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11
GEOMAC
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
OF EXPLORATION METHODS
A. E. Beck
Dept. of Geophysics, University of Western Ontario
M
© A. E. Beck 1981
The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that
it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a
similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent
purchaser
To my wife Julia and the late J. C. Jaeger who between them have made me
what I am and therefore, for better or worse, bear so me responsibility for this
book.
Contents
Foreword x
1. INTRODUCTION
Purpose Of Geophysical Exploration 2
Basis of Geophysical Exploration 2
Required Physical Property Contrast For Various Methods 3
Signal, Message and Noise 5
2. ELECTRICAL METHODS
Electrical Properties Of Rocks 7
Basic Equations 8
Important Types Of Arrays 12
Field Use Of Arrays 13
Comparison Of Wenner And Schlumberger Arrays 20
Basics Of Curve Fitting 22
Equipotential Method 26
Whole Body Excitation 28
4. INDUCED POLARIZATION
Origin 43
Common Cause Of Electrode And Membrane Potentials 47
Concept Qf Chargeability 47
Definition Of Frequency Effect 53
Relation Between Chargeability And Frequency Effect 54
Metal Factor 55
Complex Resistivity Measurements (CR) 56
Magnetic Induced Polarization 58
5. GRAVITY METHODS
General Ideas 61
The Exploration Problem 64
Anomaly Due To A General Mass Distribution 64
vii
Total Anomalous Mass 66
Corrections To The Field Data 67
Anomalies Due To Simple Bodies 72
The Eötvös Correction For A Moving Platform 79
Se co nd Vertical Derivative 81
Absolute Values Of Gravity 85
6. MAGNETIC METHODS
Intensity Due To A Bar Magnet 89
The Earth As A Dipole 91
Physics Of Magnetism 92
Elements Of The Earth's Field 94
Important Geochemical Groups 95
Remanent Magnetisations 96
Magnetisation Induced By The Earth's Main Field 98
Calculation Of Anomaly Fields 98
Types Of Magnetometers 101
7. ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS
Basics Of Wave Propagation 109
Electromagnetic Waves 110
Basis Of Electromagnetic Method 112
Polarised Waves 117
Dipole Approximation 122
Mutual Inductance 122
General Classification Of Methods 127
Secondary Field Relationships 128
Induction Number 130
Typical Exploration Problem 130
Typical Transmitter - Receiver Geometries 132
Depth Of Penetration And Matching System
To Geological Structure 142
Comparison Of Moving Source And Fixed Source Systems 144
Very Low Frequency (VLFj Systems 146
Airborne Measuring Systems 147
Ground Follow Up 151
8. SEISMIC METHODS
Definitions Of Elastic Constants 155
Types Of Seismic Waves 157
Seismic Detectors 159
Reflection And Refraction 161
Wave Fronts And Rays 163
Refraction Methods 165
Reflection Methods 174
Presentation Of Records 180
Filters, Convolution And Deconvolution 182
Energy Injection 185
viii
9. RADIOACTIVE METHODS
Background On Atoms And Isotopes 191
Decay Series Of Interest 194
Secular Equilibrium 196
Gamma Ray Spectrometry 196
Compton Effect 197
Pulse Height Analysers 202
Disequilibrium And eU 204
Radon "Sniffing" 205
Airborne Methods 206
Index 227
ix
Foreword
x
fully understand how it comes about; from there it is but a small
step to appreciate some of the problems involved in the
electro-magnetic method.
~i
1
Introduction
It is as weil to place Geophysics in context with the related
disciplines, in which I include Chemistry as weil as Geology and
Physics. To do this, simple minded definitions are used with all
the dangers inherent in brief and simple statements which are not
hedged in by innumerable qualifying phrases.
1
Having demonstrated that there is no such thing as a
Geologist, but that there are such people as Geophysicists and
Geochemists, we can proceed with a general discussion of
geophysical methods.
Response Curve
2
by a comparison with ideal theoretical curves, assuming we have
some knowledge of the body's shape and physical characteristic~.
This means that we really rely on experience and essentially use
the method of analogy. i.e. "what has worked somewhere else may
work here if the general conditions are similar". Inevitably,
this approach does not yield a unique solution and geological
knowledge is required for a proper interpretation which at best
only sets limits on the number of reasonable solutions. If the
interpretations give a worthwhile indication this might mean that
further work is required in the area including the possibility of
drilling a prospect.
3
Table 1.1 Basis of geophysical exploration methods.
*Method is classified as indirect (I) if little or no attempt is made to obtain the contrast (or absolute
value) for the physical property involved.
Table 1. For instance, there have been a number of attempts to
use shear wave velocities and amplitude ratios in the seismic
method. However, although increasing use is being made of
amplitude ratio studies, particularly in crustal seismology, the
vast majority of interpretations are still made basically on
travel time data for compressional wave velocities.
5
easily understood (message). However, it is most important to
recognize that one man's noise might be another man's message.
For instance, the commonly encountered Rayleigh wave is usually
regarded as noise ("ground rOll") by the exploration seismologist
but may contain an essential message for the crustal seismologist,
especially when the waves are in the longer wave length range.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. and Keys, D.A., 1976.
Applied Geophysics. C.U.P. Cambridge.
6
2
Electrical methods
BASIC EQUATIONS
V = RI or R = VII (2.1)
The figures in Table 2.1 are, of course, for the most part
only approximate. Many factors can influence the electrical
conductivities of materials in bulk. Such factors include
porosity, degree of saturation of porous materials, nature of the
pore fluids, types of minerals making up the rock matrix, nature
and size of the grains making up the matrix, whether the material
7
is weIl consolidated (this having an influence on the
intergranular pressure and therefore contact resistance), the bulk
porosity of large volumes (by which we mean that even in tightly
welded formations, zones of crushing, fractures and faults, which
may or may not be filled with electrolytes, will have an influence
on the gross resistivity), and structure (both on the micro and
macro sc ale since this may lead to significant anisotropy and
inhomogeneity) .
TABLE 2.1
Copper 10- 8
Graphite 10- 4 to 10-5
Pyrrhotite 10- 2 to 10- 3
Ore bodies (e.g. pyrite, magnetite, galena) 1 to 104
Wet limestone 102 to 103
Quartzite 1012
Clays 1 to 100
Moraine 10 to 104
BASIC EQUATIONS
8
"
Perfeet Insulator
(Resistivity Infinite)
~-
I
v - (V + dV) 2nx 2 dV
pdx/2nx2 = -p- dx
or
dV
V
P
I x
00
dV
nI
= _ =2n IX
00
dx _ pI
XZ - 2n
'.lJ x
L-x 00
or
V = pI/2nx
p
9
. - - - - b - - - - . S2
--------a-------
Figure 2.2. Plan view of generalized
four electrode array.
(2.4)
v
10
lO
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
>1-
~I·
Nct
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-lOL....J.--'--L...~..L.LI--.L--'---L-~-'---''---I.--'--'---'--.L...-.....I--L---'
-lO -0.5 o 0.5 lO
11
semi-infinite solid, and is the contribution of the geometry of
solid involved, p is the contribution due to the geological nature
of the solid, and I is the contribution from the energy source
used. For a constant p any variation in the geometrical or energy
source factors will lead to a change in V.
12
other electrodes. The ratio of the potential difference to the
current, multiplied by the array constant, will give a quantity
with the dimensions of resistivity; this quantity is called the
apparent resistivity (Pa) of the subsurface and is a function of
the geological resistivity structure within the range of
significance and resolution of the technique being used.
Variations in Pa therefore indicate changes in the subsurface
conditions and in some relatively simple situations, e.g.
horizontally stratified structures, the variations in Pa can be
used to give quantitative information, such as the thickness and
true resistivities of the horizontally layered units.
(Al
r---------~Ir---------~
SI ~ ~ S2
Ca ,I a .1. a=j
b
1Broadside Profiling
(B)
. .)(. .
/
..
ln-Une Profiling
Fixed Centre Point
tor Oepth Sounding
13
Profiling (or "electric trenching")
14
(Al
Position
(B)
Ap proximate z -'
Electrode Separation, a
Figure 2.5. (A) Profiling. When electrode separation is
large compared with depth to interface, the influence of
P2 is relatively large; when the electrode is small
compared with depth to interface, the influence of P2 is
small. (B) Depth Sounding. For infinitesimally small
electrode spacing the true P1 is obtained while for
infinitely large electrode spacing the true P2 is
obtained; but for spacing in between, an apparent
resistivity Pa is obtained, where P1 < Pa< P2·
15
case. He related Pa to PI and P2 via an equation of the form
(2.6)
where k = (P2 - PI) / (P2 + pJ? and is called the resisti vi ty contrast,
or reflection factor since many of the theoretical approaches
invoke the method of images; clearly k can have all values from
+1 to -1, the positive value occurring when P2 is greater than PI'
If more than one layer is involved the first resistivity contrast
is usually labelied kl' the second k2 etc. z is the depth to the
interface and ~ is the electrode separation. Using equation (2.6)
Tagg calculated a number of curves which help fix z. !wo sets of
curves are used, one for P2 > PI and another for P2 < PI . To
illustrate the use of Tagg's curves refer to Figure 2.6; a value
for PI is found by extrapolating back to a = 0 on the Pa vs ~
curve, then for convenient values of ~ the ratio PI/Pa is found
and tabulated. The values of z/a (and hence z) corresponding to
each value of PI/Pa are found for as many values of k between 0.1
and 1.0 as possible, and curves of k vs z plotted for each value
of ~ that has been used.
16
k positive
P2 >PI
z
a
0.5 1.0 1.5
k negative
P2 <PI
l
a
0.5 1.5 2.0 .5
Figure 2.6. Tagg 's curves for the two layer (one
discontinuity) case.
17
groups of curves have been published, the first for the
Schlumberger-electrode array and the second for the Wenner
electrode array. The use of these curves, in an essentially curve
fitting technique, will be discussed later using the Schlumberger
array shown in Figure 2.1(B).
(A)
r-----------~Ir-----------,
Xj
SI S2
I. b
(8)
sl p~p, ls,
t. ~a..J
b J
Figure 2.1. Schlumberger array. (A)
For profiling SI and S2 are usually kept
fixed while PI and P 2 are moved, with
constant separation, along the line. (B)
For depth sounding PI and P2 are usually
18
In the depth sounding mode the potential electrodes are
usually kept fixed in position and the current electrodes moved
symmetrically with respect to the mid point of the symmetrical
array, that is x = b/2 in equation 2.7. Often the value of ~ is
small compared to Q and the increments in Q are in integral
multiples of 2a. If this is the case and b = (2n + 1)a, where n
is an integer, equation 2.7 becomes
19
This aspect of the Schlumberger array has been dealt with in
some detail since many field crews have attempted to obtain
detailed information on relatively thin layers (e.g. permafrost)
by commencing with very small electrode separation, expanding
~hree or four times during the survey and obtaining results which
are uninterpretable.
20
Wenner array are interchanged, the resistivity reading is
unchanged, yet the current distributions are clearly different.
21
(A)
(B)
(2.11)
22
(2.19). For a given value of PI, aseries of curves can be
computed for various values of P2 and zl. If kl is kept constant,
that is PI and P2 may vary but P2/Pl remains unchanged, one curve
will be valid for the whole range of PI and P2; since kl is now a
constant for this curve, the apparent resistivity is no longer
dependent on kl and equation 2.11 can be rewritten as
(2.12)
y - p = F(x - q) (2.14)
y = F(x) (2.16)
It can readily be seen from equations 2.14 and 2.16 that the
shapes of the two curves are identical and that only the origin is
displaced. If a family of theoretical curves for various values
of k l or, if PI has been normalised to 1, P2 is plot ted on double
log paper, one of the curves will be identical in shape to the
field curve the only effect being that the origin of the
theoretical curves is displaced relative to that of the field
curves; the displacement of the origin is PI in the y direction
and zl in the x direction. Thus by curve fitting PI' zl and P2
are obtained directly, although frequently interpolation has to be
made between two close fitting curves of adjacent P2 values (see
Figure 2.10).
