Geological significance of AUTHORS

François Fournier  Formation de Recherche

seismic reflections and imaging en Evolution - Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique 2761, Laboratoire de Géologie des
of the reservoir architecture Systèmes Carbonatés, Case 67, Université de
Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille

in the Malampaya gas Cedex 03, France; Francois.Fournier@up.univ-mrs.fr

François Fournier received his M.Sc. degrees from

field (Philippines) the Nancy School of Mines (France) and from the
Institut Français du Petrole and a Ph.D. in car-
bonate sedimentology from the University of
François Fournier and Jean Borgomano Provence in Marseilles (France). After a short ex-
perience in oil companies as an exploration ge-
ologist in France and Angola, he joined the Geology
of Carbonate Systems Laboratory (Marseilles,
ABSTRACT France) as lecturer in 2005. His research focuses on
the relationship between sedimentology, diagene-
The integration of petrographic analyses of cores and thin sections, sis, and seismic reflections in carbonate reservoirs.
petrophysical measurements, and well logs demonstrates that varia-
tions in acoustic impedance in the Malampaya buildup (upper Eo- Jean Borgomano  Formation de Recherche
en Evolution - Centre National de la Recherche
cene to lower Miocene, offshore northwest Palawan) are related to
Scientifique 2761, Laboratoire de Géologie des
vertical changes in porosity and pore type, which are dominantly
Systèmes Carbonatés, Case 67, Université de
controlled by diagenetic processes. The Nido Limestone was subdi- Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille
vided into 10 –50-m (30 –150-ft)-thick units characterized by spe- Cedex 03, France
cific diagenetic patterns and petrophysical properties (diagenetic Jean Borgomano obtained a Ph.D. in carbonate
units). The alternation between tight and porous diagenetic units geology in 1987 at the University of Provence in
is mainly controlled by meteoric diagenesis (leaching and pedogen- Marseilles (France). In 1988 – 2003, he worked
esis) and by late-burial cementation and leaching. Well-to-seismic at Shell as senior carbonate geologist in various
ties show that the main seismic reflectors within the buildup in- exploration and production Shell companies.
terior reflect the boundaries between diagenetic units. Most of the He is currently a professor at the University of
negative amplitude reflectors are related to unconformities, where- Provence and the director of the Geology of
Carbonate Systems Laboratory. His research fo-
as positive amplitude reflectors have a more questionable chrono-
cuses on the geological characterization and nu-
stratigraphic value and may represent the bases of cemented lenses merical modeling of carbonate reservoir archi-
that can crosscut time lines. Comparison with other southeast Asian tecture and properties.
Tertiary buildups indicates different origins of seismic reflections
related to distinct patterns of diagenetic evolution. The identification
of such seismodiagenetic units and of their controlling factors is of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
paramount importance for the architecture and the petrophysical This work was funded by Shell Philippines Ex-
characterization of carbonate reservoirs. ploration B.V. We gratefully acknowledge Shell,
Chevron-Texaco, and the Philippine National
Oil Company for the access to data and the per-
INTRODUCTION mission to publish this work. This paper signifi-
cantly benefited from stimulating discussions
Seismic reflection imaging has become an unparalleled geophysical with many Shell staffs in research and opera-
method to image subsurface architecture of carbonate systems (e.g., tional business units. We thank M. Joachimski
Belopolsky and Droxler, 2004; Eberli et al., 2004) and to assess the (Erlangen University) for carbon and oxygen iso-
tope analyses and the Laboratory of Isotope
Geochemistry at the Vrije Universiteit (Amster-
dam) for Sr isotope ratio measurements. Re-
Copyright #2007. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. viewers Richard Worden, Art Saller, and David
Manuscript received April 26, 2006; provisional acceptance July 6, 2006; revised manuscript received Eby gave constructive suggestions for the im-
August 21, 2006; final acceptance October 16, 2006.
provement of the manuscript.
DOI:10.1306/10160606043

AAPG Bulletin, v. 91, no. 2 (February 2007), pp. 235 – 258 235
factors controlling their evolution (e.g., Bachtel et al.,
2004; Isern et al., 2004; Fournier et al., 2005). Seismic
reflection images result from the interaction between
seismic waves and subsurface rocks. Seismic reflectors
are the interference composites resulting from several
contrasts in acoustic impedance (Sheriff, 1977). In car-
bonate sedimentary systems, diagenetic processes sig-
nificantly modify the pore network and the mineralogy
of the primary sediments, therefore affecting their
acoustic properties (Eberli et al., 2003).
The seismic sequence stratigraphy method is based
on the assumption that seismic reflections follow de-
positional surfaces and erosional unconformities (Vail
et al., 1977), and therefore, they have chronostratigraphic
significance. However, several studies on seismic mod-
eling showed that this assumption is not always valid,
especially when abrupt depositional facies changes oc-
cur (Stafleu and Sonnenfeld, 1994; Zeng and Kerans,
2003), or when seismic resolution is limited (Rudolph
et al., 1989). In addition, meteoric or burial-diagenetic
alteration of carbonate rocks does not necessarily con-
form to depositional bodies. This implies that acoustic
impedance interfaces and, therefore, seismic reflectors
can potentially crosscut depositional surfaces and can-
not be necessarily predicted by sequence-stratigraphic
models. Figure 1. Depth map (in meters subsea) of the top Nido Lime-
Hence, it is necessary to carefully study the origin stone and location of wells in the Malampaya gas field (modified
of the reflections and to validate the basic assumption from Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999) within Block SC 38, offshore
of the seismic-stratigraphic method prior to any sedi- Palawan, Philippines.
mentologic and stratigraphic interpretation of the seis-
mic data.
The objectives of this article are (1) to identify the Williams, 1997). The field was discovered in 1989 and
processes that controlled the evolution and the spatial contains a 56-m (180-ft)-thick oil rim (29.4j API) and
distribution of petrophysical properties of the Malam- a 650-m (2000-ft)-thick gas column (Neuhaus et al.,
paya carbonate reservoir; (2) to evaluate the relative im- 2004). The gas has been produced since October 2001
pact of depositional facies, diagenetic processes, tectono- by means of a subsea manifold and five deviated wells.
stratigraphic evolution, and seismic resolution on the Nido Limestone deposition was initiated during the rift-
seismic imaging of these carbonates; and (3) to evaluate ing phase of the South China Sea (late Eocene to early
the chronostratigraphic value of the seismic reflections. Oligocene). In the middle Oligocene (magnetic anom-
aly 11), the South China Sea sea-floor spreading started,
and the Calamian-north Palawan-North Borneo micro-
LOCATION AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING continent, bearing the Nido carbonate buildups, drifted
southward (Briais et al., 1993). During the last of the
The Malampaya oil and gas accumulation is located in early Miocene, sea-floor spreading ceased as a result
the deep-water Block Service Contract no. 38, offshore of the collision between the north Palawan block and
Palawan (Philippines), at a depth of 3000 m (10,000 ft) the accretion wedge of the Paleogene subduction zone
below present sea level (Figure 1), within a northeast- of north Cagayan (Briais et al., 1993; Schlüter et al.,
southwest–oriented carbonate buildup. Like several hy- 1996). Carbonate development in the area stopped in
drocarbon accumulations in the north Palawan block, the response to downwarping of the northwestern part of
Malampaya reservoir occurs within the upper Eocene the block and extensive clastic supply from the uplifted
to lower Miocene Nido Limestone (Sales et al., 1997; Palawan Island (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). Since

