CHAPTER ONE

1.0. MECHANICS OF MACHINE LAB

1.1.1 FLYWHEEL AND FALLING WEIGHT EXPERIMENT

1.1.2 Introduction

All bodies fall under the influence of gravity, the masses may differ, and the weight of that body is
product of its mass and acceleration due to gravity. That implies that the mass is proportional to the
weight. This means bodies with larger masses faster than smaller masses. This experiment seek to
determine the moment of inertia of flywheel by timing a falling weight.

1.1.3 Objective.

The main objective of this experiment is to determine the moment of inertia of flywheel by timing a
falling weight ( of different masses).

1.1.4. Apparatus

 Flywheel mounted in horizontal

 Low friction bearing
 Loads ( weight )
 Inextensible string
 Metre rule
 Calipers
 Stop watch
FIG3.1 Setup diagram

1.1.5 Procedure.

A flywheel with a well lubricated bearing is used. The diameter of the spindle of the flywheel is
measure with a caliper. Also, the diameter of the inextensible strong is measured and added to r.

Now the string must be long enough to allow the weight to fall freely to the ground. For this
experiment, the height through which the weight falls is 100cm (1m). a pole which is fitted on a
square base plate is calibrated with the height- the upper mark being the start (0.0cm) and the lower
mark end (100cm). Known weight are used from 2Ibs increasing at intervals of 2Ibs up to 14Ibs.

The weight is raised to the known height with the string being wrapped around the spindle. The
weight is released and the time taken for the load to fall is being measured and recorded. This is
repeated for other weight and recorded as such.

Also to determine the frictional torque Tf, the flywheel is set into motion and the time taken to come
to rest and the number of revolution it undergoes is also taken. This is repeated several times to get
the independent value of Tf.
1.1.6 Results and Discussion

After these steps, the following were recorded as the results of the experiment.

Diameter of the thread= 0.3cm

Diameter of the spindle= 3.8cm

Height= 100cm

table1

1 -2
2𝑠
Masses m/𝑘𝑔 Time 𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 /s 𝑟𝑚 (𝑔 − )
𝑡2 𝑡2
0.907 8.59 0.014 0.195
1.814 6.655 0.023 0.39
2.752 5.56 0.032 0.59
3.629 4.92 0.041 0.777
4.536 4.48 0.05 0.969
5.443 4.25 0.055 1.161
6.35 4.19 0.057 1.355
 A Graph of rm(g-2s/t^2) against 1/t^2(s^-2)
160
140
120
rm(g-2s/t^2) X 10^-2

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
1/t^2(s^-2)

TABLE 3.1. A graph of (2s/t2) against 1/t2(s-2)

Distance the weight fall through, s= 100cm=1m

Acceleration due to gravity, g=9.81kg/m2

Radius of the spindle and the thickness of the string, r= 2.2cm

1.1.7 Theory

The flywheel rotates about a fixed axis that is horizontal with the falling weight being the rotation.

The torque created is the product of the moment of inertia of the flywheel and its angular
acceleration.

That is; torque = moment of inertia x angular acceleration.

For the angular acceleration of the flywheel;

Fr – Tf= Iα………………….. (1)

Where r is the radius of the axle and the string thickness, Tf= the frictional torque force and F is the
tension in the string.

Also, for the falling weight; mg – F = ma………… (2)

Where m is the mass of the falling weight, a is the acceleration and g being the acceleration due to
gravity

Again, the angular acceleration α= a/r…………….. (3

Now with the above equations, changing the subject to get the required equations;

Fr -Tf= Iα

mg- F = ma

F=mg-ma

 (mg-ma)r -Tf= Iα…………… (4)

α= a/r

mgr-mar-Tf= I a/r

mgr-Tf= I a/r + mar

mgr-Tf=a(I/r + mr)

Dividing through by r,

Mg – Tf/r =a(I/r2 + m)

a=(Mg – Tf/r)/(I/r2 + m)……………. (5)

Also, s= ut + 1/2at2, ‘a’ is a constant, u= 0

S=1/2at2

a= 2s/t2………….. (6)

putting (6) into (5);

2s/t2= (Mg – Tf/r)/(I/r2 + m)

2s/t2(I/r2 + m)= mg - Tf/r

2s/t2 x I/r +(2s/t2 )mr= mgr-Tf

2s/t2 x I/r +(2s/t2 )mr-mgr= -Tf

2s/t2 x I/r +mr((2s/t2) – g)= -Tf

mr((2s/t2) – g)=-Tf- 2s/t2 x I/r

Multiplying through by -1;

mr(g- (2s/t2))=(2s/r x I)(1/t2) + Tf

A graph of mr(g- (2s/t2)) is plotted against (1/t2).

The slope of the graph is 2s/r x I with intercept Tf.

1.1.8 Conclusion and Precautions

From the table;

The mean value Imean=£Ii /n

Where n= number of masses= 7

Imean=42.248/ 7= 6.035kgm-2

 Horizontal low bearing friction were used in the support of the shaft/ axle of the flywheel.
  It was well noted that the flywheel was really horizontal.

1.2. EFFECT OF MASS OF VIBRATING SYSTEM (MAXWELL NEEDLE’S )

1.2.1Objective

To determine the effect of a massive spring on the period of vibrations of a spring mass system
1.2.2 INTRODUCTION
The components of any engineering system, which ha is mass, and some elasticity may exhibit to –
and – fro motions relative to each other. These motions are generally referred to as vibrations.

Vibrations occur practically in all structures and machinery, bridges, buildings, aircraft, automobiles,
locomotives, etc. In many cases, they are too small to cause any concern. In some cases, however,
vibrations constitute a very serious problem. Vibrations are known to cause failure in engine
crankshaft, turbine blades, springs etc. Vibrations induced by wind effects, for example, have also
destroyed some brides and buildings. In factories, machinery vibrations generate noise and transmit
unwanted movements to nearby equipment such as delicate measuring instruments. Vibrations may
also have adverse effects on human comfort.

1.2.3. Apparatus
Heavy steel spring .

Weights.

Stand.

Stop watch.