(2.17)
or
E.a.
PI
- f(k
l'
k
2' Zl' zl
~ ) (2.18)
where
23
k Z (Z.19)
n n-Z
P /p = f(~) (2.20)
a 1 zl
from which we get
(2.22)
Z4
( A) (B)
2 /
•I
aI zP / aI
! (
"'"
l I
/
/
P3 '
I
IIP-
\
"-
a z "\
)
I
I
~ ~
/
I
I
25
Ratio of Electrode Separation to First Layer Thickness -
10 10 10 0
100
L---------~--------~--------4_·1o t
1: 0.2:3 :ti
e i
__--~~~~~~~~3 ~
I
e
.c
:1
C>
....
.~ PI
:1.. /10 ~
-....e
a:
a:
c
:t
1;
L -__-L____ ~~~--~~----=_--l~O~~~~~~--L-----ji
EQUIPOTENTIAL METHOD
26
Figure 2.11. (A) Equipotential lines on surface of a
semi-infinite homogeneous, isotropie medium with uniform
eurrent density souree (probes at infinity). (B) Same
eonditions as in (A) exeept that bodies of different
resistivities are present in the near subsurfaee.
27
Drill Reference
Hole Electrode
28
Orellana, E. and Mooney, H.M., 1966. Master tables and curves
for vertical electrical sounding over layered structures,
Interciencia, Madrid.
29
3
Self-potential or spontaneous
polarization
INTRODUCTION
If two rods of metal are driven into the ground some meters
apart and connected by a voltmeter a voltage will invariably be
registered. The potentials so measured can arise from a number of
causes but, ignoring man-made contributions, they may be broadly
classified into two groups.
Background potentials are caused by (i) electrolytes of
different concentration being in contact with one another, (ii)
electrolytes flowing through a capillary or the pores of a rock
(electrofiltration processes) causing what are often called
"streaming potentials", (i11) contact potentials (including Zeta
and Nernst potentials) at a solid-electrolyte interface, (iv)
electromagnetically induced telluric currents.
These background potentialB can be either pOBitive or
negative and usually range up to a magnitude of only a few tens of
millivolts.
Mineralization potentials on the other hand are almost
exclusively negative, range up to a magnitude of several hund red
millivolts and occur principally in the vicinity of sulphide,
oxide and graphite bodies.
In exploration work our interest lies mainly in the
mineralization potentials with the background potentials being
regarded as noise. The field measurements are easy to make both
in principle and practice but quantitative interpretation is very
difficult mainly because the mechanism is not fully understood.
31
problem is also a good example of how to assemble and interpret
data their approach is closely followed here.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
33
form z~nc ions which go into solution. That is
zn "* Z ++
n
+ 2e
Current
Cathode Row Anode
+ve
34
stops. In otner words
aA + wH 20 = bB + m H+ + ne-1
where A, li, and Q are the mole numbers (gram molecular weights) of
the participating substances, m is the hydrogen ion concentration
(pH) which is a measure of the influence of the hydrogen ions, and
n is the oxidation potential (Eh) which is a measure of the
influence of the electrons. Conditions for thermodynamic
equilibrium can be expressed in terms of the two independent
variables m and n; any specific reaction cou1d be independent of
pH and Eh in which case m and n are zero and we have a chemical
reaction without the release of electrical energy.
35
If the second law of thermodynamics is now applied to any
system it is found that the potential genera ted depends upon the
activities (approximately the concentrations) of the reactant and
product as well as on Eh and pH.
(AI (BI
36
fluidsj the positive ions travelling from the lower end to the
upper end and the negative ions from the upper end to the lower
end.
The orebody itself does not participate directly in the
electrochemical reactions producing the self potentialsj in this
sense the orebody acts as a chemically inert medium, its only
function being to transport electrons.
37
O2 gas penetrates ground
Ground Surface ~ t
Fe(OH)3 + e 1 _ Fe(OH)2 + OH-
Water
02( dissolved )
,.~1
' \+ 2H' + 0, - ';0,
OH-
~''------.---IFerrous (Fe++)
Fe++ + 3~ 0 -Fe(OH~ + 3H + + e-
Fe(OHh + ~O-Fe(OHh + H+ + e-
38
5. In arid country, or in areas of permafrost, the
conditions are not favourable for spontaneous polarization
potentials because of lack of oxygen in solution to support the
half cell reactions, and lack of solutions to carry charged ions.
B c o E F G
39
electrode potentials may be set up which interfere with the
natural potentials. A number of types of electrodes have been
designed, all requiring a saturated solution of a metal salto One
of the simplest, convenient to make and in wide use, consists of
inserting a coppper rod in a saturated solution of copp6r
sulphate, the copper sulphate solution being contained in a porous
pot. It is important that the solution be saturated since in a
dilute electrolyte dissociation occurs so that ions have high
mobility and readily move to the electrodes when a r electric
current is passed through the solution. As the electrolyte is
made stronger the "activity" and mobility decrease until with a
saturated solution the ion pairs cannot be readily polarized.
40
may be contoared or profiled as field gradients but since the
results are difficult to interpret even in a qualitative manner,
it is more usual to take one of the points as a reference and plot
all other potentials relative to it. The chief disadvantage of
this method is the extra work involved in summing the potential
differences before contouring or profiling; the principal
advantage is the short length of cable required in the field. An
examination of the method of adding the potential differences
between pairs of points will show that the process of
"leapfrogging" the electrodes also minimizes the contact potential
noise problem which might be suspected because of the movement of
both electrodes.
41
4
Induced polarization
In the chapter on resistivity methods one of the implicit
assumptions made was that upon switching on the current between
two current electrodes the voltage measured between the two
potential electrodes was produced instantaneously. In general,
this is not correct since the rise time of the voltage is finite.
The delay in the voltage reaching its maximum value arises from a
number of causes which may be broadly classified as instrumental
effects and geological effects. The instrumental contribution to
the delay time can be quite small and in those areas where the
simple resistivity method is applicable the contribution to the
delay time from subsurface geologie al causes is also too small to
be of much use. However, there are some types of geological
situations where the rise time is significant; this effect varies
from place to place so the length of the rise time and the shape
of the curve may therefore constitute a useful diagnostic method
for exploration.
The areas where the induced polarization method has been most
useful are those where disseminated sulphide deposits occur, such
as the porphyry type, bedded copper deposits, bedded lead-zinc
deposits in carbonate rocks and, less commonly, in some types of
clay deposits. There are two principal causes of induced
polarization effects - electrode polarization and membrane
polarization.
ORIGIN
Electrode polarization
43
,...-------- I
----,
Nernst
Potential
_Heta
Potential
44
(A)
(B)
(C)
45
particles disseminated through a rock which has a certain fracture
or void porosity. Conduction in this rock is normally ionic,
Figure 4.2(A), but suppose that an ion travelling through the rock
pore is impeded by a metallic particle, then since the metallic
particle cannot transmit an ion, there will be a pile-up of ionic
charges as indicated in Figure 4.2(B). Some of these charges may
be discharged by oxidation-reduction couples similar to those
discussed under spontaneous polarization but on a much smaller
scale. However, this is not very likely because the spontaneous
polarization process requires regions of different oxidation
potentials which are not likely to occur on this fine a scale. As
can be seen from the diagram, the way the charges pile up tend to
increase the potential difference between the exterior surfaces of
the particle - hence the phenomenon is often known as overvoltagej
the particles mayaiso be said to be polarized.
Membrane Potential
-e ~
18 -8
al 18
Figure 4.3. III~stration of how
electrical double layers arise, causing
"membrane potentials".
The clays act as a very fine filter, the pore diameters being
of the same order as the ion diameters so that as the ions move
the negative ions, which are generally larger than the positive
46
ions, get held up at the filter while the positive ions can pass
through, thus leading to a negative surface charge. These
negative charges attract a certain number of positive charges to
them in order to maintain electrical neutrality and an electrical
double layer results.
v = !a . F(s,g) (4.1)
where F(s,g) is a function of the ~ize and ~hape of the body, and
of the Keometry of the various electrodes, and a is the electrical
conductivity of the medium. It may be recalled from Chapter 2
that for the Wenner array F(s,g) is equal to (2najl where ~ is
the electrode separation.
DensityT
vs = V - V I . fu&..1!!.... (4.3)
0 cr l-m
48
and the ratio of peak secondary voltage to the observed steady
state voltage is
(4.4)
PULSE-TRANSIENT METHOD
-
CI)
ca
~ V
Time
It
.
Figure 4.5. Comparison of current-time
and voltage-time curves in the presence of
IP effects. Dashed lines represent
voltage-time curve in absence of IP and
induction.
49
In actual field measurements the true chargeability of the
medium cannot be measured - or if it can it is of no interest
since it would imply that the subsurface is homogeneous. The
search is for regions of anomalous chargeability. Hence what we
really measure is the apparent chargeability ma Which is a
comp"licated function of the true chargeabilities and resistivities
of the various media within the range of the equipment; the
actual function does not concern us at this level.
50
To simplify matters in the field the area under the voltage
decay curve is integrated over small intervals of time (usually of
the order of a half second) as so on after cut-off as possible
(again after about a half second), see Figure 4.6; this area has
units of volts-seconds. However, as the input voltage increases
so does the secondary voltage, so the integral is normalised by
dividing it by Vo ; the units in this case are seconds, although
milliseconds are often used so as to give reasonable numbers. The
values obtained are plotted against field position. If Vo is kept
constant, as can readily be done by black box gadgetry, then this
voltage need not be measured separately.
low IP
effec!
Time
n (B)
j \~
Figure 4.6. (A) Typical procedure for pulse transient
method. Off per iod allows high frequency transients to
die down before switching on receiver; tl' (t2-tl) and
(t3 -t 2 ) are usually of the order 0.5 secs. Area under
curve between tl and tz is integrated and often is
normalised to Vo . Second area above curve is sometimes
integrated to give more information on shape of decay
curve. (B) Alternative approach to obtaining more
information on shape of decay curve; time interval for
integration,ßt~O.l sec.
SI
...... -
(AI
//
... /
aI
----
i
:!
Ci
>
High frequency
V Low Pa
11 r---l ..
(B I
'"
aI
ll!1----.-~
co
> Va
Low frequency
V High Pa
Time
52
The principal advantage of integrating and averaging is that
the process suppresses earth noise and cross coupling effects
between cables. Obviously, care has to be exercised in the choice
of a suitable time interval since it should be long enough to
maximise the noise reduction but not so long that the method
becomes diagnostically insensitive.
and
S3
FE (4.5)
V = aI F(s,g)
(4.6)
00
V
o
= -0I F(s,g) (4.8)
0
54
From 4.7 and 4.8 00 = 000 (l-m) or
or
FE
m = -l-+-F-E- (4.11)
Equations 4.10 and 4.11 show that the two methods are
essentially measuring the same thing; either of them can yield
the Frequency Effect or the chargeability, and it is simply a
matter of convenience which method is used.
METAL FACTOR
55
the definition of frequency effect and recasting equation 4.12
into the form
5 (4.13)
HF = (0'
00
- 0' )
0
21T X 10
S6
plotted for ma also when the Time Domain method is used.
The method of p10tting pseudo sections is shown in Figure
4.8.