236 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Figure 2. (a) Trace display of an arbitrary line across the northern area of the Malampaya buildup and the main seismic reflectors;
(b) stratigraphic framework of the Nido Limestone in Malampaya. TWT = two-way traveltime.
the early middle Miocene, the Malampaya carbonate
buildup has been progressively buried below 2000 m
(6500 ft) of terrigenous deep-marine sediments (Pagasa
and Matinloc formations). Deep-burial conditions are
expressed by elevated present-day formation tempera-
tures (100–170jC) in the Nido reservoir.
Grötsch and Mercadier (1999) proposed a model of
growth history of the Malampaya buildup using three-
dimensional (3-D) seismic data and relatively sparse core
and sidewall samples from 4 wells (Malampaya [MA]-1
to MA-4). This model was refined by Fournier et al.
(2005) using a newly acquired high-resolution seismic
survey and a comprehensive set of well data from 10 wells
(MA-1 to MA-10). Fournier et al. (2005) subdivided the
Nido carbonates into 11 units (Figure 2) and showed that
the Malampaya growth history was largely controlled
by tectonic deformation. In addition, using core data
from wells MA-5 and MA-7, Fournier et al. (2004) docu-
mented meter-scale parasequences attributable to high-
frequency relative sea level changes. These authors
showed that the petrophysical properties of the inner-
shelf carbonates are strongly controlled by meteoric dis-
solution and cementation associated with high-frequency
subaerial exposure events.
Except for the lowermost part of the Malampaya
carbonates (upper Eocene) where a significant amount
of quartz grains is present, the Nido Limestone min-
eralogy is almost exclusively calcitic. Only very occa-
sional dolomite cements, formed during the burial dia-
genesis, were found in the western flank and in the
western part of the buildup interior (Fournier et al.,
2005).
DATA AND METHODS
The data set consists of a 3-D seismic survey acquired
by Shell Philippines in 2002 and well data from 10 wells
(MA-1 to MA-10). Cores were recovered from wells
MA-2, MA-3, MA-4, MA-5, MA-7, and MA-9. Analyses
and interpretations of cores, thin sections, well logs, and
seismic data were performed by the authors in the Car-
bonate Laboratory of the Marseille University (France)
and with the Carbonate Team at Shell International
Fournier and Borgomano 237
Exploration and Production B.V., Rijwijk (Netherlands).
Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios were measured at
the University of Erlangen, and strontium isotope mea-
surements were performed at the Vrije Universiteit in
Amsterdam. High-density 3-D seismic data were ac-
quired in 2002. The present work is founded on pre-
stack depth-migrated data, with a zero-phase signal.
The seismic polarity is defined as follows: Negative
amplitude means a downward increase in acoustic im-
pedance (positive reflection coefficient). To tie the wells
to the seismic data, synthetic seismograms were calcu-
lated in the SynPak module of the SMT (Seismic Micro-
Technology, Inc.) Kingdom Suite software, using a wave-
let extracted from the original seismic data. Acoustic
impedance profiles are computed from velocity and den-
sity logs, and the time-depth conversion was produced
integrating sonic-derived velocities.
The definition of depositional facies, seismic mark-
ers, and stratigraphic subdivisions is based on the
previous work by Fournier et al. (2005), with minor
modifications (Figure 2). Carbon, oxygen, and stron-
tium isotope analyses on whole-rock samples were used
to support diagenetic interpretations and datings. Ap-
proximately 500 porosity and permeability measure-
ments on core-plug samples are also integrated in this
study. Porosity logs were also calculated using density
logs and fluid corrections.
The following workflow was adopted to assess the
geological significance of seismic reflections in the Ma-
lampaya buildup interior:
1. Diagenetic study based on petrographic description
of cores and thin sections, cathodoluminescence, and
interpretation of carbon and oxygen isotope ratios
2. Interpretation of the relationships between sediments,
diagenetic products, and petrophysical properties
(porosity and permeability)
3. Calibration of the well-log signature relative to the
depositional and diagenetic patterns
4. Identification of the diagenetic units on the basis of
well data; these are defined as carbonate rock in-
tervals characterized by a pattern of diagenetic evo-
lution, a range of reservoir and acoustic properties,
and a specific well-log signature
5. Well-to-seismic ties
6. Determination of the relationship between diage-
netic unit boundaries and seismic reflections, as well
as the study of the tuning effect; the chronostrati-
graphic values of the seismic reflections are evalu-
ated using the stratigraphic results by Fournier et al.
(2004, 2005)
238 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field
RESULTS
Diagenetic Evolution of Inner-Shelf Carbonates
Diagenesis has greatly modified the petrophysical prop-
erties of Malampaya carbonates in the buildup interior.
Diagenetic features described in core and sidewall sam-
ples from wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5 are shown
in Figure 3, and the chronology of diagenetic events is
summarized in Figure 4.
The diagenetic evolution of the inner-shelf carbon-
ates can be summarized as follows:
1. Early marine diagenesis: Precipitation of isopachous
rims of fibrous to bladed calcite within coarse-grained
bioclastic grainstones occurred in the marine phre-
atic environment. Geopetal infills of homogeneous
or peloidal micrite within mud-poor sediments are
common and can be considered nearly syndepositional.
2. Meteoric diagenesis: Repeated subaerial exposure
events are reported from the late Oligocene and
early Miocene by Fournier et al. (2004). Exposure
surfaces are expressed by pedogenic features, such
as rhizoliths, pisoids, and laminated calcrete crusts.
Intense leaching of bioclasts and matrix below ex-
posure surfaces led to the formation of dissolution
vugs. Intergranular and moldic pores are commonly
partially occluded by fine-grained blocky cements of
nonferroan blocky calcite, which could represent
phases of meteoric phreatic cementation. Petro-
graphic observations of thin sections do not allow the
determination of whether blocky calcite cements are
all of meteoric-phreatic origin, or if they also include
late-burial cements. Large macrovugs are occasion-
ally rimmed by multilayered anisopachous fibrous
or botryoidal cements, interpreted as speleothems.
3. Late-burial diagenesis: Very coarse-grained calcite
blocky spars commonly occlude preexisting dis-
solution vugs or fractures and could be interpreted
as forming under late-burial conditions. They are par-
ticularly abundant within the wells located at the
vicinity of the western buildup margin (i.e., wells
MA-1, MA-7, MA-8). In MA-1, rare saddle dolomite
cements represent the youngest phase of porosity
occlusion. Matrix micrite commonly displays mod-
erate and sporadic microspar replacement of mi-
crite attributable to burial transformation, although
a meteoric origin is not excluded.
The scarcity of direct evidence of burial dissolu-
tion in Malampaya makes it difficult to evaluate its
Figure 3. Synthetic chart showing biostratigraphic ages, well-log data, diagenetic features, and d13C profiles (PDB = Peedee belemnite
standard) from wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5; the main sedimentary units are reported (m SS = meters subsea).

