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Article history: A procedure for characterizing the deformation process of a regular cellular structure under static loading condi-
Received 7 December 2017 tions is presented. Three different topologies with similar relative densities were designed and fabricated by
Received in revised form 13 January 2018 fused deposition modelling of ABSplus material. In the first stage, the material properties of the samples were
Accepted 15 January 2018
evaluated and numerically correlated with experimental data. Experimental compression tests were performed
Available online xxxx
on a universal strength machine. The comparison of the results of experiments and finite element analyses indi-
Keywords:
cated acceptable similarity in terms of deformation, failure and force characteristics. Additionally, a mesh sensi-
3D printing tivity study was performed, and the influence of the mesh on the obtained results was assessed. Finally, different
Cellular structure types of elements for the discrete models of cellular structures were investigated. Two different approaches were
Finite element modelling considered for studying the energy-absorption properties of the cellular structures: with and without implemen-
Crashworthiness tation of the erosion criterion for simulating material failure.
Energy absorption © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction materials (e.g., metals, polymers, or foams) that are designed to dis-
perse the maximum possible value of externally applied energy by
Advances in manufacturing technologies have led to increased inter- transforming it to internal energy via deformation as plastic work. Con-
est in energy-absorbing structures [1–9]. In general, these structures are sequently, energy-absorbing elements reduce the forces acting on the
intentionally shaped elements fabricated from different types of secured structures. These elements are mainly characterized by high
deformability, plasticity and high ratios of stiffness to density and
mass to density [10]. Due to their advantages, energy-absorbing struc-
⁎ Corresponding author. tures are widely used in the military, transportation, aircraft and auto-
E-mail addresses: michal.kucewicz@wat.edu.pl (M. Kucewicz),
pawel.baranowski@wat.edu.pl (P. Baranowski), jerzy.malachowski@wat.edu.pl
motive industries. The geometrical features of a structure's topology
(J. Małachowski), arkadiusz.poplawski@wat.edu.pl (A. Popławski), strongly affect its crashworthiness behavior [2,7,11,12]. The most popu-
pawel.platek@wat.edu.pl (P. Płatek). lar regular cellular structure topologies consist of elementary cells
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.01.028
0264-1275/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
178 M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189
periodically repeated and connected to each other. Irregular materials The paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, the three cellular
such as foams can also be considered as energy-absorbing elements in structures are introduced, and the material testing is described. In
the engineering industry [13,14]. The revolution in additive Section 3, the experimental and numerical compression tests are
manufacturing in combination with the increasing popularity of 3D discussed, and the results of the mesh sensitivity and parametric studies
printing and laser melting have enabled the fabrication of more com- are presented. Section 4 presents the results and discussion, and Section
plex, precise geometries [15–18] of energy-absorbing structures. 5 provides the final conclusions.
The crashworthiness of cellular structures can be investigated using
analytical approaches [19–21], experimental techniques [3,6–8,17,22–
2. Description of the cellular structures
26] and numerical simulations [4,22,27–29]. Analytical methodologies
can be implemented for simple cellular topologies (e.g., circular, rectan-
Three different geometries of cell shapes were selected (Fig. 1). The
gular, triangle, hexagon) [17,22,24,30]. Experimental approaches pro-
assumptions underlying these geometries depend on the number of
vide accurate results [17,22,23,29,31–35] but are time-consuming and
cells and technological possibilities of the implemented additive
expensive, especially when metal or ceramic powder is used to manu-
manufacturing system. The structures had cuboid-like geometries
facture the cellular structure samples. Numerical simulations are versa-
with dimensions of 80 × 80 × 20 mm (width x height x thickness)
tile and can be used to study complex cellular topologies [19,23,24,36].