• •8
n=4_______':"': x x x
11=3 _ _ _ _ _ _x
1.2-6.7 2.3-7.8 3.4-8.9
X X x
Apparent resistivity at
low frelluency
1.2-5.6 2.3-6.7 3.4-7.8 4.5-8.9
n=2----_. X X x .JC x
1.2-4.5 2.3-5.6 3.4-6.7 4.~-7.8 5.6-8.9
n=I_-1-"'X:'XXXLtB~
:.,~ 1.2-3.4 2.3-4.5 3.4-5.6 4.5-6.7 5.6-7.8 6.7-8.9
n=2-----e e e e
1.2-4.5 2.3-S.6 3.4-6.7 4.5-7.8 5.6-8.9
e
n=3------e e
1.2-5.6 2.3-6.7 e
3.4-7.8 4.S!8.9
Apparent
n=,4-4-------_.e • e metal factor
1.2-6.7 2.3-7.8 3.4-8.9
57
(AI Wenner Pa = 2 traf
~P2
i~. __k-bJ_--;.J
( BI Schlumberger SI S2
lor Gradient I
SI S2 ~ P:z p =tranln+1)(n+21.::LI
ICI Dipole-Dipole • • a
Iin-line I tb:aLna .1. a-l
SI S2 ~ ~ p, = 21r1anl n+1 IX
•~ ••1. .1•. ..I
(D I Pole-Dipole a I
Iin-line)
b=Na( N>5n I-co na a
58
Howland-Rose, A.W., Linford, G., Pitcher, D.H., and
Seigel, H.O., 1980. Some recent magnetic induced
polarization developments - Part I: Theory, Geophysics,
45, 37 - 53.
Pelton, W.H., Ward, S.H., Hallof, P.G., Sill, W.R. and Nelson,
P.H., 1978. Mineral discrimination and removal of inductive
coupling with multifrequency IP, Geophysics, 43, 588-609.
S9
5
Gravity methods
GENERAL IDEAS
From laboratory measurements we know that G, the universal
constant of gravitation, is 6.673 X 10-8 ± 0.003 cm3 gm-I sec-I.
F = -GMm/R 2 (5,1)
g = -GM/R 2 (5.2)
61
rotation axis; on even closer approach es it is observed that
there are bumps on the ellipsoid and a surface can be fitted to
these bumps to any degree of accuracy desired provided sufficient
accurate measurements are available.
Approxim ations
600
2d later
The surface when fit ted to mean sea level data is called the
geoid. The geoid is therefore the surface which has the same
gravitational potential all over the earth as that at mean sea
level far out in the oceans. Only rarely does the geoid depart
from the ellipsoid of revolution by more than a few meters. The
lowest point is in the Indian Ocean off Srilanka where the geoid
is 93 meters below the ellipsoid, and the highest point is off
Papua - New Guinea where the geoid is 76 meters above the
ellipsoid.
62
To eompute gs from the above formula we have to know the
value of the latitude (and longitude if a triaxial formula is
used) .
Geoid
,~~~-~......
Reference Ellipsoid
63
THE EXPLORATION PROBLEM
64
x
-x
65
due to the whole mass excess is
sin 6 (5.4)
~g = Ga JJJ dv r Z
66
L\g
x
"'dS
2nGM Aux lines
67
Free Air Correction
(5.10)
or
2
ge = ~(llih +~) (5.11)
Bouguer Correction
68
Q
~X-d-~----~
Figure 5.6. Calculating attractions
on the axis of a thin circular plate.
Mass dm of element = phx.d~.dx. Values of
z and h must be such that both surfaces of
the disc subtend essentially the same
solid angle at Q.
69
dA = 2nGphsin8d8 (5.13)
8=0.
A= J 2nGphsin8d8 2nGph(l-coso.) (5.14)
8=0
(5.15)
<!>=2n
I
x=a
xdx d<!>
P Gph
x=o
J
<!>=o
(xZ + z2)~
2 2 ~ (5.16)
2nGph [(a + z) - z]
F = az
3P
= 2nGph
[z
(a 2 + z2)!d - I
]
A = -F = 2nGph(l-coso.) (5.18)
70
Technically, if the surface used is not the sea level surface then
it should be called the residual anomaly - not the Bouguer anomaly
which it has become common practice to do.
Elevation Correction
Topographie Correction
71
Therefore the gravity reading will be too low eompared with what
would be read if the plane were infinite; again, to allow for the
valley something must be added to the observed value.
(5.21)
In general, it is found that the two sides are not equal and
rewriting the equation to read
B = ~ + E + T - ge (5.22)
72
distribution which is a function of radius alone, is identical
with that due to a point mass H situated at the cent re of the
sphere.
If the density contrast of the sphere is cr then the force a~
the point Q on the surface of the earth, Figure 5.8, is GH/R
where H is the anomalous mass excess and = ~a3cr/3, A is the
radius of the sphere and r is the distanee from Q to the eentre of
the sphere. Sinee most eommonly used gravimeters are restrieted
to deteeting only the vertieal component of aeeeleration, the
value of the anomalous vertieal attraetion at Q is given by
equation 5.24.
(5.24)
222
a (llg ) .. 3GMz(4x - z ) (5.26)
ax 2 v (x 2 + z2) ~
73
x
I ,/e
o. x--O
6gmax then
(5.27)
(5.28)
223 6 (5.29)
(x + z) - 4z =0
which can be factorized into 5.30.
2 2 13 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 13 4] o (5.30)
(x + z - 4 z ) [(x + z) + 4 3 z (x + z ) + 4 z
74
since both x and z are positive the second term cannot be zero so
the first term must equal zero. The first term is a quadratic in
z which can be solved to show that x = O.766z. Therefore, with a
symmetrical curve such as that shown in Figure 5.8, the depth to
the cent re of the sphere may be estimated as approximately 4/3 of
the distance between the maximum and half maximum gravity anomaly
values.
Using the earlier results for a thin disc, equation 5.18, and
using dz as the thickness of the disc, we can integrate over a
finite length to obtain the attraction due to a cylinder of finite
length. Referring to Figure 5.9 the attraction, dA, along the
axis due to an elemental volume of the cylinder is given by
Gorzdpdzdr (5.31)
dA
(r 2 + z2)~
lIg
orzdpdzdr (5.32)
22 3
(r + z ) 2
a
lIg
r=Q
I rzdzdr
(r
2
+z
2 3
)2
75
Q
76
Integrating next with respect to Z
I
a
6.g = -21TGcr dr
r=O
Finally, integrating with respect to r
If the cylinder is very long then h2+b 2 and the equation may
be simplified to
(5.34)
which is the result for a semi-infinite cylinder.
GkcrsinpdS = Gkcrdw
2
r
where dw is the solid angle subtended at P by dS.
77
p
.--
z
,-
Density
contrast
a
I
I
given by
(5.37)
78
For the attraction due to an infinitely long cylinder, 5.37
may be integrated from z = h1 to 00 to give
z=
zdz (5.38)
lIg 1TGo/ J 2 2 3
(x + z ) 2
z=h 1
2 1 1
1TGaa [--
B
-J
B
(5.39)
l 2
(5.40)
79
Let v be the velocity of the platform at P with components vn
in the north-south direction and ve in the east-west direction,
Figure 5.12. That is
v 2 =v2+v2 (5.41)
n e
If the angular velocity of the earth is w and the platform is
at latitude 6, the complete component of east-west velocity is
wRcos6 + ve. The centrifugal acceleration at latitude ~,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, is
2
a'"' (wReos6 + ve) (5.42)
1 Reos6
The centrifugal acceleration a 2 at the same latitude along a
radius vector is
2
a
2
'"' v
n
IR (5.43)
Finally, let a3 be the centrifugal acceleration due to the
earth's rotation ~ready taken into ac count in the measurement at
a stationary platform, and incorporated in equation 5.3 then
2 (5.44)
(wRcos6) = w2Reos6
8 3 :1: Rcos8
80
Figure 5.12. Origin of additional
acceleration when gravity measurements are
made on a moving platform, requiring the
application of Eotvos corrections.
Table 5.1
SI
SECOND VERTICAL DERIVATIVE
(5.48)
~=
dZ
(5.49)
82
Consider a simple straight line through the origin, and add
to this a sinusoidal function, equation 5.50
z = ax + bsinx (5.50)
(5.51)
(Al
z
(B)
83
It is worth repeating that the process of taking the second
vertical derivative adds no information whatsoever to the original
data; it simply presents it in a different way. This is
analogous to the various procedures used in presenting seismie
data (see Chapter 8).
The base station readings are plotted versus time and the
graph obtained is used to correct for possible drift in the
instrument and diurnal variations in the gravitational field.
84
Absolute Values of Gravity
85
6
Magnetic methods
REVIEW
We start by recalling some elements of magnetism. In a bar
magnet each pole is regarded as being concentrated at a point
ne ar , but not at, the end of the magnet. The line joining the
poles is called the magnetic axis and the distance between them is
called the magnetic length 2l. For a simple bar magnet the
magnetic length is usually 5/6 the length of the bar.
(6.1)
87
9
88
susceptibility, k, of the material so that
k=.!. (6.3)
H
It can readily be shown that the permeability, ~, and
susceptibility kare connected by the relation
~ = 1 + 4nk (6.4)
222
ces ß=r -~ +a2 = r+R,ces8
2a2r a2
Substitution of the appropriate relations in te equations
6.5 and 6.6 gives the fellowing results
R = m{ r - R, ces 8 r + ces 8
2 2 3}
(R,2 + r 2 _ Hr cos 8)i (R, + r + 2R,r ces 8)2
89
If 8 = 0, that is the point B is on the magnetic axis,
then appropriate substitution shows that
and T 0 (6.8)
R =0 and T (6.9)
-m 1
s
Figure 6.2. Intensity at a point due
to a bar magnet.
(6.10)
90
The field at a point whose distance from the centre of a
magnet is much greater than the magnetic length is called a
dipole field, although strictly speaking this terminology
should apply to the field for all values of r.
I
I
~.--- EXTERNAL ORIGIN ---~.II
Mm~ril
Diurnal
I
Sunspot Cycle
Bays
I
Period (seconds) ____
Events Epochs
Reversals
• INTERNAL ORIGIN •
91
In category (a) may be listed polar wandering, which is
essentially a motion of the dipole field relative to the crust
of the earth and which has periods of the order of 10,000 to
several million years (the term per iod being used loosely) and
the secular variation, or westward drift, which has aperiod of
one or two thousand years and is essentially a higher order
modification of the dipole field.
PHYSICS OF MAGNETISM
92
commonly contained in the natural rocks, only the Ferric
(Fe+++) , Ferrous (Fe++) and Manganese (Mn++) ions have a
natural magnetic momentj cobalt and nickel also have magnetic
moments but their abundance in natural rocks is relatively low.
None of the other ions have a natural magnetic moment.
Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism
93
direction of magnetization varies from one domain to another,
the total being macroscopically randomly oriented. The
application of an external field will tend to order the
domains, the ordering increasing with increasing field until
saturation magnetization is reached, Figure 6.4.
I s
94
N(geographie)
95
measured must also be given. In practice a unit field is used for
reference and the following typical susceptibilities are obtained
at normal room temperature
The data quoted for rocks are the approximate values for
modes in distributions which cover very wide ranges and, in fact,
show considerable overlap. This is because for most rocks the
magnetic properties can be traced to the presence of magnetite, a
most ubiquitous mineral, and occasionally pyrrhotite. The
susceptibility of a rock is approximately proportional to the
amount of dominant magnetic mineral it contains. For example if a
rock contains 0.1 parts of magnetite (k = 0.5) then k of the
rock is 0.5 X 0.1 = 0.05 emu/ce.
REMANENT MAGNETISATIONS
96
be several vector components of IHM due to changes in the
direction of the earth's magnetic field. IHM is fairly easily
removed by thermal or AC demagnetization and is therefore called
"Soft" or "unstable" magnetization although the magnitude may be
large, or "strong".