Diagram
 Massive
spring

Weight
Base

1.2.4. Procedure

The massive spring was secured in the stand by using an allen key. Weights were added at the lower
portions of the spring. For each mass added, the extension produced was measured and recorded. The
masses were disturbed slightly and released. The time taken for twenty oscillations was determined
and recorded using a stopwatch. Before the start of the experiment, the natural length of the spring
was measured using a metre rule. The spring was also weighed on a balance and the mass recorded.
1.2.5 Theory

L = free length of
+dm spring l

M
M
x s=-Mg/

-mg Force on spring

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

 = spring stiffness

In equilibrium position force on the mass due to gravity = -Mg

In equilibrium position force on the mass due to gravity = + Mg

In deflected position force on spring = - (mg -x)

 s 2
1
Energy stored in spring in equilibrium position =
2
 1  Mg 2

2 
1 Mg 
2

2 

Energy stored in spring in deflected position =

1
Ms  x 2
2

Reduction of strain energy stored in deflected spring


1
2

Mg 2  Mg 2  2Mgx  2 x 2 
1
 mgx  x 2
2

Gain of potential energy by m = mgx in the deflected position

1 2
Net gain change of potential energy in deflected system = x
2

The maximum Kinetic energy is at the instance when displacement is zero and the potential energy is
zero

1 2 1
 x  M n 2 x 2
2 2

 n
M

Considering a spring of mass m. Assume the shape of the displacement curve of the spring, namely
the amplitude of motion of an element l against L from the fixed end of the spring as shown in fig. 2
1
is given by x , where x is the amplitude of M and L is the whole length of the spring. The
L
assumption in however incorrect. The strain energy stored in the spring in the deflected position is
1 2
x .
2

The kinetic energy of the mass M at the mass mid–position:

= M  nx 
1 2

The mass of element:

l
l  m ,
L

So that its KE at the mid-point is:

1  l 
2
l 
 m   n x 
2  L  L 

The kinetic energy of the whole spring:

L
1 1
 m n 2 x 2 3  l 2 dl
2 L 0
1m 2 2
 n x
23

So that the total kinetic energy in the system is:

1 m 2 2
 M   n x
2 3
But the maximum strain (assuming the deflection at any point in the spring is proportional to its
distance from support) is:

1 2
x
2

Equating the above two expressions, we have:

1 m 2 2 1 2
 M   n x  x
2 3 2


 n 
2

M m 3
 
 n A 1
M m 3 m
 
Now, A
M m 3 m
Squarring both sides , we have
 
 A2
M m 3 m

2 
3m 3m / M
 A 
3M  m 3 m/M
From 1, the period is :
M  m/3
T  2 / n 2

 T  4 M  m / 33
2 2

Hence a graph of T2 as ordinate against M as abscissa gives a straight line with slope 4 2 / m and

4 2 m
intercept on the vertical axis as .
3
Table of Results, Calculations and Graph

Mass, Extension Stiffness, 10-3 Time for 20 oscillations(s) Period, T=t/20 T2(s2)
M(Kg) (Kg/mm) (s)
(mm)
t1 t2 mean

0.9352 158 5.9190 19.8 19.4 19.6 0.98 0.9604

0.9635 160 6.0219 19.7 19.7 19.65 0.9825 0.9653

1.2469 198 6.2975 21.0 21.2 21.1 1.055 1.113

1.6720 265 6.3094 23.6 23.5 23.6 1.18 1.3924

2.4654 395 6.2415 27.5 27.5 27.5 1.375 1.8906

Mass of spring, m = 1.1 Kg

Effective length of spring, L = 722 mm

Diameter of spring material = 1/3(4.11 + 4.02 + 4.06) = 4.173 mm

From the graph of T2 against M, the slope S = 0.6143 s2/Kg

But from theory,

S= 4 / 
2

0.9143 s 2 / Kg  4 2 / 
4 2
  2
 64.266 Kg / s 2
0.6143 s
 
or   6.55 10 3 Kg / mm
 Graph of Square of Period, T2 Vrs. the mass, M

1.95

1.85

1.75

1.65

1.55
y = 0.6143x + 0.3696
T2 (s2)

1.45

1.35

1.25

1.15

1.05

0.95
0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7

M (Kg)

The intercept on the T2 axis, I =0.3696 s2

From theory,

4 2
m
I = 3

4 2
 0.3696 s  m 2

3

m 

0.3696 s 2 3  0.3696 3x64.266 Kg / s 2


4 2 4 2
 1.81 Kg

From the table of values, the mean value of the stiffness

=1/5 (5.9190 + 6.0219 + 6.2975 + 6.3094 + 6.2415) 10-3

=6.158 (10-3) Kg/mm

1.2.6. Conclusion and Comments

Clearly, the graph obtained is that of a straight which was expected from
theory. Almost all the points fell on a straight line, which indicates that the experimental results
was favorable. We however, see slight deviations from the line of best fit due to some errors in
the course of the experiment. The following may have contributed to the errors:

Mathematical approximations
Errors in reading the instruments and in the timing of the oscillations
Errors were also introduced due to damping caused by air resistance and friction at the support
To reduce the errors, the following measures were put in place:
The time for each mass was determined two times and the mean value calculated.
Sufficient time was allowed each time a mass was placed at the lower end before measuring the
extension produced.

From the experiment, the mass of the spring as obtained is 1.81 Kg and that obtained by direct
measurement is 1.1 Kg. The percentage error is 39%. The mass of the spring as can be seen is
quite appreciable and should not be neglected in the analysis. The value of the stiffness of the
spring from the experiment is 6.55 (10-3) Kg/mm. The error is 8%, which is not much. In
conclusion, within the limits of experimental error, the experiment was successful.

1.2.7. Applications
 Vibrations have many adverse effects but also have some useful applications in engineering. By
knowing the period of the massive spring corresponding to the weight applied one will be in the
position to know the periods at which such a system would be set into resonance. By knowing
this, we can avoid setting the system into resonance by exciting it at frequencies below or above
the resonance frequency. The spring may be used in vehicles shock absorbers and under bridges
and other structures for absorbing the vibrations these systems might be set into externally applied
loads. Springs may also be used in machinery for absorbing or minimizing the vibration effects.

In factories, most machines are mounted on elastic springs to prevent vibrations from these
machines going into the ground which may developed cracks in the concrete.

1.2.6. REFERCENCES:

1. S. GRAHAM KELLY, PAGES 2-10

2. BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS BY J. ANTONIO, PAGE 159
1.3. BIFILAR AND TRIFILAR SUSPENSION

1.3.1 Objective:

To determine the moment of inertia of a connecting rod;

a) Using bifilar suspension.

b) Using trifilar suspension.