Fournier and Borgomano 239

Figure 4. Ideal paragenetic
sequence of the Nido car-
bonates in Malampaya.
contribution to the present-day reservoir properties.
Corrosion of late-burial cement was observed within
the southwestern flank of the buildup, in well MA-3
(Fournier et al., 2004). Very minor matrix leaching
overprinting stylolites is reported from MA-2. The del-
icate preservation of alveolar septal structures within
rhizoliths in MA-5 cores suggests that later dissolu-
tion stages probably did not affect significantly the
innermost part of the Malampaya shelf. However,
closer to the western margin of the buildup, dissolu-
tion vugs with noncemented walls are found in well
MA-7 (Figure 5b), coexisting with vugs occluded by
speleothems and coarse-grained blocky calcite. This
could be interpreted in two different ways: (1) The
noncemented vugs have a low connectivity, thus pre-
venting an efficient circulation of saturated fluids; or
(2) the vugs have a late origin and formed after the
latest phase of cementation. Vuggy porosity develop-
ment under deep-burial conditions has been document-
ed in other Tertiary southeast Asian carbonate build-
ups (Saller and Vijaya, 2002; Esteban and Taberner,
2003; Zampetti et al., 2003, 2005; Sattler et al., 2004).
In addition, although the present data set did not al-
low us to clearly establish the timing of hydrocarbon
migration, the function of high hydrocarbon satura-
tions in the preservation or enhancement of porosity
(Worden and Heasley, 2000) in the eastern and central
240 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field
areas cannot be ruled out. Finally, fractures are encoun-
tered systematically within tight horizons, thus indi-
cating a control of cementation phases (meteoric and/
or burial) on the spatial distribution of fractures.
Origin and Identification of Diagenetic Units
Diagenetic units are defined as carbonate rock inter-
vals characterized by (1) a specific diagenetic history,
(2) a range of reservoir and acoustic properties, and
(3) a specific well-log signature.
On the basis of petrographic analysis on cores and
thin sections, well-log patterns, and petrophysical mea-
surements, the Nido carbonates were subdivided into
diagenetic units that are grouped into five main types.
They are characterized in Figure 6 in terms of litholo-
gy, pore type, diagenetic evolution, reservoir, and well-
log patterns.
Type Ia and Ib Diagenetic Units
The type Ia unit refers to quartz-rich packstones (bio-
micrite) with variable matrix content. Primary poros-
ity is completely occluded by blocky calcite cements.
Type Ib units are related to high-energy grainstone
(biosparite) facies with well-developed isopachous rim
cements. Residual pores are commonly occluded by
Figure 5. Diagenetic features, porosity and permeability laboratory measurements, and carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in cored
sections (a) in well Malampaya-5 (cores 1 and 2), located within a type IIIa diagenetic unit; and (b) in well Malampaya-7 (cores 1 and 2 ),
located within a type IIIb diagenetic unit. Diagenetic units are defined as carbonate rock intervals characterized by their specific
diagenetic history, a range of reservoir and acoustic properties, and a specific well-log signature (see Figure 6).

