema)
 Metabolic conditions such as ketoacidosis caused by excess fat metabolism (diabetes mellitus) will
lower bicarbonate

Too Much HCO3- or Too Little CO2 Will Cause Alkalosis

  The balance will swing the other way, producing alkalosis, if CO2 is lowered or HCO3- raised
 CO2 can be lowered by hyperventilation
 Vomiting removes stomach acid and raises bicarbonate
 Alkalosis is less common than acidosis

Blood pH is Chiefly Regulated by the Lungs and Kidneys in Mammals

 Normal metabolism produces large amounts of CO2 continuously (about 14 moles/day)

 If this CO2 were not removed we would rapidly develop fatal acidosis
 Almost all of the CO2 is removed from the lungs
 If blood pH is low, respiration is stimulated so that more CO2 is removed, raising the pH to the
normal level
 Bicarbonate is adjusted in the kidney
 The kidneys can generate new HCO3- when it is low