[3,4]. The honeycomb topology presented in Fig. 1a is a well-known
Finite element analyses (FEA) can be adopted to predict the behavior
and widely studied structure inspired by nature [1,23,44,54,55]. The
and strength of structures within a wide range of strain rates [37–39].
second geometry was a modified honeycomb topology with spokes be-
However, for effective and correct analyses, a precise numerical model
tween adjacent cells, as shown in Fig. 1b. Such a geometry was selected,
of the structure must be developed. The final form and properties of
due to preliminary tests which shown that the structure may exhibit
the finite element (FE) model are affected by many factors, and knowl-
auxetic properties and it was assumed as an interesting case to be com-
edge of the properties of the material is crucial for obtaining reliable re-
pared with the honeycomb topology. This phenomenon was not
sults with good correspondence to the real-world structure [40–42].
reproduced during experimental tests presented in Section 3 and
Hu and Yu [21] conducted numerical simulations of a honeycomb
Section 4, however it was included in the paper. The third topology, pre-
cellular structure subjected to dynamic loading; in addition, the defor-
sented in Fig. 1c, had a spiral-like cellular geometry with a visible asym-
mation process was validated and described analytically. In the authors'
metry which results in a different structure behavior during
other studies [3,4], numerical and experimental results of quasi static
compression compared to the other two topologies. The second and
compression tests of 3D printed samples fabricated from ABS were pre-
third structures were designed by the authors. The cell wall thickness
sented, and the influence of the relative density on the quantity of
was chosen according to the assumption of an identical relative density
absorbed energy was discussed. These studies confirmed that finite ele-
(ratio of the volume of the structure to the volume of a cuboid with the
ment modelling (FEM) can be useful to simulate additively
same overall dimensions) of 35%.
manufactured samples with good correlation with experimental results.
A Dimension 1200es SST (Stratasys Corp.) 3D printer was used to
Bates et al. [43] performed compression tests of functionally graded 3D
manufacture the specimens and different cellular structure topologies
printed structures of polyurethane and observed that the load plateau
using the FDM technique. ABSplus material commercially distributed
was nearly constant after initiation of plastic deformation for structures
by Stratasys Corp. was used. The parameters of the printing process
with constant wall thickness; by contrast, the load increased with dis-
were as follows: nozzle temperature, 300 °C; printing chamber temper-
placement for walls of varied thickness. Habib et al. [44] have recently
ature, 80 °C; single-layer thickness, approximately 0.3 mm. To maxi-
compared experimental, numerical and analytical results of compres-
mize the mechanical properties of the samples, the type of fulfilment
sive behavior of Nylon polymeric honeycombs fabricated by the FDM
was set as “solid” in the software. These parameters are recommended
(fused deposition modelling) 3D printing technique. Other studies
by the manufacturer to obtain products of the best possible quality.
have demonstrated that 3D printing as well as numerical simulations
are very useful in investigating cellular-like structures [27,28,45–47].
Different types of cellular structure topologies with negative stiffness 2.1. Acquisition of material data
have also been studied [48,49]. This type of structure can revert to its pre-
vious shape after deformation because the walls undergo elastic buckling Numerical calculations are effective tools to simulate physical phe-
rather than fracture. Another specific type of cellular structure is charac- nomena. However, to predict the real behavior of structures under dif-
terized by a negative Poisson's ratio [50–52]. For example, the use of two ferent loading conditions, constitutive models of the materials must be
different materials for one structure in [50] yielded a stable negative applied. Experimental tests were performed to determine the mechan-
Poisson's ratio even under large plastic deformation. Thus, structures ical properties of the material used (i.e., ABSplus). Dog-bone specimens
with uniform geometry but varying auxetic properties can be produced. were prepared with dimensions according to the ASTM D638–14 stan-
The present paper is related to a recent project aimed at optimizing dard [56]. A schematic of the specimen with marked dimensions is pre-
the crashworthiness behavior of regular cellular structures sented in Fig. 2, and the values of the corresponding dimensions are
manufactured from Ti-6Al-4V alloy powder by LENS (Laser Engineered listed in Table 1. The mechanical properties of 3D printed materials
Net Shaping) [53] system under static and dynamic loading conditions. are often strongly dependent on printing direction. Thus, samples
In this work, a comprehensive methodology is presented for the analy- printed in two orientations were analyzed in the tensile tests (Fig. 2).