Fournier and Borgomano 241

242
Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Figure 6. Characterization of the diagenetic units in terms of lithology, diagenesis, petrophysical properties, and well-log pattern. Porosity is derived from density logs and fluid corrections.
blocky spar cements of meteoric and/or burial origin.
Type Ia and Ib units are devoid of dissolution features
and do not appear to be affected by repeated subaerial
exposure events. Reservoir quality of these units is poor,
with porosity less than 15% and permeability less than
100 md.
Type II Diagenetic Units
Type II units are characterized by very little diagenetic
alteration, with rare dissolution and cementation fea-
tures. They represent intervals of protected inner-shelf
sedimentation, dominated by wackestone to packstone
textures (biomicrite), that are not interrupted by re-
peated subaerial exposure (Fournier et al., 2004). How-
ever, slight microspar replacement of micrite occurs
locally within the matrix. Matrix microporosity (pore
space between micrite crystals) is the dominant pore
type. These units display low vertical and lateral varia-
tions of reservoir properties. Porosity values are high,
averaging 24%, whereas permeability is moderate, with
values typically less than 50 md.
Type IIIa and IIIb Diagenetic Units
Type IIIa and IIIb units represent intervals of cyclic
inner-shelf sedimentation, dominated by wackestone
to packstone textures (biomicrite) and marked by re-
peated subaerial exposures. Dissolution vugs and cal-
cretes are abundant features in both types of units.
Type IIIa and IIIb units differ by the amount of blocky
calcite cement. Whereas paleosol-related and vuggy
porosity are preserved in type IIIa units, blocky calcite
cements, of meteoric and/or burial origin, largely oc-
clude the pore space in type IIIb units. Figure 5 compares
two cored sections within a type IIIa unit (Figure 5a;
MA-5 well, cores 1 and 2) and a type IIIb unit (Figure 5b;
MA-7, cores 1 and 2). In both cases, the cored interval
is subdivided into meter-scale parasequences (Four-
nier et al., 2004), and most of them are bounded by
exposure surfaces displaying paleosol features. The
MA-5 cores 1 and 2 (type IIIa diagenetic unit) are
mainly composed of porous, mud-rich carbonates in-
terbedded with a few thin layers containing blocky
spar cements. The highest porosity (>28%) and per-
meability values (>500 md) are related to rhizolith-
and/or macrovug-bearing intervals (Figure 7B-b). In
the MA-7 cores (type IIIb diagenetic unit), meter-
thick tightly cemented beds alternate with more po-
rous and permeable layers. Tight intervals correspond
to paleosol horizons in which root-related pore space has
been completely occluded by coarse-grained blocky cal-
cite cements of probable burial origin (Figure 7B-c, e).
Within porous intervals, cements are more rare, and
vugs with noncemented walls coexist with vugs filled
with speleothem cements (Figure 7B-a, d, f ). The ver-
tical evolution of diagenetic features and petrophysical
properties in MA-7 cores is interpreted as follows
(Figure 7A): (1) High-porosity and high-permeability
layers form during subaerial exposure events as a re-
sult of rhizolith and dissolution vug development;
(2) locally, the pore space is partially occluded by
fine-grained blocky calcite, and vugs are rimmed by
speleothems in later phases of subaerial exposure;
(3) saturated deep fluids circulate preferentially with-
in high-permeability paleosol horizons and precipitate
blocky-calcite cement, during the late-burial phase, oc-
cluding most of the pore network; and (4) in a later
phase, corrosive fluids could have formed dissolution
vugs within the residual permeable intervals. Various
processes leading to carbonate dissolution in a burial set-
ting have been proposed. Burial dissolution does not
necessarily involve large fluid fluxes. For Mazzulo and
Harris (1992), brines charged with organic acids, carbon
dioxide, and/or hydrogen sulfide derived from organic
matter degradation and thermochemical sulfate re-
duction are the most likely fluids responsible for buri-
al dissolution of carbonates in a burial setting. Thermo-
chemical sulfate reduction is known to be responsible
for the partial dissolution of carbonates in deep-burial
settings at temperatures greater than 100–140jC (Wor-
den et al., 1995; Machel, 1998; Worden et al., 1998) that
are consistent with present-day formation tempera-
tures (100–170jC). In addition, Esteban and Taberner
(2003) demonstrated, from different carbonate-reservoir
case studies, that corrosion occurs mainly after the ces-
sation of pressure solution and results from the mix-
ing of formation fluids and externally sourced fluids
at higher temperatures. The external fluids could be
warmer hydrothermal fluids rising from depth as in
the Tertiary limestones of the Bombay Basin (Minero
et al., 2000; Esteban and Taberner, 2003) or compaction
waters from the shales overlying the carbonate build-
up, as suggested in the Liuhua platform (Sattler et al.,
2004). In the case of Malampaya, additional stable iso-
tope studies of cement stages and fluid-inclusion analy-
ses should be performed to clarify the origin of the cor-
rosive fluids.
Reservoir properties are highly variable in both unit
types. Type IIIa units have a porosity modal value be-
tween 20 and 25%, and permeability is commonly greater
than 100 md, whereas in type IIIb units, the porosity
modal value is between 5 and 10%, and permeability
rarely exceeds 100 md.
Fournier and Borgomano 243
Figure 7. (A) Model of porosity evolution within the type IIIb units; (B) (a) core photograph showing a dissolution vug rimmed by
speleothems, Malampaya-7; (b) well-preserved, root-related porosity (alveolar septal structures) within rhizoliths, microphotograph,
Malampaya-5; (c) occlusion of root-related pores by coarse-grained blocky calcite (bc), microphotograph, Malampaya-7; (d) dissolution
vug partially occluded by micritic geopetal infill (gi) and speleothems (sp); later dissolution cavities are present (lp), microphotograph,
Malampaya-5; (e) core photograph within rhizoliths (Rhiz.): root-related pores or dissolution vugs are partially to completely occluded
by blocky calcite or speleothems (sp), Malampaya-7; (f) core photograph showing the coexistence of vugs filled with speleothems (sp)
and vugs with non-cemented walls (V.), Malampaya-7.

244 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Figure 8. Porosity-permeability plots as a function of dominant pore type and depositional facies for Malampaya-5 and Malampaya-7
early Miocene samples; (a) echinoderm, and red-algal wackestone; (b) foraminiferal, and red-algal packstone; (c) coral, red-algal, and
foraminiferal packstone and floatstone; (d) foraminiferal and red-algal grainstone. Boxes represent the maximum ranges of values for a
given pore type, considering all depositional facies.

Influence of Depositional Facies on the Evolution
of Petrophysical Properties
Figure 8a–c display porosity-versus-permeability graphs
for the three dominant depositional facies of the early
Miocene buildup interior (echinoderm and red-algal
wackestone, foraminiferal and red-algal packstone, and
coral, red-algal, and foraminiferal packstone). The fol-
lowing observations can be highlighted regarding these
graphs:
1. The three dominant facies have very similar ranges
of porosity (24–28%) and permeability (5–20 md),
when they are not affected by dissolution or cemen-
tation processes (dominant matrix microporosity).
2. Dissolution and cementation processes, vuggy po-
rosity development, and pedogenesis can affect any
of the three main facies.
3. For a given type of diagenetic alteration, ranges of
porosity and permeability are very similar in the
three dominant facies (see envelopes for root-related
pore types and vuggy plus root-related pore types).
In contrast, grainstones have a specific diagenetic
evolution because marine fibrous rims and later blocky
cements commonly occlude most of the primary in-
tergranular pores. In the lower Miocene Malampaya
inner shelf, grainstones (Figure 8d) are relatively rare
and have low porosity (<20%) and low permeability
(<10 md).

Fournier and Borgomano 245

Figure 9. Petroacoustic properties in well Malampaya-1: (A) sonic velocity (V p)-versus-porosity plot for unit type Ia and Ib samples
within the water-bearing reservoir; (B) sonic velocity (V p)-versus-porosity plot for samples located within the gas-bearing reservoir in
type II, IIIa, and IIIb diagenetic units; (C) sonic velocity (V p)-versus-porosity plot for type II and IIIb diagenetic units. Plotting symbols
indicate the pore-fluid nature. (D) Histograms of the acoustic impedance for the different diagenetic unit types.

