Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Wind turbine CFD modeling using a correlation-based transitional model

R. Lanzafame, S. Mauro*, M. Messina
DIIM e Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale e Meccanica, Facoltà di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi di Catania, Viale A. Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper describes the development of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 3D CFD model using the Ansys
Received 20 June 2012 Fluent solver. The model was developed to predict wind turbine performance and evaluate the capa-
Accepted 8 October 2012 bilities of the 1D model (based on BEM Theory) developed by the authors. The two models were
Available online 16 November 2012
compared in terms of accuracy, predictability and calculation time.
The strategy of generating a high quality mesh and optimizing the turbulence models (two equations
Keywords:
SST keu fully turbulent and four equations Transitional SST models) is presented. In particular, a high
Wind turbine
quality unstructured 3D grid was generated to optimize spatial discretization and meet turbulence model
CFD
Turbulence transition modeling
requirements. The mesh was subsequently converted from a tetrahedral into a polyhedral geometry to
BEM theory considerably reduce the number of cells and better align the cell faces and flow. Polyhedral cells also
reduce interpolation errors and false numerical diffusion. The empirical correlations of the Transitional
SST turbulence model were modified to improve it for wind turbine applications. A significant number of
numerical 2D airfoil tests were implemented to calibrate the turbulence model. The results of these tests
were applied to the turbulence model by modifying the local correlation parameters. The same
parameters were used in the 3D wind turbine model. A Moving Reference Frame model was used to
simulate rotation and evaluate 3D flow along the rotor blades.
The numerical results were compared to the fully turbulent SST keu simulation data to demonstrate
the superior capabilities of the modified Transitional model.
The 3D CFD model was validated using NREL PHASE VI experimental data available from scientific
literature.
An application of the 3D model to a new micro wind turbine is presented at the end of this paper. The
micro rotor was designed and optimized using the 1D code and actually built.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The design and aerodynamic optimization of wind turbine
rotors is a very important industrial and scientific field. During
recent years, many researchers have developed numerical codes to
support aerodynamic optimization to maximize energy production
according to the wind characteristics of the installation site.
Basically, researchers use BEM Theory 1D and CFD 3D codes. The
1D codes [1e6] are very simple and have very short computational
times (few minutes) but they do need experimental airfoil aero-
dynamic coefficients. This data is not easy to obtain, above all at low
Reynolds Numbers and at high AoAs. Furthermore, a semi empirical
approach is used to take into account 3D flow effects and reduce
numerical instabilities.
The 3D CFD numerical codes are more physically realistic,
because they solve the NaviereStokes equations, but they have very
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mstefano@diim.unict.it (S. Mauro).
long computational times (hours or days) and they need pre-
designed solid geometry. Very fine meshes are also necessary and
separated flow modeling is still a problematic issue.
The basic idea of this paper is to develop a design process using
both 1D and 3D numerical codes. Essentially, wind turbine rotor
geometry is designed using the BEM code while 3D CFD code is
used to validate the design, evaluate performance and errors.
The CFD model was generated using ‘Ansys Workbench 13.0’,
a multi-physics platform. The NREL PHASE VI wind turbine was
modeled to calibrate and validate the model using experimental
mechanical power data. After that, an experimental micro rotor
(designed using the BEM code) was modeled following the same
criteria. The micro rotor was also actually built.
In detail, the following steps were taken to generate the CFD 3D
model:

Precise reproduction of the wind turbine geometry using 3D
CAD;

Generation of the computational domain with Ansys
Workbench;

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.10.007
32 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39

Meshing of the computational domain to meet the specifics of

the turbulence models and to obtain grid independent
solutions;

Setting the Fluent solver and calibrating the model;

Post processing results;