1.3.2.Equipment:

Connecting rod, cord, stop-watch, support frame, trifilar suspension table, scale
NB: The weight of the rod acts through G
1.3.3. THEORY

Io = moment of inertia

G = center of mass of connecting rod

L = length of wire

T p = Time period

f = frequency

k = radius of gyration

T1 = tension in wire

w = angular velocity
α = angular acceleration

r = radius of suspension table

mo =mass of connecting rod

ms = mass of suspension table

a = distance of left wire from G

b = distance of right wire from G

1.3.4. Bifilar suspension:

For small angular displacement of the system about a central vertical axis, considering the left wire
we have;

L   a

mgb
T1 
ab

mgb sin 
Component of T1 perpendicular to rod 
ab

For small angles, sin   

mgab

a  b I o

 mga 2 b
Restoring couple due to T1 on this wire, R1 
a  bI o

 mgab 2
Restoring couple on the other wire, R2 
a  b I o
  mgab
Total restoring couple = R1 + R2 
Io

Id 2
But Torque, T 
dt 2

d 2  mgab
 
dt 2 Io

d 2
Also =  2 for Simple Harmonic Motion
dt 2

mgab

IL

I o  mk 2

abg

k2

k 2L
 T  2
abg

1.3.5. Trifilar suspension:

L   a

mo g
Tension in each wire =
3

mo gr
Component perpendicular to r =
3L
 mo gr 2
Total restoring couple =
L

mo gr 2
But  I o
L

Where  is the angular acceleration.

 I L
 o 2
 mo gr

Io L
T  2
mo gr 2

T 2 mo gr 2
Io 
4 2 L

1.3.6. Procedure

 Bifilar suspension
1. The position of the center of mass, G, is determined by weighing the connecting rod on spring
balances suitably suspended.
2. The connecting rod is suspended from two cords hanged from the support frame.
3. The connecting rod is set to swing, with the cord at a certain length, ensuring the center of
mass is not so much disturbed.
4. The time taking for 20 oscillations is recorded.
5. Procedures 3 and 4 are repeated changing the length of the cord.

 Trifilar suspension
 1. The mass, moment of inertia, and the radius of gyration of the suspension table are
determined.
2. The connecting rod is placed on the table with its center of mass coinciding with that of the
table.
3. The combination is then set swinging about its center of mass, with the wire at a certain
length, ensuring the center of mass is not so much disturbed.
4. The time taking for 20 oscillations is recorded.
5. Procedures 3 and 4 are repeated changing the length of the wire.

1.3.7. RESULTS

Bifilar Suspension

Length (m) Time (s) Period (s) Period(s)^2

(m) (s) (s) (s) 2
0.81 35.29 1.7645 3.11346
0.65 31.07 1.5535 2.413362
0.51 30.29 1.5145 2.29371
0.36 27.29 1.3645 1.86186
0.22 24.63 1.2315 1.516592
0.08 19.29 0.9645 0.93026
 3.5

3 y = 2.7602x + 0.8116

2.5
Period Squared

2
Bifilar Suspension
1.5
Linear (Bifilar
1 Suspension)
0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Length

Trifilar Suspension

TABLE ONLY TABLE AND CONNECTING ROD

Length(m) Time(s) Period(s) Period(s) 2 Time(s) Period(s) Period(s) 2
0.455 23.29 1.1645 1.35606 24.3 1.215 1.476225
0.44 22.96 1.148 1.317904 23.85 1.1925 1.422056
0.391 20.85 1.0425 1.086806 21.63 1.0815 1.169642
0.308 17.96 0.898 0.806404 18.63 0.9315 0.867692
0.228 15.41 0.7705 0.59367 15.18 0.759 0.576081
 1.6

1.4
y = 3.4309x - 0.2181
1.2
Period Squared

0.8 Trifilar Suspension - Only Table

0.6 Linear (Trifilar Suspension -

0.4 Only Table)

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Length

1.6
y = 3.9775x - 0.3471
1.4

1.2
Period Squared

0.8 Trifilar Suspension - Rod and

Table
0.6 Linear (Trifilar Suspension -
Rod and Table)
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Length
1.3.8. CALCULATIONS

a =0.065 m

mc =0.9 kg

mo = mc + ms = 2.9kg.

b =0.125 m

ms = 2 kg

r = 0.0635 m

For bifilar

grad  a  b  g
k
4 2

where grad is the gradient of the graph of T 2 against L.

g = 9.81 m
s2

2
grad = 2.7602 s
m
 2.7602  0.065  0.125  9.81
k
4 2

= 0.07465 m 2

For trifilar

mgr 2
From (12), I o  grad 
4 2

where grad is the gradient of T 2 against L and r, the radius of the radius.

For moment of inertia without the rod on the table, I o1 ,

g = 9.81 m
s2

2
grad = 3.4309 s
m

m= ms = 2 kg

2  9.81  0.065
2
 I o1  3.4309 
4 2

= 0.0072 kgm2 .

For moment of inertia with the rod on the table, I o 2 ,

 2
grad = 3.9775 s
m

m= mc + ms = 2.9kg.

2.9  9.81  0.065

2
 I o 2  3.9775 
4 2

=0.01211 kgm2 .

 I o  I o 2  I o1

= (0.01211 – 0.0072) kgm2 .

= 0.00491 kgm2 .

Hence the moment of the connecting rod, I o is 0.00491 kgm2 .

1.3.9. Precautions

2. During swinging, disturbance of the center of mass is reduced as much as possible.

3. The angular displacement is made as small as possible.
4. The number of swings is chosen such that the swings do not die out.

1.3.10. Some sources of errors

1. Reduction of the disturbance of the center of mass was not 100%.

2. Errors in reading the length and mass.
3. Center of mass of the rod not coinciding exactly with that of the table.
4. Possible non-uniformity in leveling the suspension table.

1.3.11. Conclusion
The bifilar and trifilar suspension experiment here are being used to determine the moment of inertia
of a connecting rod. Both are supposed to serve as a check on the other. Result obtained from one
should be the same as the other, but the difference can be attributed to the sources of errors as listed
above. In all, it could be concluded that the experiment is successful.

1.3.12. REFERENCE

MECHANICS OF MACHINES by shepherd

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. FUILD MECHANICS LAB

2.1.1 FLOW OVER NOTCHES/WEIRS

INTRODUCTION
Notches are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and open channels. The purpose is often to
maintain water depth for some purpose such as navigation, but a notch may also be used to measure
the flow rate.
In many cases, the rate of flow over the notch depends solely on the water level just upstream the
notch. However, the water level downstream of the notch may rise sufficiently as to affect the
conditions of flow, so that the flow rate now becomes a function not only of the upstream water level
but also of the water level downstream.

AIM
1. To determine the flow of water and the coefficient of discharge over the V-notch and the
rectangular notch.
2. To determine the relationship between the head ‘H’ of the V-notch and the rectangular notch
and the discharge of water over them.