In conclusion, because mud-bearing carbonates are
dominant, depositional facies apparently have only a mi-
nor impact on the present-day petrophysical properties
in the Malampaya buildup interior. Variations in po-
rosity, permeability, and pore type are mainly related to
dissolution, cementation, and pedogenetic processes.
Acoustic Properties of Diagenetic Units
The first step in determining the geological significance
of a seismic reflector is to correlate rock velocity with
other parameters such as porosity. Figure 9A and B
display graphs of sonic velocity in well MA-1 versus
porosity. In gas-saturated carbonates (at constant gas
saturation > 90%) from type IIIa and IIIb units, graphs
show a major scattering of velocity values at a given
porosity (Figure 9B). In Malampaya as in other carbon-
ate reservoirs, pore-fill fluids have only a moderate ef-
fect on acoustic velocity (Neuhaus et al., 2004). This
low sensitivity of acoustic velocity to fluid content is shown
in Figure 9C, where P-wave (= compressional wave)
velocity (V p) values from gas-saturated carbonates
display the same scatter as in a water-saturated interval.
This indicates a relative inefficiency of the pore system
with regard to the P-wave propagation, probably in
relation to pore geometry and size. P-waves propagate
predominantly within the carbonate matrix and bypass
most of the pore network. Anselmetti and Eberli (1993,
1997) demonstrated that variations in velocity at equal
porosity are mainly controlled by pore types. The large
scattering in acoustic velocity in type IIIa and IIIb units
is the result of vertical heterogeneity in pore-type
distribution and diagenetic evolution. Within these
intervals, the dominant pore type varies vertically
from matrix microporosity to moldic and vuggy po-
rosity, with variable calcite cement content. In type II
units, velocities also exhibit significant deviations, al-
though dissolution features and cements are rare or
absent. Variable intensity of matrix neomorphism
(microspar replacement of micrite) in these mud-rich
intervals could be responsible for the scattered values of
velocity. In type Ib intervals, acoustic velocity varies with
porosity without significant scattering, thus reflecting a
low pore-type diversity, with porosity being related

246 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

only to the abundance of cement occluding the primary
interparticular porosity. Velocity in the type Ia unit
appears relatively insensitive to porosity changes.
Diagenetic unit types exhibit significant differ-
ences in acoustic impedance values (Figure 9D):
 Type Ia: very high acoustic impedance ( > 14 
106 kg m 2 s 1) because of very low porosity
values caused by calcite cementation and lack of dis-
solution features
 Type Ib: high acoustic impedance (> 10  106 kg
m 2 s 1) because of partial to complete occlusion
of intergranular primary porosity by marine fibrous
and meteoric to burial blocky calcite
 Type II: low acoustic impedance (7–8  106 kg
m 2 s 1) attributed to high matrix porosity and
absence of cement-occluding pore space
 Type IIIa: low acoustic impedance (8–9  106 kg
m 2 s 1), mainly related to high porosity levels
with paleosols and dissolution vugs
 Type IIIb: high acoustic impedance (11–12  106
kg m 2 s 1) correlated with a low average porosity
value, resulting mainly from the intense cemen-
tation by a blocky spar of intervals that have pre-
viously undergone meteoric leaching and pedogenic
alteration
Most of the type IIIa and IIIb diagenetic units are
located within the oil- or gas-bearing reservoir, thus
implying a significant decrease in density in porous
intervals. We postulate that hydrocarbon content has
contributed to enhance the contrast between porous
type IIIa units and dominantly tight type IIIb intervals.
Seismic Imaging of Diagenetic Units
Origin of Seismic Reflectors
Synthetic seismograms were calculated to tie well and
seismic data (Figure 10). A good fit is obtained between
the synthetic seismogram calculated for wells MA-1,
MA-2, and MA-5 and the actual seismic data. Bound-
aries between diagenetic units are related to the highest
reflection coefficients (in absolute value) and generated
the main seismic reflectors within the buildup interior.
Amplitude value and polarity depend on the nature
and relative position of the bounding diagenetic units.
Table 1 summarizes the relationship between seismic
reflectors and the type of petrophysical boundary. A
well-to-well correlation of the diagenetic units is shown
in Figure 11.
Some positive amplitude reflectors are discontin-
uous and have only a very small lateral extent. For
example, Figure 12 shows the progressive disappear-
ance of the M20.0 reflector. In well MA-1, this re-
flector represents the base of a type IIIb diagenetic unit
that is marked by intense burial cementation of pre-
viously exposed and leached carbonates. Farther to the
east, this cemented carbonate body laterally changes
into a type IIIa diagenetic unit, and in well MA-5, the
cemented levels are very thin and rare (see Figure 5a).
Such a lateral change in diagenetic unit type is caused by
an eastern decrease in burial blocky cement cementa-
tion, thus suggesting a possible control of the western
margin fault in the circulation of late-burial fluids. A
similar fluid flow control by a fault was suggested by
Story et al. (2000) in the Liuhua 11-1 carbonate res-
ervoir (offshore China). In Figure 13B, a similar feature
is observed, with the eastward thinning of the tightly
cemented SC2.1-IIIb unit (lower part of the intra-Nido
interval; sensu Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999) seismi-
cally expressed by the disappearance of the C21.0 re-
flector between the MA-1 and MA-5 wells.
Except for the carbonate buildup base and top
that represent lithological boundaries, seismic reflec-
tors mark envelopes of rock bodies that are charac-
terized by similar petrophysical and petroacoustic
properties predominantly controlled by their specific
diagenetic evolution.
The carbonate base is imaged by a continuous, highly
positive amplitude reflector resulting from a lithologi-
cal contrast between sub-Nido sandstones (Paleocene–
Eocene) and tight Eocene carbonates. The seismic char-
acter of the carbonate buildup top is more variable. In
the buildup interior, carbonate buildup is expressed by
a continuous negative amplitude reflector represent-
ing a lithologic contrast in acoustic impedance between
tightly cemented limestones and overlying clastics. Near
the eastern margin and in the eastern flank, the car-
bonate top is represented by an envelope of various re-
flector terminations (Figure 2), thus expressing a lat-
eral change in reflection coefficient polarity (Neuhaus
et al., 2004). Other Tertiary carbonate buildups display
boundaries that are not expressed by a continuous seis-
mic reflector; e.g., Salalah Basin, Oman (Borgomano and
Peters, 2004), and Luconia Province, offshore Sarawak,
Malaysia (Bracco Gartner et al., 2004).
Impact of Tuning Effect on Seismic Imaging of Diagenetic Units
A careful study of the contribution of individual reflec-
tivity interfaces to the total seismic signal is required
to evaluate the accuracy of the diagenetic unit imaging.
Fournier and Borgomano 247
248
Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Figure 10. Well-to-seismic tie. (a) Shape and amplitude spectrum of the wavelet extracted from the seismic data within the carbonate buildup: the spectrum shows frequencies
between 5 and 65 Hz, with 30 Hz the strongest but not overdominant; (b –d) synthetic panels compared with the actual seismic data for wells Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2, and
Malampaya-5, respectively. Synthetic seismograms were calculated using the extracted wavelet. mMD = meters, measured depth.
Table 1. Relationship between Diagenetic Unit Boundaries and Seismic Reflectors in the Malampaya Buildup Interior

