ARO 404-2 High Speed Aerodynamics

Lecture 14
May 17, 2015
 Bell V—280 Valor

It flew horizontally for first time (5/15/2018) Vmax=300 knots~ 350 mph; cruise at 280 knots

One of two candidates for US Army FVL

The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey is an American multi-mission, tiltrotor military aircraft with both vertical takeoff and
landing, and short takeoff and landing capabilities. Top speed: 351 mph; Range: 1,011 mi
Unit cost: 71,300,000–71,300,000 USD (2005)
Program cost: US$35.6 billion after planned procurement of 408 aircraft
Engine type: Rolls-Royce T406
Manufacturers: Boeing, Bell Helicopter, Boeing Rotorcraft Systems

The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey is an American multi-mission, tiltrotor military aircraft
with both vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL), and short takeoff and landing (STOL) capabilities. It is designed to combine
the functionality of a conventional helicopter with the long-range, high-speed cruise performance of a turboprop aircraft.
• Reading assignment:
Chapter 10 of B & C

Chapter 10 and Chapter 11 of John Bertin and Cummings

• Homework: PS 7: due on May 17, 2018 (Thursday)

Bertin and Cummings Text Chapter 11
Problems 1, 3, 4, 6, 8

• Computer homework is due on 5/29/2018 (Tuesday) – 10th week

• Second mid-term exam is on 5/24/2018 (Thursday) – 9th week
• Quiz 4 is on 5/22/2018 (Tuesday) – 9th week
• Quiz 5 is on 5/31/2018 (Thursday) –10th week
Swept Wing Aerodynamics
(Supersonic Flows)
 Wing Sweep Reduces Wave Drag

• One way to augment the performance of supersonic

aircraft is with wing sweep …

• Lowers the speed of flow

Normal to the wing …

• Decreasing the strength

Of the oblique shock wave

• Result is a Decrease in wave

Drag and enhanced L/D
 Equivalent 2-D Flow on Swept Wing

• Freestream Mach number resolved into 3 components

i) vertical to wing …
ii) in plane of wing, but tangent to leading edge
iii) in plane of wing, but normal to leading edge
 i)M vert  M  sin 
ii)M ||  M  cos  sin 
ii)M   M  cos  cos 
 • Equivalent Mach Number normal to leading edge

M eq  M   M vert 
2 2
M  sin    M  cos  cos  
2 2


M 1  cos   cos  1  sin   M

2 2 2
 1  sin 2  cos2 
• Equivalent angle of attack normal to leading edge

M  sin  tan  
 
tan  eq 
M vert
M
 
M  cos  cos  cos 
 c
c

• Equivalent chord and span

ceq  c cos  
• Chord is shortened

b • Span is lengthened
beq 
cos 
 • Equivalent 2-D Lift Coefficient
L L
C L eq   
  b  
p M eq 2
c cos   p M eq 2 cb
2  cos   2
L CL


2

p M  2 cb 1  sin 2  cos 2    1  sin 2  cos 2  

4𝛼𝑒𝑞 𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝛼𝑒𝑞 ≈
cos𝛬
2
𝑀∞𝑒 −1

𝛼 cos 2 𝛬 4cos𝛬
𝐶𝐿 = 4 = (𝛼
cos𝛬 2 cos 2 𝛬 𝑀∞ 2 cos2 𝛬 − 1
𝑀∞ −1
4cos𝛬
𝐶𝐿 = (𝛼
𝑀∞ 2 cos 2 𝛬 − 1
• Equivalent 2-D
Drag Coefficient

D / cos  D / cos 
C D eq   
  b   p M 2 cb
p M eq c cos  
2
  eq
2  cos   2
D / cos  C D / cos 


      
2 2
p M  cb 1  sin  cos 
2 2 2 1 sin cos
2
• Solve for CL, CD, L/D

 L

CL  CL eq 1  sin  cos 
2 2
 L
 
D eq
 
CD  CD eq 
cos  1  sin  cos 
2 2

D cos 
Transonic Aerodynamics
M=0.971
M =0.99
M =1.015
2  D airfoil @   0
Transonic flows