APPARATUS
1. Water source
2. Stopwatch
3. Stilling Baffle
4. Vernier
5. Hook
6. Weir Plate (V or rectangular)
7. Hydraulic Bench (FM 110)
8. Flow Control Valve
9. Water Channel
10. Sump Tank
SETUP

1. Stilling Baffle 5. Hydraulic Bench (FM 110)

2. Vernier 6. Flow Control Valve
3. Hook 7. Water Channel
4. Weir Plate (V or rectangular) 8. Sump Tank
THEORY
The approaching flow is assured to be uniform, with the total head H measured above the crest level
of the notch. If the cross-section area of the channel is much larger than the area of the flow over the
notch, then the velocity head in the approaching flow will be undistributed flow upstream, conditions
are effective hydrostatics, the total head H at the typical point M being given by
H = Pm/W + Zm
Consider a typical streamline of the flow, from the typical point M in the upstream section to the
point N of the plane of the notch. In the absence of any loss of the total head, according to Bernoulli’s
equation
H = Pm/W + Zm = UN2/2g + PN/W + ZN
The static pressure PN at N is now assumed to be atmospheric. Meaning PN = o, so that
H = UN2/2g + ZN
Using substitution
H - ZN = h
Where h is the depth of the point N below the undistributed surface level. We obtain

UN = √2𝑔ℎ
The flow velocity at N is thus seen to be that which would be attained by a particle falling freely from
the level of the undistributed upstream surface. The discharge over any notch may be found by
integration, if b is the width of the notch at depth h below the upstream surface level then for an
element of height 𝜕ℎ, the element of area 𝜕𝐴 is
𝜕𝐴 = 𝑏𝜕ℎ
So the element of discharge 𝜕𝑄 is

𝜕𝑄 = 𝑈𝑁 𝜕𝐴 = √2𝑔ℎ 𝑏 𝜕ℎ
The discharge Q, obtained by integration from zero to H, is then
𝐻
𝑄 = ∫ √2𝑔ℎ 𝑏 𝜕ℎ
0

This result applies to a notch of any shape and may easily be evaluated for rectangular and V shapes
under discussion
For the rectangular notch of breadth B, then we will have
𝐻
𝑄 = 𝐵 ∫ √2𝑔ℎ 𝑏 𝜕ℎ
0

Which integrates to give

𝑄 = 2/3√2𝑔 𝐵𝐻 3/2
For the V notch of angle 2Ѳ, the width b is given by
𝑏 = 2(𝐻 − ℎ)𝑡𝑎𝑛Ѳ
The discharge is therefore given as
𝐻
𝑄 = ∫ √2𝑔ℎ 2(𝐻 − ℎ)𝑡𝑎𝑛Ѳ 𝜕ℎ
0

The result of this integration is

𝑄 = 8/15√2𝑔 tan(Ѳ/2)𝐻 3/2

Considering the coefficient of discharge, we will have the equation for the discharge over a
rectangular notch as

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2/3√2𝑔 𝐵𝐻 3/2
And for the notch as

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 8/15√2𝑔 tan(Ѳ/2)𝐻 3/2

Where Cd is a dimensionless coefficient of discharge of the notch which is not necessarily

independent of H and which is to be determined by experiment.

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus is first connected to the supply and then levelled. The point gauge is then set to
zero when it is exactly at the level of the crest of the notch. This is done by admitting water
from the bench supply until the level is approximately correct.
2. Water is then carefully allowed out or in using a small beaker until the crest of the notch lies
exactly on the surface.
3. When the correct level has been obtained, the point gauge is also brought exactly to the water
surface and then calibrated dial either read or if adjustment is possible, set to zero.
4. Sets of measurement of discharge rate and head are taken for each notch in turn, the flow
being regulated by the bench supply valve.
5. It is recommended that the first reading be taken at maximum flow rate and subsequent values
with roughly equal decrements in head. Reading should be discontinued when the level has
fallen to the condition at which the stream ceases to spring clear of the notch plates.

RESULTS FOR RECTANGULAR NOTCH

QTY/m3 TIME(S) GAUGE HEAD/mm 10-4 10-2 Cd
READING Q 3/2
𝐻
x10 -3 T1 T2 AVERAGE (mm) (m3/s) (m3/2)
5 55.45 50.2 52.825 99 99 0.9465 3.11 0.0206
5 37.71 37.75 37.73 94 94 1.3252 2.88 0.0312
15 77.29 77.71 77.5 89 89 1.9355 2.66 0.0493
15 59.11 59.01 59.06 84 84 2.5398 2.43 0.0708
25 51.12 60.84 55.98 79 79 4.4659 2.22 0.1362

A graph of discharge against coefficient of discharge

5
4.5
4
3.5
10-4 Q (m3/s)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.0206 0.0312 0.0493 0.0708 0.1362
Cd x 10-4
 A graph of discharge Q against H3/2
5
4.5
4
3.5
10-4 Q (m3/s)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3.11 2.88 2.66 2.43 2.22

10-2 𝐻^(3/2) (m3/2)

A graph of discharge (Q) against H

5
4.5
4
3.5
10-4 Q (m3/s)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
99 94 89 84 79
HEADS mm(H)

RESULTS FOR V-Shaped NOTCH

QTY/m3 TIME(S) GAUGE HEAD/mm 10-4 Q 10-2 Cd
 x10 -3 T1 T2 AVERAGE READING (m3/s) 𝐻 3/2
(mm) (m3/2)
5 45.79 45.72 45.755 99 99 1.0928 3.11 0.0238

5 43.50 43.51 43.505 94 94 1.1493 2.88 0.0270

15 88.92 88.91 88.915 89 89 1.6870 2.66 0.0430

15 77.47 77.48 77.475 84 84 1.9361 2.43 0.0540

25 101.54 101.59 101.565 79 79 1.4769 2.22 0.0451

A graph of discharge against coefficient of

discharge
0.06

0.05
10-4 Q (m3/s)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0.9465 1.3252 1.9355 2.5398 4.4659

Cd
 A graph of discharge Q against H3/2

3.5

2.5
10-4 Q (m3/s)

1.5

0.5

0
1.0928 1.1493 1.687 1.9361 1.4769
10-2 𝐻^(3/2) (m3/2)

CONCLUSION
The smooth flow to and over the weir is essential to the determination of accurate rates of flow
since the distribution of velocities on the approach flow has a definite influence on the discharge
over the weir. As the flow rate increases, the discharge coefficient becomes more accurate to the
theoretical value. When the flow rate is too low it clings to the notch and flows down it. This
changes the coefficient of discharge because now the water is not only being affected by gravity it is
having resistance to viscosity and friction of the surface of the notch.