Bounding Diagenetic Units Corresponding Seismic Reflection

Lower Unit Upper Unit Reflection Coefficient Polarity Examples

Pre-Nido clastics Type Ia Negative Peak Base Nido

Type Ia Type II Positive Trough R10.1
Type Ib Type II Positive Trough R20.1
Type II Type Ib Negative Peak R20.0
Type II Type IIIb Negative Peak C11.0, C21.0, M11.0, M12.0
Type IIIb Type IIIa Positive Trough C11.1, M12.1, M20.1, M30.1
Type IIIa Type IIIb Negative Peak C22.0, M20.0, M30.0, M40.0
Type IIIa Type II Positive Trough C12.1
Type IIIb Pagasa clastics Positive Trough M.40.1

As explained by Sheriff (1977), most reflections are and IIIb units. Individual synthetic seismic responses
the composite interferences of several interfaces. Petro- at reflectivity interfaces are calculated (Figure 13A)
acoustic properties in Malampaya carbonates display using a 30-Hz mode wavelet, extracted from the seismic
rapid vertical variations, particularly with type IIIa signal within the carbonates (see Figure 10). Internal

Figure 11. Correlation panel of the diagenetic units between wells Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2, Malampaya-5, Malampaya-7, and
Malampaya-8. Inset map represents the depth of the top Nido Limestone and the location of wells. mTVDSS: meters total vertical
depth subsea.

Fournier and Borgomano 249

Figure 12. (a) Trace display of
an arbitrary line crossing wells
Malampaya-1 and Malampaya-
5 and showing the correspon-
dence between seismic reflec-
tors and the diagenetic units;
the M20.0 reflector displays an
abrupt disappearance between
Malampaya-1 and Malampaya-
5. (b) Sr isotope measurement
on bulk carbonate samples;
abrupt change in the Sr isotope
ratio occurs at the top of the
SM2-IIIb and SM3-IIIb-2 diage-
netic units, thus suggesting
significant time gaps. (c) Diage-
netic unit correlation between
Malampaya-1 and Malampaya-
5; the SM2-IIIb diagenetic unit
pinches out between Malam-
paya-1 and Malampaya-5. mMD
= meters, measured depth.

reflectivity interfaces within diagenetic units typi-
cally represent bases and tops of 1–10-m (3.3–33-ft)
intervals of thick, tightly cemented, or leached porous
carbonates (see MA-7 cores, Figure 5b). Nevertheless,
Figure 12a shows that they have only a minor influence
on the total seismic response because severely destruc-
tive interference occurs. The reflectivity interfaces at
the boundary between two diagenetic units are the
main contributors to the final composite signal. How-
ever, interferences can occur between these major inter-
faces, and an analysis of the tuning effect is needed to
establish the validity of the use of seismic reflectors in
delineating diagenetic bodies. Figure 14 shows that, in
well MA-1, petrophysical unit thicknesses are com-
monly close to the tuning thickness. Most of the unit
boundaries constructively interfere, thus implying that
amplitude anomalies are created, with peak-to-trough
amplitude values higher than expected, but without sig-
nificant discrepancy between apparent and actual peak-
to-trough time thickness. As a consequence, in most
cases, it will be possible to reconstruct with accuracy
diagenetic body thickness and morphology from the
interpretation of seismic reflectors after time-to-depth
conversion. Nevertheless, units SC2.1-IIIb, SC2.2-IIIa,
and SM3-IIIb-2 are too thin to be correctly imaged, and
negative interferences occur between the top and base.
DISCUSSION
Are Seismic Reflection Time Lines in Carbonates?
Seismic-stratigraphic interpretation is based on the as-
sumption that seismic reflections are generated by
stratal surfaces or erosional unconformities (Vail et al.,
1977) and have therefore a chronostratigraphic value.
Despite its crucial economic and academic importance,
studies questioning this paradigm are rare (Schlager and
Stafleu, 1993; Tipper, 1993; Anselmetti et al., 1997).
In Malampaya, seismic reflections signify bound-
aries between carbonate bodies that have been affected

250 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

 Figure 13. (A) influence of
vertical changes in acoustic
impedance within the diagenetic
units: (a) high-amplitude reflec-
tions are related to SM1.2-IIIb
base and top, whereas internal
reflection coefficients are inter-
fering destructively and have
low contribution to the com-
posite trace. (b) Highest ampli-
tude reflections are related to
SC2.2-IIIb top and SC2.1-IIIb
base; base and top of the SC2.2-
IIIa unit are not fully resolved,
and the composite signal re-
sulting from the internal reflec-
tion coefficients mentioned on
the right interfere moderately
with SC2.2-IIIb top and SC2.1-
IIIb base. (B) Trace display of an
arbitrary line crossing wells
Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2,
and Malampaya-5 and showing
the correspondence between
seismic reflectors and the dia-
genetic units; the M20.0 reflec-
tor progressively disappears
between Malampaya-1 and
Malampaya-5. (C) Diagenetic
unit correlation between
Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2,
and Malampaya-5; the SC2.1-
IIIb diagenetic unit pinches
out between Malampaya-1 and
Malampaya-5 and between
Malampaya-5 and Malampaya-2.
MD: measured depth.

by distinct diagenetic evolutions, thus conferring spe-
cific petroacoustic and reservoir properties. By integrat-
ing the diagenetic, petrophysical, and seismic response
analyses and stratigraphic results by Fournier et al. (2004,
2005), the chronostratigraphic value of seismic reflec-
tions can be assessed.
Only negative amplitude reflectors (expressing a
downward increase of acoustic impedance) can be in-
terpreted as having a stratigraphic significance. Table 2
summarizes the chronostratigraphic significance of
the negative amplitude seismic reflectors. Some of the
corresponding surfaces can be unambiguously inter-
preted as major unconformities (sensu Mitchum, 1977)
on the basis of significant breaks in the vertical and lat-
eral evolution of depositional facies and diagenetic pat-
tern (e.g., reflectors R20.1, C11.1, C12.1, C22.1, M11.1,
or M40.1). In addition, reflectors M20.1 and M30.1
(Figure 12) are related to surfaces representing signif-
icant hiatuses as suggested by the abrupt shifts in Sr iso-
tope ratios (Wheeler and Aharon, 1991). Nevertheless,