sis of three different cellular structures fabricated from ABSplus mate- Although the printer parameters were theoretically capable of pro-
rial. The samples were first manufactured using rapid prototyping ducing solid, continuous structures, the specimens had empty spaces
technology, followed by experimental tests of the material and correla- in their volume, particularly at the connection of the filling with the
tion with modelling predictions and by quasi-static experimental com- boundary layers. These pores directly reduced the strength of material,
pression tests with numerical simulations. Additionally, a sensitivity as discussed later in this section (please see Fig. 4). The mechanical
and parametric study was conducted to verify the influence of the ap- properties of ABSplus provided by the manufacturer were measured
plied mesh as well as the type of element on the obtained results. The for a specimen thickness of 2.5 mm, approximately 38% smaller than
correlation of the modelling and experimental results confirmed the ef- the specimen thickness used in the study. Reducing the thickness of
fectiveness of the applied modelling method. Two different approaches the specimen to 1 mm could resolve this problem of material disconti-
were considered for studying the energy-absorption properties of the nuity. This reduced thickness reflects the technological limitations of
cellular structures: with and without implementation of the erosion cri- the printer but can enable smooth and continuous printing of the mate-
terion for simulating material failure. rial without additional layers differing in orientation and properties.
M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189 179
Fig. 1. The different topologies of the cellular structures used in this study (top, CAD models; bottom, printed structures): a) honeycomb, b) modified honeycomb, and c) spiral.
Uniaxial tensile tests were performed on an ElectroForce 3300 uni- can be observed the yield strength was larger for the XZ orientation
versal strength machine at a room temperature of 23 °C. The specimens than for the XY orientation. Moreover, opposing effects of print orienta-
were stretched at a velocity of 1 mm/s. Five specimens were used for tion on the failure strain value were observed.
each printing orientation. Based on the experimental tests, summary The discrepancies between the two orientations can be explained
true stress vs. true strain curves were obtained for the specimens based on observations of the specimens after the tests. Deformation of
printed in the XZ and XY planes (Fig. 3). The profile of the curves differed the specimens was observed within the whole measurement range,
depending on the printing orientation, considering differences in cross- but plastic deformation occurred only in areas in which the filament
sectional area. The specimens printed in the two directions had similar in the inner part of the specimen was not connected with the boundary
elastic ranges (slightly smaller in the XZ orientation). However, the layers. To provide a better understanding of this phenomenon, the
stress value of the XZ orientation specimen decreased by approximately cross-sections of the specimens printed in two planes are presented in
5–7 MPa after reaching the maximum strength and persisted at the Fig. 4. Discontinuities (with an approximate dimension of 0.2–0.3
same level until failure. By contrast, the stress level of the XY orientation mm) in the border between the external and internal layers are clearly
specimens remained constant until failure. Although the plastics did not visible for the specimen printed in the XZ plane, and thus the inner and
have an apparent yield strength point due to their viscoplastic nature, it outer parts of the specimen were not connected. It is assumed that the
Fig. 2. Schematic of samples printed with the Dimension 1200es SST (Stratasys Corp.) 3D printer in two different printing orientations, and schematic of specimen for tensile tests
according to the ASTM D638-14 standard [56].
180 M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189
bodies [61]. The friction mechanism plays a significant role in FE predic- where M is a diagonal mass matrix; Fext n is external and body forces; Fn
int
tions of forces, and the friction coefficient is often used to readjust the _ €x are nodal
is a stress divergence vector; C is a damping matrix; and x, x,
forces obtained from numerical simulations. Thus, a number of simula- displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors.