The limitations of the theory is, it has to be level so that the only force on the water is gravity,
there has to be a constant flow, and constant pressure. The theory behind this experiment
creates the assumption that there is a minimum height of water above the notch and any heights
below this start to deviate from theory at an increasing rate. The relationship between the head
of the weir and the discharge of the water
over the weir is directly proportional. The lower flow rates produce lower heights above the
notch creating larger changes from the theoretical equations.
RECOMMENDATION
There are several recommendations to estimate discharge when using a weir because it is very
important to ensure that all flow enters by travelling over the weir and not around the weir or
under the weir. It must be noted that the weir should be extended into the ground to minimize
groundwater to pass under the weir. To ensure critical flow over the crest of the weir, it is
important a ‘free outfall’. As long as the flow conditions downstream of the weir, a free outfall is
maintained.
Errors can never be ignored when it comes to laboratory work. The aim is to reduce the
error as much as possible to obtain accuracy in work. Ways to reduce the error are by repeating
the experiment for three times or more and then taking the average readings, by being extra
cautious during the experiment
2.1.1 CALIBRTION OF VENTURIMETER

2.1.2. INTRODUCTION

The venturimeter test was carried out to determine and obtain the calibration curve for the meter.
It was also carried out to investigate the variation in pressure at the inlet and throat at various
rates of flow by the aid of plotting of the flow rate against the square root of the difference in the
height of the fluid in the tubes. The results of the experiment were presented in a non-
dimensional form so that they could be used to estimate the flow through any similar meter. The
Reynolds’s number, discharge coefficient and the Piezometric Head Coefficient were found by
calculation from the theory provided. Group 6 had no prior knowledge of the test topic.

The task of performing the experiment and preparing the report was shared equally among the
group members. Members were assigned either to the drawing of the graphs, drawing and
calculation of the values and tables and the writing of the report itself.

2.1.3.OBJECTIVE

 To obtain the calibration curve for the meter.

 To investigate the variation in pressure at the inlet and throat at various rates of flow.
 To present the results in a non-dimensional form so that they could be used to estimate
the flow through any similar meter.

2.1.4. INTRODUCTION

The venturi tube is a device used for measuring the rate of flow along a pipe. A fluid
moving through it accelerates in the direction of the tapering contraction with an increase in the
velocity in the throat. This is accompanied by a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which depends
on the rate of flow. The flow rate may therefore be inferred from the difference in pressure as
measured by piezometers placed upstream at the throat.

40
2.1.5. THEORY

Fig 7.1 (Arrangement of venturi meter)

Manifold
apparatus
Air valves

Manometer tubes

Control valves

From supply To measuring tank

Adjusting screws

Fig 7.2(Ideal conditions in a venturi meter)

𝑈1 2 ⁄2𝑔 41 𝑈𝑛 2 ⁄2𝑔
2
𝑈2 ⁄2𝑔
h1 hn
Consider the flow of an incompressible and invicid fluid through the convergent-divergent
venturi tube. Given that both the velocity and piezometer head are constant over each of the
sections considered, we might assume the flow to be one-dimensional so that the velocity and the
piezometric head vary only in the direction of the tube length. Treating the convergent-divergent
pipe as a stream-tube and applying the Bernoulli’s theorem to section 1,2,3,…..n and have

𝑈1 2 𝑈2 2 𝑈 𝑛2
+ ℎ1 = + ℎ2 = + ℎ𝑛 … … … … … … … … (1)
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

The continuity equation is given by

𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2 = 𝑈𝑛 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑄 … … … … … … … … (2)

Substituting equation 1 for U1 in equation 2 gives

𝑈1 2 𝐴2 2 𝑈2 2
[ ] + ℎ1 = + ℎ2 … … … … … … … … (3)
2𝑔 𝐴1 2𝑔

2𝑔(ℎ −ℎ2 )
Implying, 𝑈2 = √ 𝐴21 2
… … … … … … … (4)
1−( ⁄ 𝐴1 )

2𝑔(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )
The rate of flow 𝑄 = 𝐴2 √ 𝐴 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) … … (5)
1−( 2⁄𝐴 )2
1

The actual discharge is given by (where Cd = Discharge coefficient)

42
 2𝑔(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶d. 𝐴2 √ … … … (6)
𝐴
1 − ( 2⁄𝐴 )2
1

𝑈2 2⁄
The velocity head 2𝑔at the throat can be conveniently used to express a dimensionless way
of expressing the distribution of piezometric head along the length of the venturi meter.
Accordingly, the Piezometric Head Coefficient

ℎ𝑛 −ℎ1
𝐶𝑃 ℎ = (𝑛 = 2,3, … . . ) … … … . (7)
𝑈2 2 ⁄2𝑔

The ideal distribution of CPh along a venturi meter (in terms of its geometry) is given

𝐴2 2 𝐴2
𝐶𝑃 ℎ = [ ] − [ ]2 … … … … … … … (8)
𝐴1 𝐴𝑛

Discharge coefficient,

2.1.6. APPARATUS

 Bernoulli apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Stop watch

43
 SETUP OF THE EXPERIMENT

Manifold
Air valves

Manometer
tubes

Adjustable screws EXIT valve

Power supply

Measuring gauge

Stopper

SUPPLY valve

Supply reservoir

Weighing tank

Wheels

2.1.7. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

The Bernoulli apparatus connected to the differential manometer at six different points. The jet
apparatus rests on the hydraulic bench. The hydraulic bench contains the water pump and keeps

44
track of the volume of water accumulating. The stopwatch is used to measure the time needed for
a certain volume of water to be supplied; in order to then calculate the actual rate of
flow (Qactual).the stopper in the weighing tank prevents fluid from entering the supply reservoir so
it can pass through the measuring gauge. The supply valve allows fluid to enter the Bernoulli
apparatus and the exit valve allows fluid to leave the Bernoulli apparatus. The power supply to
the whole apparatus supplies electrical energy to run the pump motor. The air valve situated on
the manometer top lets all air to leak out.