Fournier and Borgomano 251

Figure 14. Study of the tuning effect in well Malampaya-1: (a) diagenetic units, upscaled acoustic impedance curve, and reflection
coefficients in well Malampaya-1; (b) Actual time thickness versus apparent time thickness (solid line) and versus normalized peak-
trough amplitude (dashed line); curves are calculated using the wavelet extracted from the seismic data (see Figure 10). Diagenetic
unit bases and tops are always interfering; most of the unit thicknesses are close to the tuning thickness, thus inducing significant
amplitude anomalies. TWT = two-way traveltime; TVD = true vertical depth.

for some other negative amplitude reflectors (R10.1,
M12.1), no direct chronostratigraphic or sedimento-
logic evidence supports their interpretation in terms
of unconformity or stratal surface. In the Malampaya
buildup interior, major unconformities can be either
related to phases of tectonic deformation (tilting and/or
folding) or by uniform falls in relative sea level (Fournier
et al., 2005). Such unconformities may contain time
lines, but no time lines will cross them.
In contrast, except for the base carbonate reflec-
tor, positive amplitude reflectors mark the bases of cal-
cite cement precipitation and, in the absence of further
high-resolution biostratigraphic or chemostratigraphic
datings, they cannot be rigorously considered as time
lines. The abrupt eastward pinch-out of the 40-m
(130-ft)-thick SM2-IIIb body (Figure 12) implies that
the diagenetic unit boundary probably crosscuts time
lines because no significant changes in paleowater
depth (Fournier et al., 2004) occurred within the build-
up interior at this time. In addition, during the early
Oligocene unit SC1.1, the vertical succession of depo-
sitional facies suggests an eastward-prograding system
(Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200). This prograding unit is
topped by an exposure surface imaged by the reflector
C11.1; the upper part of the SC1.1 unit contains abun-
dant meteoric and/or burial cements (type IIIb diage-
netic unit). The C11.0 reflector marks the base of these
cemented zones and is roughly parallel to the C11.1 un-
conformity. As a consequence, the C11.0 reflector prob-
ably crosscuts the different prograding clinoforms form-
ing the SC1.1 unit and, therefore, crosscuts time lines
(Figure 15). Although meteoric and burial diagenesis
have been largely controlled by stratigraphy, diagenetic
unit boundaries are not always parallel to stratigraphic
boundaries. As a consequence, some seismic reflectors
crosscut time lines because diagenetic transformations,
particularly burial cementation, have not perfectly fol-
lowed stratigraphy.

252 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Table 2. Stratigraphic Significance of Seismic Reflectors in the Malampaya Buildup Interior

Bounding Diagenetic Boundaries Arguments and References

Stratigraphic
Seismic Reflector Lower Unit Upper Unit Significance

M40.1 Type IIIb Pagasa clastics Drowning surface Severe deepening in Malampaya-8 (Fournier
et al., 2005, p. 207)
M30.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Significant hiatus revealed by Sr isotopes (this
paper, Figure 11)
M20.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Significant hiatus revealed by Sr isotopes (this
paper, Figure 11)
M12.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa ?
M11.1 Type IIIb Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates, overlain
by deeper deposits (Fournier et al., 2005)
C22.1 Type IIIb Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates
Above: deepening in environment
C12.1 Type IIIa Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates, overlain by
deeper facies, in Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2,
and Malampaya-5 (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 205)
C11.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Exposure surface marking the top of a prograding
unit; evidences of tectonic deformation prior to
SC1.2 deposition (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200)
R20.1 Type Ib Type II Unconformity Tilted platform top, evidenced by eastward
deepening in environments of overlying SC1.1
deposits (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200)
R10.1 Type Ia Type II Unconformity? Possible significant hiatus: Tc stage (letter-stages
classification of larger foraminifera) could be
missing?

Implications for Reservoir Architecture and
Reservoir Performance
Malampaya seismic reflectors image envelopes of car-
bonate bodies affected by a coherent set of diagenetic
transformations instead of depositional surfaces. Pick-
ing the seismic reflectors in Malampaya consequently
leads to the definition of seismodiagenetic units in-
stead of sedimentary bodies or depositional stratigraph-
ic sequences (sensu Mitchum, 1977).
Because Malampaya reservoir properties are main-
ly controlled by the nature and the intensity of dia-
genetic alterations, 3-D picking of the seismic reflec-
tions will provide not only envelopes of porous and tight
units that are laterally continuous in 3-D, but also en-
velopes of dominant pore types. The highest hierar-
chical levels of the reservoir layering can therefore be
constructed in 3-D, when diagenetic unit thickness
is greater than tuning thickness. However, the use of
seismic acoustic impedance inversion for the construc-
tion of 3-D porosity models is complicated for two
reasons: (1) acoustic impedance is not only related to
porosity but also to pore type, particularly in vuggy
intervals; and (2) the tuning effect between the top and
base of the diagenetic units induces significant ampli-
tude anomalies.
The layering of the reservoir into seismodiage-
netic units also has implications for the permeability
model of the reservoir. Figure 6 shows that the different
diagenetic units are related to distinct porosity-versus-
permeability behavior. For example, type II and IIIa units
have the same porosity mode (20–25%), but perme-
ability values differ significantly because they com-
monly reach 100 md in type IIIa units and rarely exceed
50 md in type II units. Such differences are related to
the nature of the dominant pore type (type II: matrix
micropores; and type IIIa: vugs and root-related pores)
and, therefore, to the diagenetic evolution.
The interpreted reservoir architecture from seis-
mic and static well data suggests the presence of dense
and relatively tight diagenetic units that correspond to
flat lenses and sheets in 3-D. These diagenetic units

Fournier and Borgomano 253

Figure 15. (a) Trace display of an arbitrary line crossing wells Malampaya-1, and Malampaya-5. It shows the correspondence
between seismic reflectors C11.1, C11.0, R20.1, and the diagenetic units; (b) well correlation showing the prograding unit SC1.1
(modified from Fournier et al., 2004) and the SC1.1-IIIb diagenetic unit. The lower boundary of this type IIIb diagenetic unit crosscuts
depositional surfaces. Around well Malampaya-2, the SC1.1-IIIb diagenetic unit is too thin, and destructive interference occurs
between the top and base.