Simulations were performed on a Fujitsu Primergy TX200 S5

Server, with 2 Intel Quad Core Xeon X5570 processors (2.93 GHz)
and 48 GB of RAM memory installed. A parallel computing tech-
nique was implemented, with a computational time of 18e20 h for
each simulation.
The strategy for developing and optimizing the grid is presented
at the beginning of the work. The grid has to be very fine near the
blade in order to capture stall phenomena and three-dimensional
effects. Then, the SST keu fully turbulent model was compared to
the SST Transitional model simulation results. The RANS SST
Fig. 1. NREL Phase II. Comparison between experimental and simulated power.
Transitional model demonstrated superior capabilities, predicting
mechanical power with an error less than 6% of experimental data.
The local correlation parameters of the Transitional SST model 2.2. CFD model: computational domain optimization
were modified to calibrate it for wind turbine applications. These
variables were modified after a significant number of 2D numerical Choosing a suitable computational domain is a key step in
tests on airfoils (S809, NASA ls421, NACA 4415). correctly reproducing fluid-dynamic phenomena. In this paper, this
An application of the 3D CFD model is presented at the end of choice was based on some fundamental criteria. First of all, the
this paper. It considers an experimental micro rotor, designed using computational domain had to be suitable for reproducing wind
the 1D BEM model, built for wind tunnel tests. turbine rotation without wall effects. The domain also had to be
optimized to take into account the requirements of correct mesh-
ing. Too small a domain would not provide good enough grid
2. Mathematical models generation, while too great a domain would lead to an unnecessary
increase in the number of cells and hence the computational time.
The proprietary 1D model is based on the well known BEM Some tests were performed to achieve this compromise to verify
Theory and has some corrections to take into account three- spatial discretization and enable the solver to work correctly.
dimensional flow along the blade and prevent numerical As mentioned, the NREL PHASE VI wind turbine was first
instabilities. modeled to calibrate experimental data found in scientific litera-
For the CFD modeling, the Finite Volume Ansys Fluent solver ture [23,24]. It is a two blade twisted and tapered rotor with
was used in a steady state RANS version to close the turbulence a diameter of 10.058 m. A 3D CAD was used to accurately reproduce
problem. A Moving Reference Frame (MRF) model was used to the rotor geometry, then the file was imported into the Ansys
simulate rotation solving the NaviereStokes equations in a rota- Workbench multi-physics platform. The computational domain
tional domain. was generated using the Ansys CAD interface ‘Design Modeler’. The
best compromise was found in a cylindrical shaped box with a base
radius of 6 m and a height of 10 m (Fig. 4).
2.1. Review of the proprietary 1D BEM model At the same time, the boundary conditions (BC) were defined:
a WALL type BC was used for the rotor; the upper face of the
Mono-dimensional mathematical codes based on BEM theory cylindrical box was defined as a VELOCITY INLET type BC; the lower
have very short processing times and are highly reliable. However, face of the box was defined as a PRESSURE OUTLET type BC; an
this is related to the solution of a few problems, peculiar of these
mathematical models. The problems of these numerical codes are
well known in scientific literature: they cannot describe three-
dimensional radial flow along the blades with mono-dimensional
code; they may run into numerical instabilities which prevent the
code from converging on the correct solution.
In their previous works [1e6], the authors confronted these
problems and proposed new corrections to the mathematical code.
In particular, the authors showed how to mathematically describe
lift coefficients so as to eliminate the lack of description for
centrifugal pumping. It is necessary to write two different equa-
tions describing Cl as the angle of attack varies. The first, a 5th order
logarithmic polynomial for the attached flow region and incipient
stall region, the second equation is used instead to interpolate the
experimental data in the fully stalled region.
Finally, to ascertain the accuracy of the numerical results, they
will be compared to experimental data taken from scientific liter-
ature. In particular, simulated numerical code data will be
compared with the experimental data for the wind turbines NREL
Phase II (Fig. 1), NREL Phase VI (Fig. 2) and RISO test turbine LM8.2
(Fig. 3). Fig. 2. NREL Phase VI. Comparison between experimental and simulated power.
 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39 33

Fig. 5. Blade tip surface mesh.