97
magnetization due to induction in the present field of the earth
will tend to cancel the component of TRM. Therefore a body with a
high percentage of magnetic material might nevertheless give only
a small magnetic anomaly and so be overlooked in a magnetic
survey. Such occurrences may be rare but they do exist.
98
Geographie North
Representation of S
dipole souree of
earth's field N
99
...-:;
...i
1;
i
z
Ci
-5 -5 .... / \ "'" 5 -5
';~O
. . ", }I x/z ... '':::::'~, JiI" .
~ x/~ ~'~-~'''-: :':;'.....=--,-~,-J!l-1-+-+-_----::'I'--
':
.~
! \." I \,. I Horizontal fjeld I
I
~. I I I
5
~ I I I
iö: ,
1--1 I I I Vertieal fjeld
...... p I:1H
0 I I I
0
I I !
z NLs
:i -.L -! N 1 50 H.l-!
The first two types are used to measure selected components of the
field while the third type is usually used to measure the total
field.
Balance type
101
example, a fibre rigidly attached to the beam.
-m
.-._-
"/Nx----1m
Centre of gravity
Figure 6.9. Principle of magnetic
balance type of magnetometer.
Gravitational and magnetic torques are
arranged to almost balance each other.
Fluxgate type
S N \ Secondary Coil
102
(A) Primary woltage
I I
.1I __
I _
I I
I I
(B) II II Induced magnehsatlon
...In core
I
103
If the current passed through the primary is sufficent to
drive the cores to magnetic saturation, that is point S of Figure
6.4 is approached, one core will reach saturation earlier than the
other.
It can be seen from Figure 6.11(C) and (D) that only one core
is really necessary for an instrument provided appropriate
electronics are supplied.
Nuclear Type
Appliedfield
104
Atoms consist of a nucleus of positive charge surrounded by
electrons and all nuclei behave as spinning particles having
angular momentum and responses like tiny gyroscopes. From quantum
mechanics it is known that the angular momentum is quantized; its
value can be measured but not predicted.
lOS
accelerations, thermal agitation and field gradient. The
relaxation time varies from about 10-5 seconds to a few tens of
seconds depending on the nucleus and the amplitude of the signal
depends on the number of nuclei per unit volume. Fortunately,
water is a nearly ideal candidate for the active material; the
relaxation time of hydrogen is a few seconds and the number of
nuclei per unit volume is high while oxygen, in common with all
nuclei having even atomic mass and even atomic number, has no
spin and therefore plays no active part in the experiment.
Kerosene is also much used in proton magnetometers.
FIELD PROCEDURE
106
For airborne surveys the base station is usually a recording
magnetometer in, or not too far from, the field area. A typical
field pattern flown is shown in Figure 6.13, the flight lines
being perpendicular to the suspected strike of the formations with
1/2 to 2 km spacing. The triply flown base line, on which the
ground recording base station should be placed, is used to give
the diurnal variation correction curve using the data obtained at
various times at the flight path intersection points. This method
can be used even without a ground base station although it is
safer to do both.
At the same time as the magnetic data are being recorded the
height of the plane and its position are being recorded, the
latter by means of photography or radar.
107
magnetic gradiometer surveys may eliminate this problem.
Gradiometer surveys are carried out using two closely spaced
(~10m), very high sensitivity (accuracy about 0.01Y) magnetometers
and measuring the magnetic field gradient directly. This approach
has several advantages, but one major disadvantage is that a new
body of interpretation procedures have to be built up.
108
7
Electromagnetic methods
BASICS OF WAVE PROPAGATION
A = Ao cos wt (7.1)
A = Ao cos w(t - ~)
u
(7.2)
(7.4)
109
If the plane wave is, as is usual, undergoing attenuation as
it travels along the z axis and its amplitude decreases
exponentially, Figure 7.1(B), then we can allow for this by
rewriting equation 7.4 as
A ei(wt -klz)-bz (7.6)
o
or
i(wt - kz)
A = A e
o
where k = kl - ibo k is still called the wave number in this
general case, but it is complex with the imaginary part
corresponding to attenuation. It is important to note that for an
attenuating wave travelling in the positive z direction the real
part of k must be positive and the imaginary part must be negative
or else the amplitude would grow as z increases. Thus both kl and
b must be positive.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES
For electromagnetic (EM) waves Y depends upon the magnetic
permeability (V) the electrical conductivity (0") and the
dielectric constant or relative permativity (E) of the medium
through which the wave is propagating.
HO
A. 18 = A.
T/8 T
A (BI
111
z
112
propagation can be disregarded. This may be contrasted with the
seismic method which depends on the propagation properties of
waves. In this sense the electromagnetic method is closer to
stationary field methods such as the gravity or magnetic methods
than to the seismic method.
A
i
__- - _ - t / Rx
RegiOn of measurement. little phase
retardation and absorption
~----_.l.. ____-+I
2
;===0;::=:::::;;:sin (wt - a)
E
I (7.8)
I (wL- ~+R2
wC
where
113
1
-1 (WL wC
a = tan
R
Alternating _
R
_u.~
c
Figure 7.4. Basic electric circuit
containing capacitance, C, inductance, L,
and resistance R.
114
These generalizations are illustrated in Figure 7.5 where
7.5(B) is a time plot of the primary magnetic field, (frequency
f=wI2n), due to the current in the primary conductor, with the
general equation
P = Ho sinwt (7.10)
C :> C :>
Primary magnetic field
I
I
I I Time
(BI
I
I I
I . ,in secondary
Voltage induced
conductor
I I
I I
(CI
I
I I I a=tan-1 wL
Secondary current or magnetic field~
I I I R
I I I
(DI
115
The voltage induoed in a second and perfectly conducting body
(i.e. the secondary voltage) lags behind P by TI/2 or 1/4 cycle,
but is, of course, of the same frequency. That a TI/2 lag occurs
can be seen mathematically by remembering that the induced voltage
is the time rate of change of magnetic flux which, at the maxima
and m~n~a of the primary field, is zero, Figure 7.5(B);
therefore the induced voltage will be zero at a time when the
primary magnetic field is at a maximum or minimum, Figure 7.5(C).
Similarly, when the second time derivative of magnetic flux of the
primary field is zero, the time rate of change of the induced
voltage is zero; since the latter value occurs at a time when the
primary magnetic field changes from positive to negative or vice
versa, the secondary magnetic field will be a maximum or minimum
at this time.
Vector Oiagram
tQSecondary
I voltage
(induced)
o P A
Current (or magnetic field)
Figure 7.6. Elements of a vector
diagram.
116
Let DA be the amplitude of the primary field, i.e. at the
instant in time when the primary field reaches maximum DA will be
the vector representing the primary. By convention any vector
with an anti-clockwise angle relative to the positive DA direction
lags behind DA by the value of the angle. Therefore in a good
conductor the induced voltage will lag the primary magnetic field
by an angle of 9D o which ·is represented by the vector
perpendicular to DAj the secondary current in the conductor, and
therefore the secondary magnetic field, will lag a further angle a
behind this because of the finite inductance and resistance. This
is shown by the vector S. From the parallelogram law we find the
resultant R which, from the diagram, lags ~ behind P.
For good conductors a+90 and ~+Oj for poor conductors
a +' 0 and ~ + 0, and these relations can be used as a rough
indication of the conductivity of the subsurface conductors.
PDLARIZED WAVES
117
out of phase.
Now eonsider lhe ease when Sand P are of the same amplitude
are perpendieular to eaeh other but 90 0 out of phase. This ean be
easily represented by a eireular diagram simila-r to that of
7.7(A).
(A)
Amplitude
(B)
118
Referring to Figure 7.8(A) if Sand P are out of phase then
the tip of P will be on the projection of Q on to OP and the tip
of S will be on the projection of Q on to OS. Therefore the
resultant R = P + S but since Q moves on a circle then the
amplitude of R is constant. That is the tip of R moves with Q and
the resultant is a circularly polarized magnetic field.
(Al
s
(Cl (01
./
././
J-------~
././ I
I
I ./
././
././ I
I
I
Maximum
response
I I
IR I I
I I I x Rx
--I------}-.:
I ./
I /./
I ./ Minimum
---.V/
response
U
Figure 7.8'. Showing how (A)
circularly and (B) e1liptically polarized
fields arise: in (B) the primary and
secondary fie1ds need not necessari1y be
at right angles to each other; the vector
notation has been dropped for clarity.
(C) and (D) illustrate how response of R
is proportional to component of field
parallel to coi1 axis.
119
Now consider the more general case where P and S differ by a
phase angle which is not 900 • For simplicity P and S will be
taken to have the same magnitude and to be at right angles to each
other in space. As can be seen from Figure 7.8(8) the tip of the
resultant R will sweep out an ellipse; similarly, it is easy to
show that even when P does not equal S the resultant is
elliptically polarized.
or
or
(!x
X
cos"''i'2 - ~
Y
cos"''i'l ) sinwt sin(~2 - ~l)
sinwt sin1/! (7.16)
120
where ~ = ~2 - ~l
(7.20)
-.;..-.-------+-x ----------~--~~~~x
121
If lj! = n/2, coslj! = 0, sinlj! =1 and equation 7. 18 becomes
R 2 R 2
(7.21)
~2 +~ = 1
which is the equation of an ellipse with axes in the x and y
direction, i.e. e = 0 or n/2. Therefore when P and S are at
right angles, e = n/2. If in addition x=y then
(7.22)
DIPOLE APPROXIMATION
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
122
If ITe iwt is the current flowing in the Tx then the voltage
in the Rx is given by
d iwt
E = -M12 at (ITe ) (7.23)
Provided the two coils remain in the same position and orientation
their functions as Rx and Tx may be interchanged and the Helmholtz
reciprocity law applied which states that in such conditions M1 2 =
M2l . However, any variation in the electrical conductivity of the
medium between the transmitter and the receiver can affect the
coefficient of mutual inductance. This is indicated schematically
in Figure 7.10. This schematic is meant to indicate a system with
a Tx, a Rx and a subsurface conductor, C, which has inductance and
resistance. MTR' MTC and MCR are the coefficients of mutual
inductance between the three electrical circuits.
Rx
c
R
Figure 7.10. Schematic illustrating
how the transmitter causes the subsurface
conductor to act as a secondary
transmitter, the resultant of the primary
and secondary being detected at the
receiver, with phase and amplitude
depending on the three coefficients of
mutual induction.
123
subsurface conductor then acts as a secondary transmitter which in
turn induces further currents in the receiver. The total induced
voltage, E, in the receiver is the vector sum of that due to the
primary (E p ) field,_ which is a function of MTR, and that due to
the secondary field (Es) of the conductor, which is a function of
both MTC and MCR.
( B)
o (C)
(0)
(E)
3. When the axes of the two loops are orthogonal, Figure 7.11
(C)-(E), the coupling coefficent, in free space, is zero. These
125
arrangements are used, in the initial position, in a number of dip
angle methods. The arrangement shown in 7.11(E) is the only one
where rotation of the receiver in the direction indicated keeps
the axes mutually perpendicular at all times.
Tx Rx
126
of mutual inductance is positive as is the coupling coefficient.
127
negative magnitude.
128
..... 5
(A)
,(8)
'(Cl
Table 7.1
cr Cl Re Im ß
+co 90 large 0 180
+0 0 0 0 90
ProRäSation Constant
y = I~EW2 + i~crw
129
The first term, the real part, refers to the displacement current
while the second term, the imaginary part, refers to the
conduction current. In good conductors the displacement currents
are completely negligible compared with the conduction currents.