tions were performed with different friction coefficients; μ = 0.2 gave A solution of the above equation is obtained by numerical integra-
force predictions closest to the experimental results and was therefore tion of acceleration €xn under the assumption that x_ ≈ x_ n−1=2
selected. The friction between the walls of the structure did not signifi-
cantly affect the results, and therefore frictionless self-interaction was
assumed between the structure cells. € n ¼ M−1 Fext
x _ int
n −Cxn−1 − Fn 2
Because the initial boundary conditions were identical for all cases,
only a discrete model of the cellular honeycomb structure is presented
which after implementation of the central difference equations for ve-
in Fig. 7 for purposes of visualization.
locity and displacement yields the following:
€ n ¼ Fext int _ The major advantage of this method is the lack of time-consuming
Mx n −Fn −Cxn
operations involving stiffness matrix inversion. Instead, only a diagonal
matrix of mass is inverted. However, the main disadvantage is that the
method is conditionally stable and requires a time step to be limited
Table 2
Material data for ABSplus and comparison with experimental data [57].
Table 3
Material Parameter Experiment Manufacturer Data Difference Material properties of ABSplus used in FEA.
Elastic modulus 2320 MPa 2200 MPa 5.2%
Material Elastic Poison's Density Yield Strain for
Tensile strength 35.5 MPa 33 MPa 7.1%
modulus ratio [kg/m3] stress fracture
Yield strength 32 MPa 31 MPa 3.2%
[MPa] [−] [MPa] [%]
Strain for fracture 8–9% 6% 2.5–3.3%
Strain at yield point 2.3% 2% −13.1% ABSplus 2200a 0.35a 1040a 34.17b,c 7.7b
Bending strength – 58 MPa – a
From manufacturer [57].
Flexural modulus – 2100 MPa – b
From experiments.
Flexural strength – 4% – c
Modified values according to [59,60].
182 M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189
π smax h π i
vðt Þ ¼ 1− cos t
π−2 T 2T
according to the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) stability condition is the stress divergence vector.
[61], Convergence of the solution was controlled by two criteria: the rel-
ative displacement convergence tolerance εdisp =‖ Δxi‖/Δxmax = 0.001
and the relative energy convergence tolerance εenerg = |ΔxiQi|/|Δx0Q0|
LE
Δt ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi = 0.01, where Qi = Fext int
i − Fi and i is the implicit solver iteration.
Q þ Q 2 þ c2
3.2.3. Mesh sensitivity study
where Q is the function of the viscous coefficients C0 and C1 and is for- As noted previously, one of the main aims was to perform a sensitiv-
mulated as follows: ity study of mesh density varying from coarse to fine (Table 5). For these
analyses, the honeycomb cellular structure was chosen, and three dif-
ferent element types were analyzed, as shown in Fig. 8:
C 1 c þ C 0 LE jε_ kk j for ε_ kk b0
Q¼
0 for ε_ kk ≥0 (a) Brick elements (constant stress solid elements) with 8 nodes and
one central integration point. Such elements are recommended
where LE = υE/AEmax is the characteristic length of the element, υE is the for large deformation analyses [61,64]. Brick elements are effi-
volume of the element, AEmax is the largest side of the element area, and cient and accurate but require hourglass control in nearly every
c is the adiabatic speed of sound. case.
Fig. 6. Left, universal strength machine used in the experimental tests of the cellular structures; right, expanded view of the tested honeycomb structure.
M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189 183
Table 5
Different element types and sizes considered in FEA.
Elem. size [mm] No. of elem. [−] Elem. size [mm] No. of elem. [−] Elem. size [mm] No. of elem. [−]
Fig. 8. Discrete honeycomb models using different types of elements: a) shells, b) bricks, and c) beams.
184 M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189
Fig. 9. Force vs. displacement curves for the honeycomb topology modelled using brick Fig. 11. Force vs. displacement curves for the honeycomb topology modelled using beam
elements. elements.
significant increase in stiffness (0.6 mm). Reducing the element size had compression. A slight influence of mesh size was observed for models
little impact on the results, and the absorbed energy was similar for with six, eight and ten elements per cell wall. In these cases, the value
mesh sizes of 0.4 mm, 0.3 mm and 0.24 mm, with a value of 260 J ± of absorbed energy was 173 J, 167 J and 165 J, respectively (Table 6).