2.1.8. PROCEDURE

The apparatus is connected to the power supply. The apparatus is leveled by opening both
the bench supply valve and the control valve downstream, of the meter to allow water to flow
and clear air pockets from the supply hose. The control valve is then gradually closed causing
water to rise up in the tubes of the manometer thereby compressing the air in the manifold. When
the water level has risen to a convenient height, the bench valve is also closed gradually so that
as both valves are finally shut off, the meter is left containing static water at moderate pressure.
The adjusting screws are operated to give identical readings for all of the tubes across the whole
width of the manometer board. To establish the meter coefficient measurements of a set of
differential heads (h1 – h2) and flow rates Q should be made. The first readings are taken with
the maximum possible value of (h2 – h1) i.e. with h1 close to the top of the scale and h2 near the
bottom. This is obtained gradually by opening both the bench valve and the control valve in turn.
Successive opening of either valve are done to increase both the flow and the difference between
h1 and h2.The rate flow is found by timing the collection of a known amount of water in the
weighing tank, in the meantime values of h1 and h2 being read from the manometer. Similar
readings are then taken over a series of reducing values of (h1 – h2) roughly equally spread over
the available range from 250mm to zero. 10 readings are made.

DATA

Piezometer references A/(A1) B C D/(A2) E F G H J K L

Diameter(mm) 26 23.2 18.4 16 16.79 18.47 20.16 21.84 23.53 25.21 26

45
Area,mm2 530.9 422.7 765.9 201.1 221.4 267.9 319.2 374.6 434.8 499.2 530.9

Distance from -54 -34 -22 -8 7 22 37 52 67 82 102

datum(mm)

A B C D E F G H J K L Q TIM
E
h1 h2
(cm) (cm) (cm (cm) (cm (cm (cm (cm (cm (cm (cm (ltrs) (sec)
) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
248 250 250 230 232 238 240 244 246 247 248 15 194.5 Venturi curve

252 248 240 210 15 103.9

254 190 15 76.60

258 170 15 63.60

260 256 214 150 162 198 216 228 238 242 256 15 53.31 Venturi curve
260 130 15 48.44
264 110 15 44.30
266 90 15 41.28
268 70 15 38.35
270 262 180 50 82 150 188 212 228 238 246 15 36.50 Venturi curve

2.1.9. CALCULATIONS

2𝑔(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )
𝑈2 = √
𝐴
1 − ( 2⁄𝐴 )2
1

𝑈2 2⁄
The velocity head 2𝑔at the throat can be conveniently used to express a dimensionless way
of expressing the distribution of piezometric head along the length of the venturi meter.
Accordingly, the Piezometric Head Coefficient

46
 ℎ𝑛 −ℎ1
𝐶𝑃 ℎ = ( 𝑛 = 2)
𝑈2 2 ⁄2𝑔

h1-h2 2g(h1-h2) A2/A1 (A2/A1)2 1-(A2/A1)2 U22 U2 U22/2g h2-h1 Cph

18 353.16 0.378791 0.143482 0.856518 412.3208 20.30568 21.0153305 -18 -0.856517581
42 824.04 962.0818 31.01744 49.0357711 -42 -0.856517581
64 1255.68 1466.029 38.28876 74.7211749 -64 -0.856517581
88 1726.56 2015.79 44.89756 102.741616 -88 -0.856517581
110 2158.2 2519.738 50.19699 128.427019 -110 -0.856517581
130 2550.6 2977.872 54.56988 151.777387 -130 -0.856517581
154 3021.48 3527.633 59.39388 179.797827 -154 -0.856517581
176 3453.12 4031.581 63.49473 205.483231 -176 -0.856517581
198 3884.76 4535.529 67.34633 231.168635 -198 -0.856517581
220 4316.4 5039.476 70.98927 256.854039 -220 -0.856517581

Piezometric Head Coefficient, Cph =-0.856517581

2.1.10. Discharge Coefficient, Cd

2𝑔(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )
The rate of flow (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒), 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴2 √ 𝐴
1−( 2⁄𝐴 )2
1

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑒

The rate of flow (real discharge rate), Qreal = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 15 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠

47
 2.1.11. Reynolds Number

Kinematic viscosity of water at a temperature of 20oC is .

Taking tap 5 as our reference point, then d5=16.79mm,

Reynolds number becomes:

4 ×𝑄𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Re = 𝜋 ×0.01679 ×1.00× 10−6 =75,833,206.95× QActual

h1-h2 (h1-h2)1/2 QActual(ltrs/s) h2-h1 Discharge coefficient, C Re

18 4.242641 0.077121 -18 2.9E-05 5848332.75
42 6.480741 0.14437 -42 2.7E-05 10948040.1
64 8 0.195822 -64 2.8E-05 14849810.3
88 9.380832 0.235849 -88 2.8E-05 17885186
110 10.48809 0.281373 -110 2.6E-05 21337416.9
130 11.40175 0.309661 -130 2.6E-05 23482586.7
154 12.40967 0.3386 -154 2.7E-05 25677123.9
176 13.2665 0.363372 -176 3.0E-05 27555664.1
198 14.07125 0.391134 -198 2.9E-05 29660945.6
220 14.8324 0.410959 -220 2.8E-05 31164338.9

GRAPHS

48
 square root of (h1-h2) vrs flow rate, Q
16
square root of (h1-h2)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
flow rate,Q(ltrs/sec)

graph of (h1-h2) against Q (first calibration curve)

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Q(ltrs/s)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
225 230 235 240 245 250
first calibration curve

49
 Chart graph of Q against second calibration curve

0.5

0.4
Q(ltrs/s)

0.3

0.2
Series1
0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
second calibration curve

graph of Q against third calibration curve

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Q(ltrs/s)

0.25
0.2
0.15 Series1
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
third calibration curve

50
 graph of actual against ideal flow rate
0.00003
0.000025
ideal flow rate

0.00002
0.000015
0.00001
0.000005
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
actual flow rate

first variation values along venturi meter against

datum
280
275
first variaton of values

270
265
260
255
250
245
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
datum

51
 second variation of values against Datum

300
second variation of values

250

200

150

100

50

0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
datum

graph of third variation of values against datum

100
80
third variation of values

60
40
20
0 Series1
-20 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-40
-60
-80
Datum

52
2.1.12. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

From the graph plotted for cd us Q: The floe rate depends on the velocity of the water. The flow
rate Q of the water varies with velocity change. The calibration curve thus obtained shows cd
varying with the velocity due to change in diameter of the venturimeter.

The grath of the differential head: The differential head varies linearly with the flow rate, hence
the greater the differential head the higher the flow rate as can be seen in the graph.

Comparing the pressure of the water before and after entering the constriction, it can be seen that
, the pressure of the water before it enters the constriction of the venturimeter was greater than
the pressure after leaving, this could be due frictional losses in the constriction. Although the
venturimeter is design to minimize these losses,it does just that; it can not totally eliminate the
losses and there is a degree of loss.