important. In this way, the number of cells and so the computa-

Fig. 3. RISO test turbine LM8.2. Comparison between experimental and simulated
power. tional time was reduced.
The mesh was generated and optimized using Ansys Meshing. A
high quality unstructured grid was obtained using global and local
SYMMETRY type BC was used for the lateral surface of the cylinder sizing parameters. Initially, tetrahedral cells were used to properly
(Fig. 4). The Symmetry BC is useful because it allows the solver to approximate the rotor surface geometry complexity (Fig. 5). The
consider the wall as part of a larger domain like a ‘free shear slip skewness value of the surface mesh was less than 0.6.
wall’, avoiding in this way the real wall effects [18,22]. Finally it can The mesh volume settings were next optimized. An inflation
substantially reduce the size of the cylindrical box. tool was used to generate prismatic volume cells in contact with the
rotor surface (Fig. 6). Ten layers of prismatic cells were generated
2.3. CFD model: mesh generation and optimization with a grow rate of 1,1. In order to satisfy turbulence model limi-
tations [7e19], a yþ < 1 was obtained.
Spatial discretization of the fluid-dynamics domain was the The parameter yþ is defined in Eq. (1):
result of a series of tests to obtain a high quality computational grid
yp ut
with grid independent results. This implies that the mesh was yþ ¼ (1)
refined until the difference between the numerical results of the v
same simulation, performed with two successive levels of refine-
where yp is the distance of the first grid point from the rotor, ut is
ment, was negligible [22]. Furthermore, the numerical grid was
the ‘friction velocity’ and v is the kinematic viscosity.
optimized for the particular turbulence model’s limitations [7e18]
It is possible to get a first attempt value of yp:
and geometric complexity.
In detail, since the purpose of this study was to reproduce the yþ v
aerodynamic behavior of the rotor to assess its performance in yp ¼ (2)
ut
terms of power output and power coefficient as a function of wind
speed, the mesh was made very refined close to the rotor. The grid by imposing:
volume was gradually coarsened as the wake effects were not
yþ < 1 (3)

using the 1D code output data, calculated for a wind speed of 25 m/s,
qffiffiffiffiffi
it was possible to get ut zUrel Cef =2 [16,17,20,21] and so:

yp ¼ 0:001 mm (4)

Fig. 4. Computational fluid-dynamics domain. Fig. 6. Inflation of prismatic layers.

34 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39

Fig. 7. Tetrahedral mesh volume section.

This first attempt value was used to generate the first layer of
prismatic inflation cells.
Finally, global sizing parameters were imposed to control the
development of mesh volume (Fig. 7). In order to obtain grid
independence for the solution, three levels of refinement were
tested. The grid used has about 19 million tetrahedral cells. The
mesh was later converted by Fluent solver from a tetrahedral to
a polyhedral geometry. This led to a considerable reduction in the
number of cells to approximately 9 million polyhedral cells (Figs. 8
and 9). As this type of cell considerably reduces mesh skewness,
better alignment of the flow with the cell faces should be obtained.
Interpolation errors and false numerical diffusion should also be
decreased [22].
2.4. CFD model: solver settings
To reduce computational time, a Fluent parallel version was
performed. The grid was partitioned using a Metis auto partition
method. In this way, the grid was divided into 8 parts each of which
had the same computational weight. So, each of the 8 cores solve
the NaviereStokes equations of their own part of the grid. Thus
a 60e70% reduction in computational time was obtained.
The solver settings used were as follows [7e19]:

Steady State Pressure Based solver with absolute velocity
formulation;
Fig. 9. Polyhedral mesh on a rotational plane.