In typical earth materials it is found that even in normally
nonconducting rocks the displacement currents are at least three
orders of magnitude less than the conduction current at the
frequencies used with typical field equipment (around 1 kHz).
Induction Number
130
Table 7.2
131
This is essentia11y a practica1 problem requiring the matching of
the system used to the conditions underground. C1ear1y, if there
is a conductive overburden the transmitter-receiver geometry used
shou1d minimize the coup1ing with horizontal sheets. If the
target conductors are also horizontal the exploration problem
becomes intractab1e. Fortunate1y, in the Canadian shie1d the ore
usua11y forms as e11iptica1 1enses or steep1y dipping dykes; of
course, it cou1d also be that horizonta11y oriented deposits have
not been 10cated.
132
/ Plane ot Rx tor
..,./,,, minimum signal
........
I /
I
\ I /
/
"\ I
\ I
\ I I •
\ \ ,I \ I /
''\'\\\
\ \ I 1/ /
I // /
"",~
,\ \
,,-, S\
N /.~y.
I // /
/;:/
Conductor
133
variation in the secondary field, and consequently the resultant,
which gives information about variations in subsurface electrical
conducting properties. From Figure 7.15 it can be seen that the
amplitude of the secondary field decreases in amplitude and
increases in tilt as the Tx-Rx system is moved away from the ore
body.
134
-
I I Direction of traverse
(-vel S N (+vel
N
Plane of Rx for minimum signal
t i. ~
~
S
Rx
S N
® +
®
(AI Plan view (BI Section
Figure 7.16. Illustrating origin of "cross over" for
broadside dip angle method using vertical Tx. If Rx-Tx
separation is constant, the primary field,' which is
horizontal, will have the same amplitude at Rx.
Tx Tx Rx
~ Rx
Dip angle
I I I I I I
S NS NS N
Tx Tx
Figure 7.17. Typical field results using broadside
arrangement illustrated in Figure 7.16. Receiver and
transmitter functions are interchangeable so that curves
for a pair of lines, say 1 and 2, can be obtained from one
traverse. Anomaly curve for line 2 is obtained when Tx is
on line 1.
135
most definitive information. However, finding the strike is often
omitted in order to speed up the measurements.
1.0
alow
ahigh
Target conductivity
Figure 7.18. Illustrating how ratio
of tilt angles may be used to estimate
whether anomalous body is a good or bad
conductor.
136
of conductor width may be made in terms of the
transmitter-receiver separation; the case shown in Figure 1.19 is
that of a vertical, semi-infinite depth extent, infinitely long
dyke with one surface coincident with the surface of the earth and
with the Tx-Rx traverse perpendicular to the strike of the
conductor. In practical terms it is found that if the system.is
three or more Tx-Rx distances away from the ends of the dyke, it
may be regarded as an infinitely long dyke; furthermore, one of
the advantages of the Slingram method is that although the anomaly
curves shown in Figure 1.19 are for a system moving at 900 to the
strike of the conductor the shape of the response curve would not
be significantly different if the direction of traverse was at,
say, 60 0 to the strike.
Amplitude ot secondary
Amplitude ot primary
+20%
--
I
-10% I
-20% \In-Pha~e (Re) component
I
I
%(Tx- Rx) separation
137
coup1ing between the receiver and the conductor; therefore the
secondary fie1d due to the currents induced in the conductor by
the transmitter does not induce any currents in the receiver, and
the ratio of the secondary fie1d to the primary fie1d is zero.
(AI
Tx
Subsurface
-Q;)
- - conductor
(BI Tx Rx
-fJ
(CI Tx Rx
Tx
(0 I
138
When the transmitter and receiver are on opposite sides of
the subsurface conductor, Figure 7.20(C), it can be seen that the
coupling coefficient has changed sign (see Figure 7.12) from what
it was before, so that the sense of the secondary field changes
sign with respect to what is was in 7.19(A).
If the body has a dip between 30° and 90° the in-phase and
out-of-phase anomaly curves become asymmetrical, the asymmetry
being such that the areas contained between the curves and the
horizontal axis are greater in the region over the body, as
illustrated in Figure 7.21. Simple rules have been developed for
estimating the degrees of dip from the degree of asymmetry.
~ conduct.r
Figure 7.21. Distortion of in-phase
anomaly curve for Slingram method when
body has dip.
139
As with most electromagnetic methods, a proper interpretation
should really contain a comparison of the complete field anomaly
curve with either a laboratory model experiment or theoretically
computed curves. However, certain short cuts can be taken using
particular properties of the anomaly curve. For instance, even
when the conductor dips there is still a large degree of symmetry
in the anomaly curves and two easily identified properties are the
maximum amplitudes of the in-phase and quadrature anomalies;
these occur mid-way between the two zeros if the conductor is
vertically oriented. Aseries of Phasor diagrams can be
constructed using dimensionless ratios which involve the ratio of
conductor width (W) to vertical depth (z) to the top edge of the
conductor and the response parameter ~crwWs, where s is the Tx-Rx
separation and the other symbols have their usual meanings. Sets
of curves for dips of 900 and 600 are shown in Figure 7.22;
similar diagrams can be drawn for different dips but, as can be
seen from Figure 7.22, the curves are relatively insensitive to
dip and it is not really necessary to have increments of dip less
than 30°.
30 Response parameter
~ 20
-=
E
....ca~
ä 10
20 ln-phase (%) 40 60
Figure 7.22. Characteristic curves
diagram for long conductors for use with
Slingram surveys; - 90° dip, ___ 60° dip
(after Grant and West, 1965).
140
It should be noted that in the case of a shallow, vertically
oriented conductor, the width may be estimated as shown in Figure
7.19 so that the conductivity can then be obtained directly.
141
Since the intensity falls off with distance a typical curve
would appear as shown in Figure 7.24. As is the case with so many
geophysical methods the appearance of the curve is much easier to
understand when the residual anomaly is plotted so that it is
usual to remove the normal fall-off of intensity with distance
from curve A to produce curve B.
Intensity' (A)
Residual (B)
intensity ratio
Distance
142
However, the geophysical problem is much more complex and it is
therefore useful to have a working definition of depth of
penetration; for this purpose it is assumed that the useful depth
of penetration is the maximum depth at which the response of
conductors of economic interest can be clearly distinguished from
the responses from other sources.
143
Moving Souree System
(any eoil eonliguration)
~ Frequeney w c:::::::::::r
A ~Amplitude 01 seeondary
Re~Magnitude 01 real
eomponent 01 seeondary
Im~Magnitude 01 imaginery
eomponent 01 seeondary
rp ~ Phase 01 seeondary
relative to primary
144
A)
...:;; 20
E
~ 10
B)
%
100
:\
80
60 i FIXED SOURCE
40
!/ r.
20 ------1 +-----
MOVING SOURCE
----------- I I
--------~
Im
Strike length 100m 200m
1090m Maxima over body
I
I : approximately 1km long
Re
~
I
C) Moving Source ~- 60m coil
~ separation 1IIioJI\~ Ratio of total field
(SLINGRAM) r\J'/
ml amplitude between
two detector coils
1.60
1.40
-
1.20
145
remains practically constant thereafter. In other words, for a
moving source system the size of a conductor has relatively little
effect on the magnitude of the response. Since base metals are
generally small bodies the horizontal loop electromagnetic method
is frequently used for them.
With the fixed source methods, although varying the size of
the transmitting loop is considerably more cumbersome than varying
the transmitter-receiver separation in a moving source system, it
is effective in increasing the signal to noise ratio in the
presence of a conductive overburden. The effect of a conducting
overburden can also be minimized by a proper choice of
frequencies.
146
the quadrature component can also be found. It is as well to
point out that even orientation measuring systems should be
matched to the problem.
VLF Transmitter
)n -
Magnetic
/ field lines ~
J
Strike of conductor
/
Direction of traverse
147
and aft, 01" by towing a "bird" in which both the Tx and Rx are
mounted.
Direction of flight
•
(Al (B) (C)
---,r--- Tx
Rx Tx Tx
Rx
- .....- ... Rx
148
Some Airborne VLF Systems
All these systems give only shallow penetration and are used
principally for detecting gravel or sand deposits, industrial
minerals etc.
149
The primary pulse is essentially a half sine wave,
approximately 1.5 millisecond long, and the quiet per iod is
approximately 2 milliseconds.
I
I
Time
__+++--;2.0ms----+j
I I I I
I I I I
Current induced in Rx bV primary field alone (BI
I
I
I
I
I
Total current induced in Rx bV
primary plus secondary (CI
I i
Decav curve due to
/ good condutors
I
"----
ISO
If, over the sample per iod of time, the area under the curve
is integrated and the integral displayed for each channel, then
the profile would appear as shown in Figure 7.30. As can be seen,
good conductor anomalies are likely to show up as distortions in
all channels whereas overburden anomalies or poor conductors will
show up only in the early channels.
_---- Channell
'.-_ _ _ _ Channel 2
.-____ Channel 3
_---- Channel 4
r:=~t========:::::=lij~:-:::-:-:-:-:'-:'-= Channel 65
1_
/
Overburden or poor conductor "-Good conductor anomalies
anomalies on early channels appear on all channels
Turair
This is essentially a Turam system but with the phase
gradients and intensity gradients being measured by airborne
receivers. A ground loop is laid out in the same manner as for
Turam.
GROUND FOLLOW UP
151
AEM Anomalies ---I
I
I
Ground EM.
IF NO
r----.l--'I
IF NO I IP. Verifieation
Verifieation and
- I and loeation
loeation l __ • __ J
IF YES IF YES
'-----'"'"....;..;;;.;;....--r--------...J
I
IF UNCERTAIN
IF YES Geoehemieal
survey
IF NO
IF YES Magnetie
survey
IF NO
152
survey would indicate if the EH anomaly is associated with bodies
containing iron sulphides or oxides; however, since many base
metal deposits do not have significant quantities of such
minerals, a negative result is not conclusive. The final
geophysical test would therefore be a gravi~y survey since base
metal bodies have density contrasts of 1 or 2 gm cm-3; the
gravity survey mayaiso give information on the total mass anomaly
(see Ghapter 5).
153
8
Seismic methods
INTRODUCTION
(8.2)
hydrostatic force/unit area (F/A)
fractional change in volume = ßV/V
ISS
It is also possible to apply a pair of forces such that the
body is distorted without a change of volume; that is, it
undergoes a shear, Figure 8.1(C). The shear modulus of elasticity
(or rigidity modulus), n, is defined by
shear stress
n = shear strain
(8.3)
tangential force/unit area (F/A)
angular deformation = ---8--
Alternatively, we can show that a shear of 8 can be regarded as a
fractional elongation 8/2 along one diagonal and a fractional
contraction 8/2 along the orthogonal diagonal due to a pair of
forces at n/4 to the original one.
r-1-A1-j
r- p
-p I
I
I
I I
P r-,
L_...l
P
I~ L -;-~
(A) (8)
( C) (0 )
P
• V w" ..!LI r
t~ .,Ih
L J
'r-------f l~
/ /
/ /
/--------\
Fillure 8.1. Illustration for
deriving relationship between stress and
strain for (A) Uniaxial stress, (B)
Hydrostatic stress, (C) Shear stress, (D)
System of non hydrostatic stresses.
156
be taken into account in two ways. We can define Poisson's ratio,
0, by
transverse strain
o =
longitudinal strain
/::,.w/w (8.4)
/::,.9./9.
157
vp (8.8)
where p is the density of the medium.
(A I Compressional
----_._---
-
-
(BI Shear
(CI Rayleigh
158
Shear (S) Waves
v = (n/p)~ (8.9)
s
Shear waves which are polarized vertically or horizontally
frequently occur and are denoted as SV and SH waves respectively.