5% (Table 6). Therefore, the model with three elements was considered The average force values were underestimated compared to the other
reliable and produced satisfactory outcomes. two methods of modelling.
In Fig. 10, a similar comparison of results is presented for the simu- The influence of mesh size on the computational time is also evident.
lations with shell modelling. The force was also estimated from the in- All simulations were carried using 24 Intel Xeon cores and Multi Parallel
terface between the rigid walls and structure. An opposing influence Processing (MPP) LS-Dyna code. In all cases the fine mesh increased
of the mesh density on the results was observed. For the coarsest computational time required to carry out simulation. The coarse mesh
mesh (1.73 mm) with four elements on the cell wall, the force value ap- resulted in smaller number of elements and therefore in shorter simula-
peared to be overestimated compared to the other meshes, resulting in tion time. As expected, the longest simulations were observed with
the occurrence of the peak force after the elastic range. The obtained brick modelling, whereas the shortest computations were obtained
force values decreased as the characteristic length of the element was with the FE models using beam elements. Simulations times for all con-
reduced. However, there was no significant difference between the sidered cases are compared in Table 6.
models with element sizes of 0.37 mm and 0.28 mm (absorbed energy In Fig. 12, the results for each FE case for which an influence of mesh
values of 219 J and 216 J respectively, a difference of 1.5% (Table 6)). was not apparent are compared with the actual tests. The result for the
The 0.37 mm mesh was able to represent the problem without a visible 0.4 mm case was selected for the brick modelling, 0.37 mm for the shell
influence of element size. However, despite overestimating the maxi- modelling, and 0.43 mm for the beam modelling. The rise times differed
mum forces in the coarsest mesh modelling, the shell models gave ap- slightly from each other but were similar to the experimental elastic
proximately 25% smaller values of forces compared to the brick range, and therefore the stiffness of the material was correctly reflected
modelling. in all models. The brick elements best represented the actual tests and
The influence of mesh size was most apparent in the case of model- therefore were selected for further modelling and simulations of the cel-
ling the honeycomb structures using beam elements (Fig. 11). The lular structures.
coarsest mesh included only one element representing a single cell
wall (3.46 mm). Surprisingly, for this mesh, a force peak was obtained 3.2.4. Numerical model definition for quasi-static tests
at the initial stage of deformation, similar to the experimental results In the next stage of the study, numerical simulations were
(see Fig. 14). However, erosion of the elements was not included in performed for the three cellular structures presented in Section 2
the discussed analyses, and therefore this force peak is assumed to be
a result of the buckling of the elements representing the vertical cell Table 6
walls. Reduction of the beam length eliminated the peak force simulta- Comparison of the three implemented methods of modelling.
neous with a decrease in force and a plateau up to the maximum
Absorbed energy [J] Average force [kN] Simulation time [min]
Fig. 12. Force vs. displacement from the experimental test and simulations using three Fig. 14. Force vs. displacement from the experimental test and simulations of the
different element types. honeycomb structure.
(Fig. 13). Based on the geometrical models, discrete models were devel- but this phenomenon was not reproduced in a satisfactory manner.
oped, and the crashworthiness behavior of the analyzed structures sub- Therefore, the FE model was simulated with two solid elements through
jected to a quasi-static compression load was predicted. The initial the thickness, which significantly improved the results but resulted in a
boundary conditions in FEA corresponded to the experiments and stiffer structure. The energy absorbed was also underestimated by 9.75%
were identical to those in the mesh sensitivity analyses (see Fig. 7). by the FE model of the honeycomb structure with erosion compared to
Brick elements were adopted for the numerical representation of the the actual tests.
structure. For all modified honeycomb and spiral structures, three ele- As expected, the behavior of the structure was not reproduced well
ments were used to represent the thickness of the cell wall. In the hon- in the implicit analysis adopting the constitutive model without consid-
eycomb structure, only two elements were adopted, as will be eration of the failure criterion. A plateau of force was observed through-
explained later. In the spiral structure, some discontinuities were ob- out the whole duration of deformation. The value of absorbed energy
served in the areas where the cell walls were connected due to differ- was greater than for the explicit analysis and was far more to the exper-
ences in the thicknesses of the material single layer and the cell wall. imental results, with a difference of 16.71%.