Standard 2 SST keu equations and 4 Transitional SST model
equations;

Boundary condition setting on the fluid domain for the MRF
model;

Boundary condition setting on inlet and outlet (wind speed and
turbulence parameters)

Second order upwind discretization method for Momentum
and turbulence equations; second order method for pressure;
Least Squares Cell Based method for gradient;

Reduction of the under-relaxation factors to have a less
aggressive iterative simulation process;

Control monitor of the iterative process to check convergence;

Initialization and setting of post processing parameters.
2.4.1. Turbulence model optimization
The innovative concept of this work was the use of the Transi-
tional SST Turbulence model, calibrated with 2D numerical tests of
the aerodynamic airfoils. Simulations were also performed using
the Standard SST keu, with the same grid and settings to evaluate
differences and demonstrate the superior predictive capabilities of
the Transitional model.
The Transitional SST model is based on SST keu transport
equations coupled with two additional transport equations, one for
intermittency g (Eq. (5)) and one for the Transition Reynolds
number Reqt (Eq. (6)) [8,10,12e15]. These two equations were
implemented by Menter and Langtry [8,12,13] who used some
proprietary empirical correlations to allow proper closure of the
model.
  "  #
vðrgÞ v rUj g v mt vg
þ ¼ Pg1  Eg1 þ Pg2  Eg2 þ mþ
vt vxj vxj sg vxj
(5)

    " #
e
v rRe e
v rUj Re e
qt qt v vReqt
þ ¼ Pqt þ þ sqt ðm þ mt Þ (6)
vt vxj vxj vxj

It is clear from the literature that these equations lead to a more

realistic prediction of boundary layer behavior above all of the
transition from laminar to turbulent [7e15]. Since separated flow
and stall are phenomena strictly related to boundary layer behavior,
Fig. 8. Polyhedral mesh on blade surface. the SST Transitional model should be able to better predict these
 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39 35

phenomena which are critical in wind turbine applications

[11,14,15].
Since the model is based on local variable correlations, related to
the boundary layer, Menter and Langtry calibrated the model
through a series of experimental test cases on flat plates and gas
turbine blade cascades [14,15]. Local correlations were introduced
through the parameters Flength, Reqc, Reqt, using the two terms P and
E of Eqs. (5) and (6).
In order to calibrate the SST Transitional model for wind turbine
applications, a long process of optimizing the local correlation
variables was carried out. Several simulations on typical wind
turbine airfoils (S809, NASA ls421, NACA 4415) were performed
using Fluent 2D. Inlet and outlet turbulence boundary conditions
were also optimized (Turbulent Intensity and Turbulent Viscosity
Ratio).
In detail, the local correlation variables Flength, Reqc, Reqt were
modified through the use of a UDF, written in C language and
interpreted by the Fluent solver. The correlation variables were
modified until the experimental data of the aerodynamic coeffi-
cients matched the numerical one for all angles of attack and for the
Reynolds numbers from 5  105 to 106. A C-type structured 2D
mesh was built and optimized using Ansys ICEM CFD. A yþ < 1 was
obtained.
Following the work of Menter and Langtry [12,13,15], the solver
was set using a steady state solver and second order upwind spatial
discretization. In the first step, several simulations were performed
to evaluate the capabilities of the default model. As the results were
not consistent with the experimental data (above all in the incip-
ient and deep stall region), the correlation parameters were
modified together with the turbulent boundary conditions at the
Inlet and Outlet. The optimal turbulence boundary conditions were
Tu ¼ 0.2%; TVR ¼ 10.
The modified correlation parameters allowed the CFD model
to adequately predict the trend of the Cl and Cd aerodynamic
coefficients with a relative error lower than 4% for all angles of
attack.
The main capability of the modified model is to adequately
predict the boundary layer flow field, above all the laminar to
turbulent transition point. As the laminar boundary layer is very
sensitive to adverse pressure gradients, this leads to earlier sepa-
ration compared to the turbulent boundary layer. For this reason,
the use of a calibrated transition model leads to a more realistic
prediction of the airfoil’s aerodynamic behavior when compared to
a fully turbulent model like SST keu or RSM. This is clear by looking
at the two charts in Figs. 10 and 11, where a comparison of the
simulated and experimental data of the S809 airfoil is presented
(experimental data from Colorado State University). These are the
results (Figs. 10 and 11) of the 2D simulations that were used to
Fig. 11. Cd numerical e experimental comparison for the S809 airfoil.
calibrate the local correlation parameters of the Transition model to
improve it for airfoil and wind turbine applications.
It is evident that the SST keu fully turbulent model, in general,
over-predicts Cl and under-predicts Cd in the near-stall region and
considerably retards the stall angle, while the Transition model
adequately predicts the trend of lift and drag coefficients for a wide
range of angles of attack (See in particular works by Sorensen [14]
and Menter et al. [12,13,15]).
The same parameters were used in the 3D CFD model of the
wind turbine rotor through the implementation of a UDF.
2.4.2. ‘Moving Reference Frame’ model set up
Fluent solver offers different capabilities for modeling rotational
effects. The choice of rotational model has to consider the physics of
the problem. Moreover it has to evaluate model complexity and
computational time resources.
Regarding complexity and computational time needs, Fluent
offers three rotational models:

‘Moving Reference Frame’ (MRF)

‘Sliding Mesh Model’ (SMM)

‘Dynamic Mesh Model’ (DMM)
The SMM model needs non-conformal meshes between the
rotational and fixed parts of the domain. It is useful to evaluate
interface effects (i.e. annulus between stator and rotor of a gas
turbine).
The DMM instead is useful to model relative motion between
parts (i.e. motion of a piston inside a cylinder). It needs very fine
meshes and thus high computational resources.
Mechanical Power Comparison
14

12

10

8
P [kW]

SST k-ω
6 Trans SST
Experimental
4

0
4,0 7,0 10,0 13,0 16,0 19,0 22,0 25,0
wind speed [m/s]

Fig. 10. Cl numerical e experimental comparison for the S809 airfoil. Fig. 12. Mechanical power comparison.
36 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39

Mechanical Power Comparison Power Coefficient Comparison

14,0 0,40

0,35
12,0
0,30
10,0
0,25
BEM 1D

Cp [ - ]
8,0 0,20
P [kW]

Experimental
BEM 1D
0,15
6,0 Trans SST Trans SST

Experimental 0,10

4,0 0,05

0,00
2,0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
λ (tip speed ratio) [ - ]
0,0
4,0 7,0 10,0 13,0 16,0 19,0 22,0 25,0
Fig. 15. Power coefficient comparison.
wind speed [m/s]

Fig. 13. Mechanical power comparison.

3. Analysis of the results and post processing

Based on these considerations the MRF model was chosen in Thirty-four simulations were performed, 17 for each turbulence
this work. In MRF, equations are solved in a rotational reference model used. With rotational velocity fixed (n ¼ 72 r/min), wind
frame in terms of relative velocity, centripetal and Coriolis accel- speed was varied from 4 to 25 m/s with the same steps as the
eration. It is an optimal compromise between accuracy and experimental data [19,20]. The computational time was 16e17 h for
computational time reduction. the SST keu model and 18e20 h for the Transitional model.
To set up the MRF model, the unit vectors and origin of the The charts presented below compare the simulated results with
reference frame were imposed. The cell zone condition was set up the experimental ones, and with the BEM 1D model results, to
by imposing a rotational velocity n ¼ 72 r/min in the absolute highlight the validity of the hypothesized conceptual tool.
reference frame. The wall boundary condition for the rotor had The calculated mechanical power and experimental data [19,20]
a zero relative speed with respect to adjacent cells. is compared in Fig. 12. As can be seen, while the fully turbulent SST
keu presents inaccuracy in the incipient stall region, the modified
2.4.3. Control monitors and convergence criteria Transitional SST model accurately follows the experimental data
In an iterative process of simulation, like the one used by Fluent, trend. The relative error is less than 5% for all wind speeds except
it is important to monitor the process to establish when the solu- for very high wind speeds where an underestimation of nearly 6%
tion is converged. occurs.
In this work, three monitors were used: In Fig. 13, the results of CFD 3D simulations (Transitional SST)
and BEM 1D calculations are compared to the experimental data.