2.1.13. CONCLUSION

From the experiment and calculations performed, the calibration curve for the venturi meter
was obtained.

It has been established from the graphs that the pressure of the water in the venturi meter
varies linearly with the flow of water.

A non-dimension form of the results was found in terms of the Reynolds’s number from
which it can be used to estimate the flow rate in any similar meter.

2.1.14. RECOMMENDATIONS

The temperatures and pressures of chemicals in a pipeline do not affect the accuracy of a
Venturi flow meter and because of this they are used in crude oil pipelines. Another advantage of
using the Venturi meter in volatile and frigid environments is that it has no moving parts; there is
no risk of them freezing and breaking due to thermal expansion.

53
 The venturi in carburetors is used to measure airflow in a car engine and to ensure that a
correct amount of fuel is fed to the gas combustion engine when needed during driving. The air
and fuel mixture must be evenly distributed to the engine in order for it to work properly. The
temperatures of air and fuel are constantly changing due to the shift in temperatures that occur in
an engine during idling, acceleration, high speeds, and low speeds. The venturi meter allows the
carburetor to adjust and calibrate the distribution of fuel and air to the engine as needed.

2.1.15. REFRENCES

J. A. Roberson and C. T. Crowe: “Engineering Fluid Mechanics” – 6th Edition

Frank white : “ fluid mechanics “ – 5th Edition

54
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

3.1.1. HELICAL COIL SPRING

3.1.2. OBJECTIVE

To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of a close and open-coiled helical
spring.

3.1.3. APPARATUS

The closed-coiled helical spring apparatus (consisting of hanger, guide, main scale, closed and
open coil helical spring),venier caliper, and weights.

3.1.4.THEORY

A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a constant coil diameter and uniform pitch. There are
several types of springs including helical spring, leaf spring, and flat spiral spring but for the
objective of the experiment, we shall consider close-coiled helical spring and open-coil helical
spring. Helical springs are generally made from round wire which is comparatively rare for
springs to be made from square or rectangular sections.

Springs are generally materials that are able to absorb and store energy, releasing it when
needed. They act as shock absorbers in automobiles and spring of buffers of railway rolling-
stock. They are also used in the restoration of mechanisms to their original configuration against
the action of an external force.

55
3.1.5. Parameters

D=mean diameter of the coils = 38mm

R = mean radius = 19mm

d = diameter of the wire of the spring = 5mm

G = shearing modulus of the wire (steel) = 80GPa

J = polar second moment

N = number of effective coils = 40

axial extension
angle of twist of one end of the spring related to the other
the pitch angle of the helix, is very small so that
l = total length of wire = 2πNRSec πNR
T = (PRCos LSin PR
PRSin LCos L

56
3.1.6. Case 1: L = 0

P is applied gradually to produce axial extension, so that

1
Work Done by P  P ....................(1)
2

T 2 ds T 2 l ( P 2 R 2 )( 2NR) 32 NR 3 P 2
h  Torsional Strain Energy     .....................(2)
2GJ 2GJ 2G(d 4 32) Gd 4

1 32 NR 3 P 2
Equating the two, we have P  ..................................(3)
2 Gd 4

64 NR 3 P 8 ND 3 P
so that    ......................................(4)
Gd 4 Gd 4

Gd 4
P
Stiffness of the spring k  ...........................(5)
 8 ND 3
Td PRd
If   max imum permissibl e stress   ................(6)
2J 2J

2 J 2 (d 4 ) d 3
then, P  maximum permissibl e load    ..............(7)
Rd 32 Rd 16 R

3.1.7. Case 2:P =0

1
Work done by the couple L  L .............................(9)
2

M 2 ds M 2 l L2 (2NR) NRL2
U  Bending Strain Energy     ...............(10)
2 EI 2 EI 2 EI EI

1 NRL2
Equating the two, we have : L  ...........................................(11).
2 EI

2NRL 2NRL 128 NRL

so that,     ........................................(12)
EI E (d 64)
4
Ed 4

57
 L Ed 4
Stiffness of the spring   ..............................................(13)
 128 NR

Ld Ld 32 L
Maximum Bending Stress    .......................(14)
2I 2(d 64) D 3
4

3.1.8. METHODOLOGY

Diagram

The above set-up (the Close-Coiled Helical Spring Apparatus) consists of hanger, main scale, a
spring and a weight. The weights are hung on the hanger which causes the spring to extend
axially, and the extension is measured from the readings on the main scale.

58
Close-Coil Helical Spring Values
Load (Ib) Loading Δ11 In) Unloading Δ11 (In)

0 0 0
5 0.10 0.10
10 0.18 0.21
15 0.30 0.43
20 0.53 0.63
25 0.77 0.83
30 1.02 1.10
35 1.20 1.20

S.I UNITS

LOAD P (N) LOADING ×(10⁻³)m UNLOADING×(10⁻³)m

0.00 0.000 0.000

22.24 2.540 2.540

44.50 4.572 5.334

66.72 7.620 10.92

88.96 13.46 16.00

111.2 19.56 21.08

133.44 25.91 27.94

155.68 30.48 30.48

59
 Graph of Load (P) against Loading

180

160

140

120

100
Load(N)
80

60

40

20

0
0 2.54 4.572 7.62 13.46 19.56 25.91 30.48
Loading×( 10-3)m

Graph of Load (P) against Unloading

35

30

25

20
Load(N)
15

10

0
0 2.54 5.334 10.92 16 21.08 27.94 30.48
Unloading×(10-3)

60
OPEN-COIL HELICAL SPRING

Load (Ib) Loading Δ (In) Unloading Δ (In)

0 0.00 0.00
5 0.12 0.15
10 0.25 0.30
15 0.39 0.44
20 0.54 0.55
25 0.68 0.69
30 0.80 0.83
35 0.92 0.92

S I UNIT

LOAD P (N) LOADING×(10-3)m UNLOADING×(10-3)m

0.00 0.000 0.000

22.24 3.050 3.810

44.50 6.350 7.620

66.72 9.910 11.18

88.96 13.72 13.97

111.2 17.27 17.53

133.44 20.32 21.08

155.68 23.37 23.37

61
 Graph of Load P against Loading
180

160

140

120

100
Load (N)
80

60

40

20

0
0 3.05 6.35 9.91 13.72 17.27 20.32 23.37
Loading×(10-3)m

Graph of Load P against Loading

180

160

140

120

100
Load (N)
80

60

40

20

0
0 3.81 7.62 11.18 13.97 17.53 21.08 23.37
Loading×( 10-3)m

62
3.1.9. The Theoretical Values

8 ND 3 P
Equation (4):   .
Gd 4

N  40
D  3.8  10  2 m
d  0.5  10  2 m
G  80GPa

8  40  3.8  10 2 
3

 P
80  10 9  0.5  10  2 
4

  3.51  10  4 P

Putting in value of P for each increment, the table below is obtained.