The discontinuities were included in the discrete model as a hole with The results of the numerical simulations and experimental tests at
similar dimensions. To analyze the influence of the numerical erosion the selected stages of the deformation processes of the honeycomb
consideration on the results, implicit and explicit approaches were ap- structure are shown in Fig. 15. The observed behaviors of the structure
plied during the numerical studies. were quite similar, and the discrete model behaved correctly in all
stages. The results are similar to those presented in the literature
[3,4,44].
4. Results and discussion
The second case, the modified honeycomb structure, was also simu-
lated and tested under actual conditions. Fig. 16 presents the force ver-
The relationship between force and displacement obtained from the
sus displacement for the explicit, implicit and experimental tests. The
numerical simulations was compared with the experimental results for
fracture was more brittle in FEA of the modified honeycomb due to
each cellular structure as well as for the models with and without ero-
shearing damage of the walls (spokes) connecting adjacent cells. This
sion. In Fig. 14, the results for the honeycomb structure are presented.
result clearly demonstrates that for this structure the implemented iso-
The implicit and explicit analyses did not map an initial peak of force
tropic elasto-plastic material model is insufficient and requires the in-
equal to 10 kN at the beginning of the deformation process. The maxi-
clusion of additional material properties related to the bending
mum value obtained from the modelling with inclusion of the erosion
response. However, the general behavior of the model, including failure,
criterion was 8 kN. Some oscillations related to differences between
was well reproduced. Fig. 17 presents the deformation process at se-
cells and their failure during self-interaction and interaction with the
lected stages of the experimental and numerical tests. Due to visible
rigid wall were observed. The numbers of these rises and drops were
damage, the modified honeycomb structure separated into three trian-
identical between the actual and numerical tests with erosion. Although
gular-like parts, and this separation was also reproduced quite well
this characteristic was reproduced quite well, the obtained force values
using FEA.
were still slightly lower than the experimentally determined values.
In the model without the failure force-displacement relationship dif-
This discrepancy may be attributable to the quasi-orthotropic behavior
fered significantly from the experimental curve. In addition to
of ABSplus material. During the actual tests, only half of the wall was
overestimating the forces, a plateau was observed. Moreover, the force
damaged at the beginning of structure compression, resulting in delam-
increased suddenly at the end of the deformation due to structure
ination of the two layers from which the single wall was built. Initially,
densification.
three elements were considered to represent the cell walls during FEA,
For the last structure (spiral), the characteristics of the force vs. dis-
placement curve differed from the previous two cases (Fig. 18).
Implementing the erosion criterion improved the reproduction of the
force characteristics, even though only a few elements were deleted
from the model. However, these deleted elements were removed from
crucial areas of the structure and thus impacted its stiffness. The failure
of the model also resulted in reasonable agreement between the nu-
merical and experimental values of absorbed energy, with a difference
of 8.7% compared to 25.9% in the implicit case. The superior reproduc-
tion of the spiral structure behavior by the constitutive material model
Fig. 13. Discrete models of energy-absorbing cellular structures. with the erosion criterion is also confirmed in Fig. 19, which shows
the results of the numerical simulations and actual tests at selected
186 M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189
Fig. 15. Successive stages of deformation of the honeycomb structure: a) experiment, b) FEA.
Fig. 17. Successive stages of deformation of the modified honeycomb structure: a) experiment, b) FEA.
M. Kucewicz et al. / Materials and Design 142 (2018) 177–189 187
Fig. 19. Successive stages of deformation of the spiral structure: a) experiment, b) FEA.
Table 7
Comparison of the three cellular structures.
Type of structure Absorbed energy Average force Absorbed energy % of Average force % of Simulation time
[J] [kN] experimental result experimental result [min]
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