Residuals monitors of the iterative process for the 8 equations Both models seem to have high predictive capabilities, above all for
solved (4 turbulence model equations, 3 momentum equations, medium and low wind speeds.
1 continuity equation); Trend of calculated Power Coefficients as a function of tip speed

trend of lift coefficient Cl as a function of iteration number; ratio (l) is presented in Figs. 14 and 15. A comparison between the

trend of dynamic pressure on the rotor as a function of iteration two turbulence models can be assessed in Fig. 14 while CFD 3D
number.

The solution is considered to have converged when all the

residuals present a constant trend under 103 value and, at the
same time, the lift coefficient and dynamic pressure monitors show
a constant trend at a specific value. The mass flow balance between
inlet and outlet was also verified in order to check continuity.

Power Coefficient Comparison

0,40

0,35

0,30

0,25
Cp [ - ]

0,20 Experimental

SST k- ω
0,15
Trans SST
0,10

0,05

0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
λ (tip speed ratio) [ - ]

Fig. 14. Power coefficient comparison. Fig. 16. Streamlines of tip vortex.
 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39
Fig. 17. Vector velocity at r ¼ 2 m (left) and r ¼ 3 m (right); wind speed 15 m/s.
numerical results are compared to the 1D BEM calculations and
experimental data in Fig. 15.
Both the 1D BEM model and Transitional CFD 3D model
correctly predict Power Coefficient trend.
Some post processing images of CFD 3D simulations are pre-
sented below (Figs. 16e18):
As the CFD 3D calculation results are very close to the experi-
mental data, the methodology for generating and optimizing the
CFD 3D model is considered valid. This methodology can therefore
be used to simulate the aerodynamic behavior of rotors for which
there are no available experimental data.
In reality, the 3D CFD model was only optimized and validated
for mini and micro wind turbines. In general, as reported in liter-
ature [7,8,13e15], the modified SST Transition turbulence model
should be suitable for low or medium Reynolds number applica-
tions. For larger wind turbines, where Reynolds numbers are
higher, the advantages of using the Transition model may not be
significant. This will be investigated in future research.
4. Application of the CFD 3D code to an experimental micro
rotor
The validated CFD 3D numerical model was applied to evaluate
the performance of a micro wind turbine designed and built using
1D BEM code. This rotor will be used to perform wind tunnel tests
to validate and improve the methodology presented in this paper.
As it is known, the BEM code needs accurate aerodynamic coef-
ficient airfoil data to design and optimize rotor geometry. Since in
Fig. 18. Vector velocity at r ¼ 4 m (left) and r ¼ 5 m (right); wind speed 15 m/s.
37
this work there were not available experimental data for appropriate
Reynolds number, the design was done using aerodynamic coeffi-
cient data for very different Reynolds Numbers compared to the real
ones. The CFD 3D model was used to evaluate the effects of this
choice and so the capabilities of the 1D BEM model.
4.1. Experimental rotor features
The experimental micro rotor is a three bladed twisted and
tapered rotor, using a NACA 4415 airfoil, with a diameter of 0.45 m. It
was optimized to maximize Cp. Rotation speed was set at 1000 r/min.
Based on these inputs, the 1D BEM model provided all the
geometrical features like twist and taper. Twist was also later
modified to flatten the power curve and increase the usability of the
rotor in the off-design condition in order to maximize annual energy
production [1e6,23]. The rotor was built and is shown in Fig. 19.
4.2. Setting up the 3D CFD model
The 3D CFD model was generated using the same methodology
used for the NREL PHASE VI wind turbine. The optimal compromise
for the computational domain was obtained using a cylindrical box
with a radius of 0.5 m and a height of 1 m. Several test simulations
were performed to reach grid independence and obtain a high
quality mesh.
The grid was converted in Fluent from tetrahedral to polyhedral
geometry, thus reducing the cell number from over 3 million to less
than 2 million (Fig. 20).
38 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39

Mechanical Power Comparison

55

50

45

40

35

30

P [W]
Fluent Trans
25 SST
BEM 1D
20

15

10

0
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Fig. 19. Experimental rotor. Wind speed [m/s]

Fig. 21. Mechanical power comparison.