2  D airfoil @   0
Transonic flows
Subsonic flow
over an airfoil
near sonic velocity
Can we find potential function solution?
 The non-linear VPE: SMALL PERTURBATIONS

 2  2ˆ
u  V  uˆ ˆ  2
 uˆ  ˆ x 2
x
v  vˆ  V 
x x x  2  2ˆ
 2
ˆ  ˆ y y
2

 vˆ 
y y  2  2ˆ
  V x  ˆ y 
xy xy
26
 PERTURBATION VELOCITIES

  ˆ 
2
 2 ˆ
   ˆ 
2
  2ˆ  ˆ  ˆ  2 ˆ
a 2  V 
  
  2  a 2     2  2V       0
 
  x   x   y   y  x  y  xy
       

Perturbation velocity potential: same equation, still nonlinear

Re-write equation in terms of perturbation velocities:


a  V  uˆ 
2 2
 uˆ
x

 a v
2
ˆ 2 v
 ˆ
y
 2V  u v
ˆ ˆ
uˆ
y
0

Substitution from energy equation (see Equation 8.32, §8.4):

a2 V2
 
a2 V 2
 
a2

V  uˆ   vˆ 2
2

 1 2  1 2  1 2

Combine these results… 27

 RESULT
Can we linearize it in transonic flow?
uˆ vˆ
Linear
1  M 
2
 
x y


 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 uˆ
M    1 
u 1 u 1 v
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  x
Non-Linear

 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 vˆ
M    1 
u 1 v 1 u
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  y
 vˆ  uˆ  uˆ vˆ 
M   1    
2

V  V  y x 
• Equation is still exact for irrotational, isentropic flow
• Perturbations may be large or small in this representation 28
 Can we linearize it in transonic flow?
uˆ vˆ
1  M 
Can we linearize it in transonic flow?
2
  
x y
 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 uˆ
M    1 
u 1 u 1 v
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  x
 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 vˆ
M    1 
u 1 v 1 u
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  y
 vˆ  uˆ  uˆ vˆ 
M   1    
2

V  V  y x 
uˆ vˆ
,  1
• Limit considerations to small V V
perturbations:
uˆ 2 vˆ 2
– Slender body
2
, 2 1
– Small angle of attack V V 29
What happened to the VPE if Mach number is close to sonic ?
 
u u
Then the term (1  M  can become small. We should retain M  (  1)
2 2
)
x V

uˆ vˆ
1  M 2
 
x y


 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 uˆ
M    1 
u 1 u 1 v
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  x
 ˆ   ˆ 2
  ˆ 2
 vˆ
M    1 
u 1 v 1 u
2
 2

 V 2 V 2
2 V  y
 vˆ  uˆ  uˆ vˆ 
M   1    
2

V  V  y x 
Transonic flow Velocity Potential Equation (non-linear)

Transonic small perturbation equation

• Transonic Aerodynamics
Drag divergence
Lift reduction
Loss of stability
• Mitigating the transonic drag/lift problems
Sweep
The area rule
Supercritical airfoil
The singular point at sonic Mach and Critical Mach number

Mach M  1 is a singular point in these equations

 AS Mach number  1

Boundary layer would separate when shock strength

Is large. The inviscid flow approximation is no longer valid.
Transonic flow

Mach number
 Transonic flow lift reduction

Not shown here, the aircraft

Stability also degrades (e.g., XCP
Moves forward)
Swept Wing to reduce wave drag
 Subsonic flow aerodynamics ( M1)