In earthquake seismology a special case of SH wave is the Love
wave (velocity VL) which is confined to the upper layers of the
earth.
Rayleigh Waves
SEISMIC DETECTORS
159
that any relative motion between a magnetic field and an
electronic conductor will produce a voltage across the ends of the
conductor, the amplitude depending, amongst other things, on the
rate at which magnetic flux cuts the conductor. It is not really
important which of the conductor or magnet is kept fixed provided
one is free to move relative to the other, Figure 8.3.
Coil rigidly
attached 10
geophone
casing
Output
volta ge Magnet
10
amplifiers
Weak springs
10ngitudinaUv but
strong laterallv
160
used in exploration methods can be used in earthquake seismology,
and vice versa. This may be obvious because the spectrum of
disturbances covers a wide range with ever increasing overlap,
Figure 8.4.
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 seeonds
I I I I I
Reflection Wind and:::-\ Surfaee Normal Earth
method traffie noise \ waves mode tides
ringing
Refraetion Voleanie Body
method tremors waves
161
used to determine the laws of refraction and reflection of seismic
waves. Consider a portion of a plane compressional (P) wave
incident upon a velocity discontinuity, Figure 8.5.
162
compressional wave velocities respectively. For reflected shear
waves, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
The reasoning behind the use of rays, and the reason why it
is a powerful simplifying tool, may be seen from Figure 8.6.
163
equal time locus intersects the surface at point C whose distance
from the source is called the "critical distance"; in recent
years there have been attempts to replace this term with
"crossover distance" and use "critical distance" to refer to the
particular value of the offset distance (see later section) in the
reflection method when the angle of reflection equals the critical
angle.
Time
---- --
---------
-....
CI>
.ef:! XcI
..
E~I~----C-------}--------------~~I~--~D~'-t----~
....- 0 - - - - - ro~~over distance
..-. IS ance
( Cntlcal)
s 1000m C 2000m
164
representation of the passage of energy via the V2 medium which
happens to arrive at C at the same time as direct energy from S
via the route SC. The geometrical manipulations applied to ray
theory are simple to follow and are applicable to all cases in
this book; we shall therefore refer to "rays" from now on rather
than to wave fronts.
Figure 8.7(A) shows the critical ray for a two layer (one
velocity discontinuity) ca se where the interface is parallel to
the surface. The time Tcl for the disturbance to travel from S to
C by the direct route is xcl/Vl and by the indirect route is tSA +
tAB + tBC' From symmetry, t SA = tBC so that
= ~ = 2SA + AB
Tcl Vl Vl V2
From (8.10) sin i12 = Vl/V2 and all other angular functions
of i12 can therefore be obtained in terms of VI and V2'
Substitution of these functions in (8.12) and subsequent
simplification gives
165
(8.13)
where ml = 1/Vl and m2 = 1/V2 and are the slopes of the segments
of the distance time graph shown in Figure 8.7(A). That ml is the
slope of the first segment is obvious; that m2 is the slope of
the second segment may seem strange since it implies that the
disturbance in medium 1 is travelling at velocity V2 on the
surface. That this is so may be seen from Figure 8.7(B).
Consider the wave front DE. When the disturbance in medium 1 has
reached the surface at D, it has only reached E internally. It
therefore has to travel distance EF in, say, time dt which is
given by EF/V1 . But EF = dx sin i12 so that
dt = dx sin i]2
VI
or
dx VI
dt = sin i l2
but since we are considering the critical angle
sin il2 =Vl/V2 from (8.10), therefore
dx = V (8.14)
dt 2
but dx/dt is an expression of the velocity of the disturbance on
the surface so that the second segment of the distance - time
graph, Figure 8.7(A), gives V2, and therefore m2.
(8.16)
Figure 8.8(A) Shows the critical ray for the case where the
velocity discontinuity dips at angle a relative to the surface and
the detectors are placed downdip from the sources. As before, the
downdip travel time, Tcld' via the direct route SC is the same as
via the indirect route SABC, and is given by
Zd sec i12 (Zd + xcld sin ..,.ec il2
Tcld = VI + VI
166
Time
Tel
-------------/
-" -" -" "'I 'l,\.-
I ''h
- ----
-"--
---" I
I
..... ..... I
I
I
I
I
I
IDistance
1+------ XCI -------.,.MI
s c
.\
o
VI
B
Surfac:e
(A)
(B)
F
(8.18)
~here V1 and V2 are the true velocities in the first and second
nedia and V2d is the apparent velocity in the second medium when
the detectors are downdip of the source. The intercept time is
167
(A)
--
Time
--
.....-----XC~ld,-------c~1 Distance
o
-----ä -
(8)
xc1d 1 1 ~
Ti1d = Tc1d - - -
V2d
= 2z d (ü':'"!
V1
- ~)
V2
(8.19)
= x c1u + 2z 1 1 ~ (8.20)
Tc1u V2u u (V12 - V2Z)
168
(8.21)
or
dx VI = V
dt = sin(i12 + a) 2d (8.22)
Where V2d is the apparen~ velocity in the second medium and can be
found from the slope m2d = 1/V2d of the second line segment of the
down dip shot. Similarly
sin(i 12 - a) (8.23)
and
1 [ -1 VI. -1 V, .
i = - sin ( - ) + sin (--'-)] (8.25)
12 2 V2u V2d
Figure 8.9 shows the critical ray for refraction from the
second discontinuity of a three layer system where the
discontinuities are parallel to the surface.
169
(A)
f-----XC1-----~·1
S F + - - - - - - Xc2 - - - - - ' - - - - - - . . ! (B)
B
Figure 8.9. Three layer case with
discontinuities parallel to the surface.
It can be seen from the geometry of Figure 8.9 that the time
Te2 for the energy to reach E from S via ABCD is given by
2z1 see i13 2z2 see i23
Te2 = V· +
1
+ x e2 -2 (Zl tan i 13 + z2 tan i23)
V3 (8.27)
170
All functions of i 13 and i 23 can be expressea in terms of VI, V2
and V3' Substitution of these in 8:27 and subseQuent
simplification leads to
(8.28)
Multilayer Gases
171
Travel time
172
.. ...........
A .......... ..
(AI
(BI
(Cl
173
Arc shooting, a modification of this procedure, is used for
normal profiling, Figure 8.11(C), the geophone layout being such
that there is some control on dip in azimuth without having to
arrange aseparate group of profiling experiments as would have to
be done if the layout of 8.11(A) is used and the profile is not
aligned down dip.
REFLECTION METHODS
(8.32)
174
Thus the slope of the second segment of the refraction travel
time-distance curve is tangent to the reflection hyperbola at a
point where the shot point and geophone separation is such that
the geophone receives the ray which has been reflected at the
critical angle; the distance x is now increasingly being
referred to as the "critical distance" while the term "crossover
distance" is being used in the refraction method for the distance
at which both direct and refracted arrivals are observed
simultaneously.
C (AI
B V2
~
Time ~
~ (BI
~
~
.~
s::-q.~ ~
~'ti
2z sec ~2
-v-I -
2z
VI
Distance
"-2z tan il2
Figure 8.12. (A) Reflected ray
diagram for discontinuity parallel to
surface; (B) Reflection hyperbola showing
relationship with refraction travel time
curve.
Dipping Discontinuity
(8.37)
175
Differentiating once with respect to x we get
2V 2T ~T = 2x + 4z sin a (8.38)
1 aX
(AI
(BI
/
I
.......
Refleetion
hyperbolae;
large moveout
,
,
I
I
I
I
I
... /
Oi p~i~~ .d! ~~~Ii.'"jr
"'.
Coherent
rel/eeted energy
arrivals
Depth Time
177
Methods of Finding Velocity
V2 xl2 - x22
= (8.41)
1 T2_T2
1 2
Equation 8.41 may be rewritten as
V2 = (X2 + Xl) (X2 - Xl) = xayßx (8.42)
1 (T 2 + Tl) (T 2 - Tl) TavßT
178
Weathered Layer Problems
Recording Technigues
179
subroutine. For instance, the elevation and weathering
corrections will be constant for any given geophone channel so
that a simple subtraction network, adjustable for each channel,
can be used. On the other hand, for normal moveout the correction
not only varies from channel to channel but varies within a given
channel so that a subtraction network which is a function of time
is required for each channel. The conversion of the two way
travel times to depth requires a knowledge of the velocity depth
function before a proper section can be presentedj correction for
this may require a digitized form of the velocity depth function
or, for analogue techniques, a curve follower.
Presentation of Records
180
(A)
2
4
6\
Zero amplitude
for geophone number shown
2l~/
4
6A
g 1//
/
'-./\ j
\J \ (B)
(C)
181
This method is a crude form of the "variable density" method where
the photographic density is varied according to the signal
amplitude by using the amplitude to control the current density
through the lamp filament.
(a) with amplitude and phase curves by means of which the output
from any input can be described. These curves are in the
"frequency domain" and represent the "transfer function" or ratio
of "output" to "input", Figure 8.16(B).
Output (B)
A(w)
Input
Transfer function Amplitude Phase
of filter (Real part) (Imaginary part)
183
distorting effeet the filter has in the frequeney range of
in te rest but only in the faet that a signal is there. A praetieal
example would be the use of travel-time distanee eurves. The
important thing here is the time of arrival of the seismie
disturbanee; it is not very important whether the disturbanee
appears to arrive as an initial eompression or an initial
rarefaetion, whieh is 180 0 out of phase with a eompression.
However, to determine how faithfully the filter reproduees the
wanted signal, the impulse eurve, or both the amplitude and phase
eurves, must be used.
t
O(t) = let) * R(t) = f leT) R(t-T)dT (8.43)
1=0
where the integral defines eonvolution and T is the two way travel
time in the refleetion problem. It ean therefore be seen that
filtering ean be regarded as the mathematieal proeess of
eonvolution whieh has the vital property of being eommutative,
that is, I(t)*R(t) = R(t)*I(t), and i t is not important whieh of
the two wave forms are eonsidered to be the input and whieh is the
impulse response of the filter.
184
operation of convolution, known as deconvolution, that is, to
reduce the reflection seismogram to a set of impulse responses
which represent the various layers.
Energy Injection
185
reduced by summing the results from several drops. Coherent
signals, of which the output response to the geophones might be
only one, augment each other while random noise cancels out.
I Reflection event I
Figure 8.17. Illustrating principle
of reducing coherent noise from Rayleigh
wave.
This is so for all weight drops so that the Rayleigh wave signal
is unwanted coherent noise. The wavelength of the Rayleigh wave
can be calculated and other geophones (three in Figure 8.17) are
placed so that they are on the m~n~um of the Rayleigh wave.
Therefore, as the first three are moving down (negative signal),
the other three are moving up (positive signal) and if the signals
from all six are added, the Rayleigh wave signal tends to cancel
while that from the reflection event is augmented. Cancellation
of the Rayleigh wave noise is never complete because there is a
finite time required for it to pass over the geophone patch, and
frequency and velocity filtering is used to reduce the noise still
further.
186
(A)
D
When weight dropper gets to here,
. / the first pair of geophone patches
/ are moved to position 3.
D 2
D 3
r
1 - - - - - - - 1.5 km - - - - -..~I (8)
I
"'10:
D
.fJ1JJ EI
Mean drop position
of first circle
11
L-.J
Figure 8.18. Two patterns used in
the weight drop technique (A) Saw-tooth or
transposed in line (B) Overlapped circles.
187
Because of the long signal time, the response signals are
also long and therefore overlap. The shape of the input signal is
accurately known and is used to operate on the output signal,
which is also accurately known, to separate the individual events.
This operation is similar to deconvolution and is known as cross
correlationj the process of searching for the signal, to obtain a
zero time, is known as autocorrelation. The correlogram, the
result of this cross correlation, i5 recorded on a magnetic tape
and i5 analogous to the more usual field seismogram. Geophone
arrays and source patterns are simHar to those for the standard
weight drop technique.