can be locally stacked vertically and form apparent con-
tinuous strata, but individually, they are not laterally
continuous at the scale of the Malampaya buildup.
Regarding the possible compartmentalization of the
reservoir, they can therefore be considered as baffles
for vertical and 3-D fluid displacement and not as ver-
tical barriers. The systematic presence of open vertical
fractures within these dense diagenetic units enhances
their vertical permeability at the reservoir scale. The
initial reservoir conditions (pressure gradients and flu-
id contacts) confirm that the Malampaya field is not
compartmentalized.
Given the previous considerations, the gas pro-
duction, especially from the crest of the buildup, can-
not be affected by the presence of these dense dia-
genetic units. One should, however, realize that such
reservoir architectures would have more impact in
other settings on the reservoir performance in the case
of oil production.
Comparison with Other Tertiary Carbonate Buildups
from Southeast Asia
Tertiary carbonate buildups of southeast Asia are of
considerable economic importance because they are
major hydrocarbon targets both offshore and onshore
(Sun and Esteban, 1994; Howes, 1997; Williams, 1997).
Although displaying very similar features in terms of
age, general morphology, and biological assemblages,
many differences exist with regard to the growth pat-
tern, the evolution of the petrophysical properties,
and the origin of seismic reflections. In Figure 16,
Malampaya is compared with the early Miocene up-
per Zhujiang platform (Liuhua 11-1 field), offshore
China (Erlich et al., 1990; Wagner et al., 1995; Sattler
et al., 2004; Zampetti et al., 2005), and the early to
middle Miocene Luconia buildups, offshore Sarawak,
Malaysia (Epting, 1980, 1989; Zampetti et al., 2003,
2004).

254 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field

Fournier and Borgomano
255

Figure 16. Comparison between the Malampaya buildup, the upper Zhujiang platform (offshore China), and the Luconia platforms (offshore Malaysia).
 In the three carbonate systems, petrophysical and
petroacoustic properties are controlled by secondary
porosity formation under meteoric and/or late-burial
conditions. Therefore, seismic reflections mark, in the
three cases, boundaries between diagenetically con-
trolled tight and porous units. The main differences
between the three examples involve the origin of the
acoustic contrasts between the diagenetic and litho-
logic units and the chronostratigraphic significance of
such contrasts.
Origin of the Porous versus Tight Units
In the Luconia and Liuhua 11-1 buildups, impedance
contrasts are mainly induced by deep-burial leaching and
cementation (Zampetti et al., 2003; Sattler et al., 2004).
In Malampaya, although late-burial cementation is also
a major factor in the development of tight units, the
spatial distribution of late cements is mainly inherited
from the meteoric diagenetic history. Indeed, high-
frequency exposure events are reported in Malam-
paya and are responsible for the development of high-
permeability paleosol-related intervals, of probable
major importance for fluid circulation during the late-
burial diagenesis. In contrast, even if several exposure
surfaces are reported from Luconia and Liuhua, no
evidence of high-frequency subaerial exposure and as-
sociated paleosol development exists. In the Liuhua 11-1
field, the porosity spatial distribution is controlled by
bedding-parallel aquitards of depositional origin (Sat-
tler et al., 2004) that diverted the circulation of deep-
burial corrosive fluids.
Differences in tectonic evolution and subsidence
regime can be invoked to explain the presence of cy-
clically exposed carbonates in Malampaya, in contrast
to Luconia and Liuhua 11-1 buildups. Indeed, in Ma-
lampaya, Fournier et al. (2005) documented significant
synsedimentary folding, tilting of the carbonate build-
up, and repeated exposure events that could be related
to episodic pulses of tectonic deformation. In addition,
climatic differences (amount of rainfall, seasonality)
between the three buildups can also explain the distinct
diagenetic patterns (intensity of leaching and cementa-
tion, paleosol development) during subaerial exposure
phases.
Stratigraphic and Depositional Significance
Seismic reflectors from Luconia and Liuhua carbonates
still conform to depositional architecture, despite the
dominant burial-diagenetic origin of the acoustic im-
pedance contrasts. In Malampaya, only negative ampli-
tude reflectors have a stratigraphic value. Nevertheless,
256 Significance of Seismic Reflections in Carbonates: Malampaya Gas Field
they mark major unconformities and do not necessarily
conform to primary depositional stratal surfaces or
stratal envelopes. Indeed, deformation, tilting, and ero-
sion could have occurred below such unconformities.
In addition, positive amplitude reflectors are of disput-
able chronostratigraphic value in Malampaya because
they are only related to bases of cemented zones, and
some of them (C11.1, C21.0, M20.0) probably crosscut
depositional surfaces.
The imaging of the primary depositional architec-
ture is problematic in Malampaya as in other Tertiary
carbonate buildups. For example, although the vertical
succession of depositional facies suggests an eastward-
prograding system during the early Oligocene unit SC1.1
(Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200), only the unit top un-
conformity is imaged, and prograding depositional sets
are not visible on seismic data. The inability to image
primary depositional features is related to (1) the severe
overprinting of the primary acoustic properties during
meteoric and burial-diagenetic phases and (2) resolution
effects because possible acoustic contrasts at the top
and base of the depositional strata are too close com-
pared to the seismic signal wavelength.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The reservoir layering into porous and tight diage-
netic units is mainly inherited from the successive
meteoric and burial-diagenetic transformations.
During repeated phases of subaerial exposure, high
porosity-permeability meter-scale intervals formed
as a result of the development of root-related pore
networks in paleosols and dissolution vugs. In later
diagenetic phases, burial water flow circulated pref-
erentially through the high-permeability intervals
formed during subaerial exposure. They precipitated
blocky calcite cements, thus forming tight horizons,
particularly in the western margin of the buildup
interior, in the vicinity of the main fault. Finally, a
later phase of deep-burial leaching may have locally
enhanced porosity between tight horizons by creat-
ing dissolution vugs. Within intervals that have not
undergone subaerial exposure, matrix microporosity
(pore space between micrite crystals) is the domi-
nant pore type.
2. Seismic reflectors in Malampaya more likely image
seismodiagenetic units instead of stratigraphic se-
quences or sedimentary bodies. Most of the nega-
tive amplitude reflectors are related to unconformi-
ties and have therefore a stratigraphic significance.
 Positive amplitude reflectors have a more question-
able chronostratigraphic value and can potentially
crosscut time lines.
3. Three-dimensional picking of the seismic reflections
gives a direct insight into the reservoir architecture,
although the primary depositional architecture of
the carbonate system is poorly imaged. Constructive
interference occurs between the top and base of the
diagenetic units, thus generating amplitude anoma-
lies without significantly altering the time geometry
of the acoustic interfaces.
4. As suggested by Tertiary buildups from southeast
Asia, seismodiagenetic interpretation of 3-D seismic
data, based on a genetic classification of seismic re-
flectivity, could therefore represent an alternative
to the conventional seismic-stratigraphic approach
in carbonate systems.
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