Load P (N) Deflections(δ) x (10-3)m

0.00 0.00
22.24 7.81
44.50 15.62
66.72 23.42
88.96 31.22
111.20 39.03
133.44 46.84
155.68 54.64

63
 Graph of Load P against Deflection δ
180

160

140

120

100
Load (N)
80

60

40

20

0
0 7.81 15.62 23.42 31.22 39.03 46.84 54.64
Deflection( δ)×(10-3)m

3.1.10. PRECAUTION

1. Stability must be achieved.

2. The loading and unloading of the weight should be done gently.
3. The main scale must be set to zero before experiment starts.

3.1.11. OBSERVATION AND COMMENT

1) The standard value of G was obtained from the book “Strength of Materials and Structures
by John Case and A.S. Chilver”.

2) The graph for loading was different from the graph for unloading because :

i. While the loading is under gravity, unloading is done against gravity making the
spring not able to recover exactly to its original position once there is some load still
on the hanger accounting for the difference in the respective deflection values.

ii. Also, the spring is not a perfectly elastic material as assumed in theory.

64
3.1.12. CONCLUSION

Comparing the graphs of theoretical and experimental deflections it is found that they differ and
this is due to the error incurred in the process of the experiment.

3.1.13. REFERENCE

1. Strength of Materials and Structures by John Case and A.S. Chilver.

2. Mechanics of Materials by Ferdinand P. Beer and Russell Johnston, JR.

3. Mechanics of Machines by Madhukar Vable.

65
 3.2. TENSILE TEST TO FAILURE ON MILD STEEL

3.2.1. Objective

The objective of this experiment is to obtain a load-extension curve for mild steel under tension
to failure.

3.2.2. Theory

Stress P L
From Hooke’s law Young' s Modulus (E)    , (up to yield point)
Strain A x

PY
Yield stress, σ Y 
A

Pm
Ultimate stress, σ m 
A

Pf
Fracture stress, σ 
Af

Where PY refers to yield load, Pm refers to maximum load, Pf refers to load at fracture.

A is area of specimen and Af is the area at fracture.

3.2.3. Methodology
3.2.4. Apparatus

Apparatus used include:

1. The Avery 50ton Testing machine-this is used to grip the ends of the specimen and apply
tension to it.

2. Two micrometer screw gauges - one for measuring diameter of the rod before the test
and the other for diameter at fracture.

66
3. Extension board-it is used as guide for selecting divider to measure the extensions.

4. Dividers- these are used to measure the extensions.

5. Punch- it is used to mark the gauge length of the specimen.

6. Mallet- it is used to strike punch in marking the gauge length.

3.2.5. Procedure

1. The specimen is machined to a uniform shape in a center lathe.

2. The initial diameter,d1 of the rod is measured.

3. The surface of the rod is coated with chalk. This is done to make the punched marks
visible.

67
 4. The specimen is punched to mark the ends of the gauge length, L.

5. The specimen is then clamped into the Avery 50ton testing machine.

6. The indicator on the load selector is set to 0.

7. Straining rate is also set to 4.

8. The machine is switched on and extensions are measured as machine stretches the
specimen.

3.2.6. Results

Initial diameter, d1 = 0.67inches = 1.7018  10-2 m

Gauge length, L = 2inches = 5.08  10-2 m

Necking diameter, dn = 0.354inches = 0.899  10-2 m

Load/ ton Load/ kN Extension/ Extension (10^-2)

inches

0 0 2 0.0508
7 64.746 2.05 0.05207
9.2 80.442 2.1 0.05334
9.8 90.252 2.15 0.05461
10.4 96.138 2.2 0.05588
10.6 98.1 2.25 0.05715
10.6 98.1 2.3 0.05842
10.2 94.176 2.35 0.05969
9.4 88.92 2.4 0.0609
8.6 84.36 2.45 0.0623

68
Graphs

Graph Of Load Against Extension

120

100

80
Load (KN)

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Extension (X10-2) /m

69
 Graph Of Load Against Extension Up To Yield
100
90
80
70
Load (KN)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Extension (X10-2) /m

3.2.7. Calculations

Initial diameter, d1 = 0.605inches = 1.5367  10-2 m

Gauge length, L = 2inches = 5.08  10-2 m

Necking diameter, dn = 0.345inches = 0.8763  10-2 m

π(1.5367  10 2 ) 2
Initial Area, A   1.85  10 4 m 2
4

 (0.8763  10 2 ) 2
Area at fracture, A f   6.03  10 5 m 2
4

Yield load. PY = 95.157KN

Maximum load, Pm =98.1kN

Fracture load, Pf = 72.594kN

70
Young’s Modulus

(64.746 - 0)kN
Slope of graph 2, S 
(0.05207  0.0508)  10 2 m
 5.098  10 6 kN / m

5.08  10 3
 E  5.098  10 6
1.85  10 4
 139.99  10 6 N / m 2

Yield stress

95.157kN
Y 
1.85  10  4 m 2
 514.36MPa

Ultimate stress

98.1kN
 ult 
1.85  10  4 m 2
 530.27 MPa

Fracture stress

72.594kN
f 
6.03  10 5 m 2
 1203.88MPa

Percentage elongation over gauge length, %L

Total elongation 0.508  10 2

%L    100%
gauge length 5.08  10 2
 10%

71
Percentage reduction in area, %A

A  Af
%A   100%
A
1.85  10 4  6.03  10 5
  100%
1.85  10 4
 67.4%

3.2.8. Conclusion

It is seen from the result of this experiment (graph and observation) that as the tension increases,
the material elongates linearly within the elastic limits where Hooke’s law is applicable. When
the elastic limit is exceeded, the material begins to yield (at yield point) and enters plastic
deformation where a little tension applied causes a comparatively larger extension. As tension is
increased, it reaches the ultimate point after which even a smaller tension applied causes
extension until the material finally fractures.

In all, the experiment could be said to have been successful.

3.2.9. Reference

4. 1. Strength of Materials by G. H. Rhyder.

5. Mechanics of Materials by Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russell Johnson, Jnr. (1st and
2nd Editions)

6. Mechanics of Engineering Materials by P. P. Benham and R. J. Crawford

72
73