Swept Wing
Lift decreases as we swept the wing
• Transonic flow area rule
• THE WHITCOMB AREA RULE:
• Dr. Adolf Busemann gave a technical symposium on transonic airflows.
• In a vivid analogy, Busemann described the stream tubes of air flowing over an aircraft at transonic speeds as pipes, meaning that
their diameter remained constant.
• At subsonic speeds, by comparison, the stream tubes of air flowing over a surface would change shape, become narrower as their speed
increased. This phenomenon was the converse, in a sense, of a well-known aerodynamic principle called Bernoulli's theorem,
which stated that as the area of an airflow was made narrower, the speed of the air would increase. This principle
was behind the design of venturis,9 as well as the configuration of Langley's wind tunnels, which were "necked down“
in the test sections to generate higher speeds.10
• But at the speed of sound, Busemarm explained, Bernoulli's theorem did not apply. The size of the stream tubes remained constant.
In working with this kind of flow, therefore, the Langley engineers had to look at themselves as "pipefitters."
• Busemann's pipefitting metaphor caught the attention of Whitcomb. He thought of Busemann's analogy of pipes flowing over a
wing-body shape and suddenly, as he described it later, a light went on.
• The shock waves were larger than anticipated, he realized, because the stream tubes did not get narrower or change shape,
meaning that any local increase in area or drag would affect the entire configuration in all directions, and for a greater distance.
• More importantly, that meant that in trying to reduce the drag, he could not look at the wing and fuselage as separate entities.
• He had to look at the entire cross-sectional area of the design and try to keep it as smooth a curve as possible as
it increased and decreased around the fuselage, wing and tail In an instant of clarity and inspiration,
• he had discovered the area cross-sectional area where the wing joined the fuselage.
• The simplest solution was to indent the fuselage in that area, creating what engineers of the time described as a "Coke bottle" or
"Marilyn Monroe" shaped design.
• The indentation would need to be greatest at the point where the wing was the thickest, and could be gradually reduced as the wing
became thinner toward its trailing edge.
 And this is the reason!!!!!!!

• In a convergent-divergent nozzle, we can go from subsonic to supersonic smoothly

without a shock, because the area changes smoothly.
To reduce the number and power of these shock waves on the airfoil, an aerodynamic
shape should change in cross sectional area as smoothly as possible.
This leads to a "perfect" aerodynamic shape known as the Sears–Haack body,
roughly shaped like a cigar but pointed at both ends.

The area rule says that an airplane designed

with the same cross-sectional area distribution
in the longitudinal direction as the Sears-Haack
body generates the same wave drag as this Cigar shape
body, largely independent of the actual shape
The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule,
is a design technique used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds,
particularly between Mach 0.75 and 1.2.
Cross-sectional area distribution along
the body determines wave drag,
largely independent of the actual shape.
Although not congruent, the blue
and green shapes are roughly equal in
area, being equidistant from the
longitudinal center
At high-subsonic flight speeds, supersonic
airflow can develop in areas where the flow
accelerates around the aircraft body and wings.
The speed at which this occurs varies from
aircraft to aircraft, and is known as the
critical Mach number. The resulting shock waves
formed at these points of supersonic flow
can bleed away a considerable amount of
power, which is experienced by the aircraft
as a sudden and very powerful form of drag,
called wave drag. To reduce the number and
power of these shock waves, an aerodynamic
shape should change in cross sectional area
as smoothly as possible.
This leads to a "perfect" aerodynamic shape
known as the Sears–Haack body, roughly
shaped like a cigar but pointed at both ends
Marilyn Monroe" shaped
Coke bottle

note
Design Cross section area (A vs. x) to have a smooth curvature

Wasp waist
Coke bottling
Transonic Flow
－drag divergence phenomena, rapid shift of center of
pressure unsteady and somewhat unpredictable effects of
shock waves on the control surfaces
－Typical cruise Mach number of jet transports (0.75-0.83)

( now concept to push

MDD →1 ) –
supercritical airfoil
The Transonic Area Rule and the Supercritical Airfoil
－Product of transonic wind tunnels at Langley by Richard Whitcomb
－to reduce drag in the transonic regime
Supercritical airfoil