Fluent was set up using the same criteria as the previous case. In
particular, the turbulence boundary conditions and correlation Power Coefficient Comparison
0,28
parameters of the Transitional SST turbulence model were the
same. An MRF was used for rotation. 0,26

Fixing the rotational velocity at n ¼ 1000 r/min, 21 simulations 0,24

were performed with a wind speed from 5 m/s (cut in) to 25 m/s 0,22

(cut out), varying with 1 m/s steps. 0,2

Using the parallel computing technique, each simulation took 0,18
nearly 4 h to converge.
Cp [ - ]

0,16
Fluent Trans
0,14 SST
BEM 1D
0,12
4.3. Analysis of the results and post processing
0,1

0,08
The results of the simulations are presented below, compared to
the numerical results of the 1D BEM model calculations: 0,06

The simulated mechanical power and power coefficient trends 0,04

are presented in Figs. 21 and 22. As it can be seen, the trends are 0,02
0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,4 2,7 3 3,3 3,6 3,9 4,2 4,5 4,8
comparable. Any differences are due to the use of unrealistic data λ (tip speed ratio) [ - ]
(see above) for the aerodynamic coefficients. The 1D BEM model
over-predicts the maximum Cp at a wind speed greater than about Fig. 22. Power coefficient comparison.
16%.
In conclusion, an image extrapolated from Fluent post pro-
cessing is shown in Fig. 23 which demonstrates the turbulent flows
developed by the hub and tip.

Fig. 20. Polyhedral mesh on rotor surface. Fig. 23. Tip vortices and hub turbulence.
 R. Lanzafame et al. / Renewable Energy 52 (2013) 31e39 39

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[16] David C. Wilcox turbulence modeling for CFD DWC industries.
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model failed to adequately predict the mechanical power when Series.
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demonstrated the validity of the mono-dimensional model [22] Ferziger JH, Peric M. Computational methods for fluid dynamics. Springer.
developed by the authors, above all considering its low compu- [23] Hansen MOL, Sørensen JN, Voutsinas S, Sørensen N, Madsen HAa. State of the
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were compared. The micro rotor was built to perform wind tunnel Nomenclature
tests. CFD: computational fluid-dynamics
The 3D CFD model is therefore a useful tool for validating the BEM: blade element momentum
design of the wind turbine rotor made using the 1D BEM code. RANS: Reynolds averaged Navier Stokes
SST: shear stress transport
Future work will extrapolate the 3D aerodynamic coefficients from
MRF: moving reference frame
the CFD simulations to refine the 1D BEM calculations. Further- Tu: turbulent intensity [%]
more, a parametric Fluid Structure Interaction study will be per- TVR: turbulent viscosity ratio [ e ]
formed using the Ansys Workbench multi-physics platform. So, the yþ: a dimensional distance [ e ]
yp: first cell centroid positioning [m]
3D CFD model will be linked to the CAD interface to optimize and ut: friction velocity [m/s]
refine the geometries. n: kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
Cf : friction coefficient [ e ]
Re: Reynolds number [ e ]
c: cord [m]
References n: rotational speed [r/min]
g: intermittency [ e ]
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[2] Lanzafame R, Messina M. Design and performance of a double-pitch wind Uj: velocity in j direction [m/s]
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34(5):1413e20. xj: cartesian direction j [ e ]
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dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2009.10.025. l: tip speed ratio [ e ]
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[7] Menter FR, Kuntz M, Langtry R. Ten years of industrial experience with the SST v: partial derivative [ e ]
turbulence model. Flow Turbulence and Combustion 2006;77:277e303. u0 : standard deviation of velocity fluctuations[m/s]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10494-006-90471. U: mean flow velocity [m/s]