Geophone Arrays
188
~OOm--j (A)
• • • • • • • • • • • • Je • • • • • • • • • • • • )C • • •
81 82 -
6 12 18 24 (B)
189
When stacking traces, they are first corrected for normal
moveout, elevation variations, etc. Noise effects with a
dependance on offset different from that of primary
reflections - such as multiple reflections, surface waves,
diffractions, refractions, etc. will be attenuated relative to
the primary reflection.
190
9
Radioactive methods
191
weight was not always an integral number. J.J. Thomson found
that the elements eonsisted of a mixture of atoms whose nueleii
eontained the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. That is they had the same atomie number but different
atomie masses. Sinee it is the atomie number Z (or distribution
of eleetrons around the nueleus) whieh determines ehemieal
properties, these atoms are deseribed as isotopes of the same
element. Beeause the ehemieal properties are identieal, isotopes
eannot easily be separated by ehemieal methods, only by physical
methods.
Spontaneous Disintegration
Pattern of Deeay
m
Consider a parent atom nA whieh now emi ts an a -particle .
The mass has been reduced by 4 units and the charge by 2 units.
This can be described by the following equation
m m-4 or m A + m-4 B + 4 He (9.1)
n A -+- n-2 B + a n n-2 2
192
Since the atomic number has changed, the remains of the atom
must be a new element. If this new element itself decays by the
emission of a ß-particle, the change can be represented by (9.2).
Decay Laws
193
that one of the atoms will disintegrate.
Secular Eguilibrium
dln =A I - AI
dt n-l n-l n n (9.9)
where An _1 and An are the decay constants of the (n-1)th and nth
daughters present in amounts I n- 1 and In at the time of
measurement.
194
87 86 85 84 I 83 I 82 81
234
230
226
222
218
214
210
206
Number
90 81
Mass
232 Th~r
228 .J...;c~
Th ~ßlh Ac 6.7yr Ra (B)
224 ~ Ra
220
216
212
208
"-Number 20 19 18
Mas~ p- (c)
40 Ca~
1.42 x l0 9yr
195
AA 1
1
n o I p { (An-Ao~(An_I-Ao) ••• (AI-A O) +
(Ao - An)t
e (9.10 )
+ }
I f An> AO then for An t»1, which means that 0.693 t/T n »1 and
therefore that several half lives have elapsed (from equation
9 .8), we obtain
(9.11)
AI=AI= ... An I n AP
o
1 1 2 2
or
(9.12)
Y-RAY SPECTROMETRY
196
Photo Electric Effect
E = hv = h(c/L) (9.13)
Since photons have no rest mass and travel with the speed of
light their energy is entirely kinetic. If on collision with an
electron the photon is completely stopped, it must cease to exist
and, since energy must be conserved, all the photon energy is
transferred to the electron it hits. If the energy exceeds the
binding energy of the electron, the electron is ejected with a
kinetic energy (K.E.) equal to the excess of the photon energy
over the binding energy. The re fore , for any given y-ray energy
(or, from 9.13, frequency), there is a weil defined K.E. for the
photo-electron. If the K.E. of the electron is measured, and the
original binding energy is known, the energy of the incident y-ray
can be found.
197
9.13) of the photon striking a stationary eleetron, e o ' and
suffieient energy is transferred to exeeed the binding energy, the
eleetron 1s set in motion as a photo-eleetron (or reeoil
eleetron) .
hv p~
--.f\.MJV\r--- • (A)
eo
(B)
eo
.~---
pe ~
198
The important point is that frequency and direction of motion
of the scattered photon depends on many things; in one sense the
process can be regarded as the instantaneous destruction of one
photon of a given energy, and the creation of a new photon of
lower energy, the energy difference being imparted to the recoil
electron.
Pair Production
The electron and the positron, which does not last long, have
equal energies and will undergo other collisions creating more
photons; however, the process is not simple. For example, if a
minimum energy positron collides with an electron to create pure
energy again, the result is not, as one might first expect, a
photon of 1.02 MeV energy; to conserve momentum and energy, two
photons (Y-rays) must be created and the minimum energy of these
Y-rays is 0.51 MeV. It is possible to conserve momentum by
creating more than two photons moving in different directions but
the probability of this occurring is rare.
Y-RAY SPECTRA
199
spectrum which under ideal conditions could be detected with high
resolution. Unfortunately, all particles must pass through some
matter before escaping for detection; if the particles are not
stopped completely before reaching a detector, there is still so
much Compton scatter causing a line broadening effect on the
spectrum that a great deal of overlap occurs between lines.
Because y-rays have the greatest penetrating power of any of the
decay products they are the only radioactive products useful for
field work; a-spectrometry has been used in laboratory studies
only.
:;; 100
..CI
e
~ Photoelectric effect Pair production
.~ dominant dominant
~ 50
10
Energy (MeV)
200
Energy (MeV)
(A) j 1 -1 00%
232 Th
2.61MeV , -1 0%
I I 1%
(8)
I
I
40 K ~.46MeV)
100%
1/
1 238 U
I
I 1.76MeV
I / 10%
I
1
1
I
I I!I 11 I 1%
(C)
-·-·-·-u 100
--Th
i
-------K
\~A;
-7 \J~j\ I, 10
~ ~__ \--... I \ 1.76MeV
'c·e \'-,\
v·\'V \
'._. \., 2.61MeV
'I. I •
\ I ,
'..-.J<\X \
\,,\/'-'
\ \/\
\ \
\ 2 \,\
201
There is also a fairly intense Y-ray product of 2.19 MeV;
but when Uranium and Thorium are present together, as happens
almost invariably even though the ratios can vary widely, this
energy peak cannot be used since it is almost coincident with the
highest peak, 2.20 MeV, of the 238U series. For the same reason,
and because it is much less intense, the 2.20 MeV peak cannot be
used to determine the amount of Uranium present. To estimate
Uranium, the 1.76 MeV peak, due to the decay of 214Bi in the 238U
decay scheme, is used. For Potassium the 1.46 MeV y-ray of the
40K to 40A decay branch is used. These three widely separated
energies are chosen since they allow the use of fairly simple
pulse height analysis equipment with fairly wide channels (see
Figure 9.5).
202
Calibration
The instrument is first calibrated with salts of each parent
element of known concentrations; several different concentrations
of each salt are desirable to check the linearity of the system.
Calibration constants are derived and the calibration curve will
then give the abundance of each element without interference from
the other.
203
This process is known as 'stripping' since in effect the
Thorium spectrum is being strippped from the whole to derive the
Uranium spectrum, and both the Uranium and Thorium spectra are
stripped from the whole to obtain the Potassium spectrum.
FIELD TECHNIQUES
Disequilibrium and eU
Ground Surveys
204
2n sterad solid angle below it although 90% of the count comes
from about 60% of this angle.
Radon Sniffing
205
Helium "sniffing" is a teehnique similar to "radon sniffing",
useful if earefully applied to groundwater.
AIRBORNE METHODS
206
Bailey, R.V. and Childers, M.O., 1977. Applied mineral
exploration with special reference to Uranium, Westview
Press, Boulder J Colorado.
207
10
INTRODUCTION
208
as density, fluid content of pores, hydrocarbon content etc. In
this chapter we will deal only briefly with the many types which
can be classified broadly as
(a) mechanical
(b) electrical
(c) nuclear
(d) sonic
ELECTRICAL TECHNIQUES
209
A
Pformation
P mud
' Pmud cake
Radius
B I
I
I
Flushed Zone :
..
Ci
I
I
.
~
C
~
Drill Mud INVADED ZONE
I
I
VIRGIN FORMATION
Wall 01 hole I
I
Mud Cake Brine Annulus
210
which will be described next, and gives symmetrical curves which
are easier to interpret. Greater depth of penetration implies
that the results are less affected by variations of the wall
characteristics and also that the resolution is less than for
shallow depth penetration instruments. If the bed thickness is
greater than three times the electrode spacing, the "adjacent bed
effect" is negligible and the true resistivities of the formations
can be derived.
(A) (B)
V~---,
} 40 to
150 cm
211
(AI
I
Sonde
18)
(Cl
} 2 or
3cm
212
mechanism the current to various source electrodes, the current
flow into the ground from the electrodes of interest is as nearly
as possible at right angles to the logging sonde. For example, in
the "Laterolog 7", a Schlumberger trade name, Figure 10.3(A), Cl
and C2 are the "bucking" electrodes. Sufficient current is fed
into Cl and C2 by using sensing electrodes P1P1l and P2 P21 to
indicate how much current is needed to ensure that the current
flow from Co, the central current electrode, is horizontal;
clearly if this condition occurs the potential difference between
Plpi and between P2P~ will be zero. Other manufacturers use
sim~lar names such as "Guardlog", "Focussed Log" etc.
The dip meter consists of two main parts (1) three sets of
electrodes of the microfocusing type set at 120 0 angular
separation around the axis of the dip meter (2) a set of
electro-mechanical devices to give the azimuth of one electrode
with respect to magnetic north (from which we can get true north),
the inclination of the borehole and the azimuth (or drift) of the
inclination of the borehole. Frequently the instrument will
contain a caliper device as well so that seven curves are obtained
simultaneously.
213
Structural use (formation structure). The first section of
bhe instrument is used to detect electrical resistivity
differences as the instrument passes a boundary. If all three
sets of electrodes show changes at the same time the structure is
obviously normal to the axis of the borehole; if the resistivity
changes at different times, Figure 10.4, then the structure has
dip relative to the borehole axis. There are, of course,
interpretational problems when crossbedding occurs but these can
usually be solved.
214
Induction Log.
215
mV
1
1
1
1
Mud filled
1
(am)
1
I I
.. I .. I
~I ~I
il ~I
""I ""I
Figure 10.5. Principles of generation and variations in
S.P.
216
NUCLEAR BASED LOGS
This is similar to the total count gamma ray log but the
equipment has at least three separate channels to record the
Uranium, Thorium and Potassium contributions. More recently,
because of the considerable interest in Uranium deposits, there
has been a great deal of interest in a multi-channel spectrometer
(MCS) logging device to try and obtain quantitative information on
Uranium content and the MCS is likely to become an important
mineral industry tool.
217
of the hole; it is used for distinguishing between cement and
fluid behind the casing.
Neutron Logs.
218
The neutron log can be adjusted to record
(a) all capture gamma rays (n-y) when the log is essentially
recording hydrogen density;
(b) the characteristic gamma ray of thermal neutron capture by
chlorine (n-n); or
(c) epithermal neutrons, those just above the thermal
velocities.
219
s
Barahala
220
Borehole
Porous Sandstone
(oil and water filled)
index (FFI) since it has been found that the principal response
comes from protons sufficiently free that they can be considered
mobile and the fluids therefore potentially producible.
SONIe LOGS
There are two parameters of interest, the travel time and the
attenuation of a seismic (acoustic) disturbance over a short
length, up to a few meters, of hole.
221
Travel Time Methods.
222
a large amplitude.
No bondl
Good bond
Poor bond'
223
OTHER TECHNIQUES OF INTEREST
Gravity Logging.
224
Conaway, J.G. and Killeen, P.G., 1978. Quantitative uranium
determinations from gamma-ray logs by applieation of digital
time series analysis, Geophysies, 43, 1204-1221.
Hearst, J.R. and McKague, H.L., 1976. Strueture elueidation with
borehole gravimetry, Geophysies, 41, 491-505.
Piekett, G.R., 1970. Borehole geophysies symposium, Geophysies,
35, 80-152.
Pirson, S.J., 1970. Geologie Well Log Analysis, Gulf Publishing,
Houston.
Roy, A. and Dhar, R.L., 1971. Radius of investigation in D.C.
resistivity well logging, Geophysies, 36, 754-762.
225
Index
227
Electromagnetic (cont')
Eh 35,37 matching of system to
EIP - see Induced Polarization geology 142
Electical conductivity - see maximum coupling 124
electricity resistivity and minimum coupling 125
electromagnetic moving source methods 127,
Elastic constants 132-141
axial modulus 157 mutual inductance 122
bulk modulus 156 phase measuring systems 127,
dependence of seismic
136-1 1t2
velocities on 158 phase retardation 113,115
Poisson's ratio 157 polarized waves 117-122
relation between 157 primary field 116,119
Young's modulus 156
propagation constant 129
Electrieal resistivity quadrature 127
array constant 10
classes of structure 25,211 response parameter 130-131
secondary field 116,119,123
comparison of Schlumberger
and Wenner arrays 20 spectrum (frontispiece)
continuous dip meter 214-215 tilt angle measuring systems
curve matching solutions 23 26 123,132-136
definition 7 ' vector diagram 116
depth sounding ("drilling") VLF 146
wave propagation 110,112
14-15
electrode arrays for field Elevation correction 71
measurement 12,14-19,21-22 Energy injection (seismic)
focussed current logging 185-188
212-214 Eötvös correction 80
logging using Equipotential
geoid Burface 62-63
- chlorine log 220 method (electrical) 26
- electrode systems 211-214 reference ellipsoid 62
- EM induction log 216
Exploration
measurement in a semi-infinite
basis 2-4
solid 8-12
factors affecting decisions 3
of some common materials 8
purposes 2
profiling ("trenching") 14-15
radial variations around a
borehole 211 Ferrimagnetism 94
weIl logging methods 210-217 Ferromagnetism 93
Electromagnetic Filtering
convolution and deconvolution
airborne systems 147-151
classification of methods 127 182-185
depth of investigation 142 second vertical derivative 82
dipole approximation 122 Fixed source EM 141,144
fixed source methods 127 141 Flushed zone 211,213-214
144 ' , Fluxgate magnetometer 102
ground follow up (ground "Focussing" EH systems 142
Free air correction 68
truth) 151-153
Induced Pulse Transient Free fluid index 223
Frequency domain 53,182
149-151 Frequency effect
induction number 130
intensity measuring systems definition 53
127,141 relation to chargeability 55
228
Gamma rays 192,199-202,218-221 Induced Polarisation
Gamma ray logs 218 Electrical (EIP)
Geoid surface 62 - basis 45
Geophone chargeability 47-50
design 160 electrode polarization 43
layouts 172,186-189 field arrays 57-58
Gravity frequency effect 54
absolute measurement of 85 log 217
anomalies due to membrane polarization 46
- general mass distribution metal factor 55
54 overvoltage 45
- horizontal cylinder 79 pseudo section 57
- sheet mass 77 pulsed transient technique
- sphere 73 49,51
- vertical cylinder off - variable frequency
axis 79 technique 53-54
- vertical cylinder on Magnetic (MIP) 58
axis 75 Induction log 216
at mean sea level (geoid) 62 Induction number 130
borehole logging 225 In-phase component 127,183
Bouguer INPUT 149-151
- anomaly 72 Intensity of magnetisation 88
- correction 68 Intensity measuring EM systems
calibration line 64 141
depth to source estimates 73 Interval velocity 178,223
elevation correction 71 Inverse problem 3,64
Eötvös correction 80 IRM 96
filtering - second vertical Latitude
derivative 82 astronomie 63
free air correction 68 geocentric 63
international formula 62 geodetic 63
isostatic anomaly 72 Love wave 159
measurement from a moving
platform 79 Magnetic
principle of gravimeter 65 airborne surveys 107
reference ellipsoid 62 anomalies 98,100
second vertical derivative 82 axis 87
topographie correction 71 couple 88
total anomalous mass 66 dipole 91
Ground truth (ground follow up) field of the earth 91,94,99
151-153 force 87
Gyromagnetic ratio 105 induced polarization 58
length 87
Half life 194 minerals 95
Head wave 163 moment 88
Helium "sniffing" 206 permeability 89
Hidden layer 165 polarization 88
Hydrogen density log 219-220 pole 87
Hydrogen ion concentration 32-35 susceptibility 89
rocks 95
Imaginary component 127,183 variations 91-92
Impulse response 183-185 Magnetisation - remanent 96
229
Magnetometers Potential (electrical - cont')
balance type 101 mineralisation 31
fluxgate 102 Nernst 44
nuclear 104 oxidation 35,37
Matching EM system to streaming 31
geological problem 142 self 31,216
1-1essage in a signal 6 zeta 44
Metal factor 55 Potential (gravitational)
Mineralization potential 31 equipotential surfaces 62
MIP - see Induced Polarization geoid 62
Moving source EM 132-141,144 theory 70
Multifold seismic methods 122, Primary field 116,119
126 Principal radioactive series 194
Mutual induction 122,126 Propagation constant 129
Proton precession magnetometer
Nested trace 180 105
Neutron logs 219-222 PTRM 97
Noise Pseudo section 57
geological 5 Pulse height analysers 202
instrumental 5
operator 5 Quadrature component 127
with message in signal 6
Normal moveout 178 Radioactivity
NRM 97 airborne technique 206
Nuclear cement log 218 alpha particles 192
Nuclear magnetisation log 221 alpha spectrometry 200
Nuclear type magnetometers 104 beta particles 192
Orellana and Mooney curves 17 Compton effect 197-199
Out-of-phase component 127 decay constant 193
Overvoltage 46 disequilibrium 204
Oxidation potential 35,37 gamma rays 192
gamma ray spectra 199-202
Pair production 199 half life 194
pH 32,35 Helium "sniffing" 206
Phase logging in boreholes 218
shift 113,115,183 pair production 199
measuring EM systems 136-142 photo electric effect 197
Photo electric effect 197 principal series 194
Physical property contrast pulse height analysers 202
required for each method 3-4 Radon "sniffing" 205
Polarization range of gamma rays 205,206
electrode 43 rules of decay 193,196
ellipse 120 secular equilibrium 194,204
induced 58 solid angle geometry 205
magnetic 88 stripping ratio 203
of EM waves 117-122 Radon "sniffing" 205
spontaneous 31-39 Range of gamma rays 205,206
Potential (electrical) Rayleigh wave 158-159,186
background 31 Real component 127,183
electrode 43,47 Record presentation (seismic)
field mapping of 39 180-182
membrane 46 Reference ellipsoid 62
230
Reflection Seismic (cont')
coefficient 16,163 energy injection
methods 174-177 - swept frequency 187
seismogram 177 - weight drop 188
hyperbola 175 geophone layout 172,186-189
Refraction ground roll 186
methods 165-174 head wave 163
multilayer case 171 interval velocity 178,223
Remanent magnetisation Love wave 159
chemical (crystallisation) 97 multifold techniques 188
detrital (depositional) 97 normal moveout 178
isothermal 96 Rayleigh wave 158,186
natural 97 record presentation 180-182
partial thermo 97 recording techniques 179
thermo 97 reflection 161,174-177
viscous 96 refraction 161,165-174
Resistivity shear wave
measurement of electrical 12, - particle motion 158
209-215 - velocity 158
complex electrical 56 sonic logs 222-224
Response spectrum of frequencies 161
curve 2 step out time 178
parameter 131 velocity of surface
Rules for radioactive decay 193, disturbance 166,169
196 wave fronts 163
weathered layers problems 179
Secondary field 116,119,123,128 Seismogram 177
Secular equilibrium 194,204 Self potentials
Secular variations 91 in geothermal areas 39
Self potential log 215 in borehole logging 216
Spontaneous polarization 31-39 in spontaneous polarization 31
Seismic Shale horizon location 216,218
acoustic impedance 161 Signal, message and noise 5
common depth point 188 Slingram EM technique 137
common reflection point 188 Solid angle geometry in
compressional wave radioactivity methods 205
- particle motion 158 Sonic logs 222-224
- velocity 158 Spectrum of frequencies
convolution 182-185 electromagnetic (frontispiece)
critical magnetic 91
- angle 164 seismic - elastic 161
- distance 164 Spontaneous polarization
- ray 164 analogy with electrolytic cell
- time 164 34
crossover ore body oxidation theory 32
- distance 164 Sato and Mooney's theory 37
- time 164 Step out time 178
deconvolution 182-185 Stripping factors 203
detectors 160
energy injection Tagg's curves 16,17
- explosive 185 Temperature gradient logs 225
- oceanographic 190 Thermallogging 225
231
Tilt angle EM teehniques 123, Wave propagation 109
132-136 Weathered layer problems 179
Time domain 49,183 Weight drop teehnique 186
Topographie eorreetion 71 WeIl logging methods
Total field magnetometer 104-106 eleetrieal 210-217
TRM 97 gravity 225
Turam EM teehnique 141-142 meehanieal 210
nuelear 210,218-222
Variable area reeords 109 sonie 210,222-224
Variable density reeords 180 thermal 225
Very low frequeney EM 146,149 Whole bOdy exeitation 28
VRM 96 "Wiggle traee" reeords 180
2~
APPENDIX: Useful Aspects of the International System of Units (SI).
Where the derived SI unit has a special name, this is shown in the penultimate column with the approved
symbol and unit in brackets. Where a letter is used both as aprefix and as a base unit, the prefix
should not be followed by aspace. For example, thermal conductivity (watts per meter kelvin) should
be written as Wm-1K- 1 or W/m K but not W/mK since this last form could be misread as watts per
millikelvin; however, the last form may in fact be found in work where there is little possibility of
misunderstanding by others in the field. The first form is probably the best one to use, although the
second form is easier when manuscripts are prepared on a computer (such as this one).
Physical Quantity c.g.s. Unit Multiply by to get SI Unit In Chapter
Electrical
Current esu/s 3.335 x 10- 10 ampere (A) 2
emu/s 10
Energy (work, C'alorle 4.184 joule (J - kg mZ s-z)
quantity of heat) erg 10- 7
Potential erg/esu 299.8 volt (V - J A- 1 S-I) 2,3,4
erg/emu 10- 8
Resistance ohm 1 ohm (n - V A-I) 2
Conductance mho 1 siemen (S - A V-I)
Resistivity ohm m 1 ohm m (V A- 1 s) 2,4,7
Conductivity mho/m 1 S rn-I 2,4,7
Inductance emu 10- 9 henry (H - V A-I s) 7
Magnetic
Susceptibility dimensionless 41f dimensionless 6
N
VI Permeability dimensionless 41f X 10 7 H m- I 6
+:>
Flux maxwell (Mx) 10..,8 weber (Wb - V s) 6
Flux density gauss (0) 10- 4 tesla (T - V s m- 2 ) 6
gamma (y) 1 nT. 6
Field strength oested (Oe) 1000/41f A m- I 6
Other
Velocity m/s 1 m S-I 8
Acceleration gal (cm/s z) 1 Oal (cm S-2) 5
Force dyne (gm cm/s 2) 10- 5 newton (N - m kg S-2.) 5,6
Press ure bar (dyne/cm Z ) 105 pascal (Pa - dN m- 2 )
torr 101 3251760 Pa (Torr)
Power erg/s 10 watt (W - J S-I)
Activity (radioactivity) curie (Ci) 37 x 10- 9 bequerel (Bq _ S-I) 9
Frequency cycles/s 1 hertz (Hz _ S-I) 4,7,8
Electron volt eV 16 X 10-z0 joule (J) 9,10
Thermal conductivity cal/s cm °c 418.4 W m-IK- 1
Temperature °c subtract 273. 15 kelvin (K)