Gravitational Waves: An Introduction

Nitin Shukla and Sofia Lima

February 3, 2009

Abstract
An introduction to the theory of the gravitational waves is being de-
scribed in this article. The weak gravitational eld approximation is rst
considered and the linearized Einsteins equations are obtained. Plane
waves and transverse-traceless (TT) gauge is discussed. We then discuss
the motion of test particles in the presence of a gravitational wave and
their polarization. At last, Generation and detection of the gravitational
waves will be briefly described in this article.

1 Introduction to gravitational radiation

1.1 The concept of gravitational wave
Just as in electrodynamics, in the relativistic theory of gravitation the finite ve-
locity of propagation of interactions results in the existence of free gravitational
fields that are not liked to bodies: Gravitational waves. These are perturbations
in the curvature of spacetime generated by the motions of matter in the same
way light is generated by the motion of charges. Just like a boat saling through
the ocean produces waves in water, moving masses like stars produce gravita-
tional waves in spacetime. We will see the anology between electromagnetic
and gravitation waves among this article. For now lets review some important
equations of general relativity.

1.2 Review of important equations in general relativity

In genaral relativity spacetime is characterized by the metric gab . For special
relativity it is the Minkowski metric ηab

ds2 = ηab dxa dxb = −dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (1)

The metric defines an unic connection called Riemannian connection by the

formula
1
Γamn = g ab (gbm,n + gbn,m − gmn,b ) (2)
2
With a metric and a subsequent connection we can define Riemann tensor as
b
Rmsq = Γbmq,s − Γbms,q + Γbns Γnmq − Γbnq Γnms (3)

Riemann tensor describes the curvature of spacetime. From it we define Ricci

c
tensor as Rab = Rabc , Ricci Scalar (also called scalar curvature) as R = Raa and

1
Einstein tensor as
1
Gab = Rab − Rgab (4)
2
The Einstein Equations in vacuum then became
G = 0 (5.1)
. In the persence of matter and energy they are
Gmn = 8πTmn (5.2)
where Tmn is the Tensor that contains information about matter.(We make
G=1=C). The conservation of energy implies
∂a T ab = 0
To describe the motion of test particles in spacetime we need the concept of
geodesic. Geodesic is a path which parallel transports its own tangent vec-
tor. The tangent vector of a path xa (λ) is dxa /dλ.The condition to be parallel
transported is thus
D dxa
=0
dλ dλ
d2 xa b
a dx dx
c
+ Γ bc (6) =
dλ2 dλ dλ
Last equation is known as geodesic equation. Test particles paths are geodesics.Now
if we consider some nearby particles with four-velocities described by a single
vector field U a (x) and separation vector S a one can prove that we have
D2 a
S = Rabcd U b U c S d (7)
dτ 2
This is called geodesic desviation equation and it is need to describ the evolution
of a sistem of test particles in the presence of a gravitational field.

2 Weak field aproximation and waves in vacuum

2.1 Linearization of Einstein equations
From a more mathetical point of view waves can be seen as perturbations in a
background metric. If we consider them far from the source then they can be
seen as small perturbations. This is the case we will deal with. So let’s find the
Einstein equations for this aproximation. We start by writing the metric as
gab = ηab + hab , |h| << 1 (5)
Then, because gab g bc = δac
g ab = η ab − hab (6)
For lower and raise indices, however, we will use only the Minkowski metric. To
get the connection we now substitute (5) and (6) into (2) and discard non linear
terms in h. We then obtein
1 ab
Γamn = η (hbm,n + hbn,m − hmn,b ) (7)
2

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With the connection we can calculate Riemman tensor and obtain

a 1 as
Rmbn = η (hsn,mb + hmb,sn − hmn,bs − hbs,mn ) (8)
2
Then Ricci tensor will be
1 as 1
Rmb = η (hsa,mb +hmb,sa −hma,bs −hbs,ma ) = (haa,mb +hmb,a ,a −hma,b,a −hba,ma ) (9)
2 2
Scalar curvature will be
1 ab
R = η mb Rmb = (h + hba,a,b − hba,b,a − hba,b,a ) (10)
2 a, b
and Einstein Equations in vacuum will be
R 1 ,a a a i ,a ab
G = Rmn − ηmn = − (hmn ,a +h a,mn −hn,ma −ηmn h i ,a +ηmn h ,ab ) = 0 (11)
2 2
We can simplify last expression by definig
1
h̄ab = hab − ηab h, h = η ab hab (12)
2
Then it stays
1 a
(h̄ + h̄an,ma − ηmn h̄ab,ab − h̄mn,a,a ) = 0 (13)
2 m,na

2.2 gauge freedom and wave equation

If we do a small change in the coordenate sistem
0
xa = xa + v a (xb )

where v is a function of position and have the property |v a,b | << 1 then the
change in the metric will be

ga0 b0 = ηab + hab − va,b − vb,a

so redefinig h
hab → hab − va,b − vb,a
we can see that we are allowed to choose a coordenate sistem that simplifies
our equation by choosing v. And that is what we will do. We will choose a
coordenate sistem where h̄ma,a = 0. This is called Lorentz gauge. With this
condition, Einstein equations in vacuum will take the form
,a
h̄mn ,a = 0 (14)

which is the simple wave equation.

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2.3 plane wave solutions
The most simple solutions to the wave equation are the plane wave solutions.
They are of the form: a
h̄mn = Amn eika x (15)
and they are a basis for general solutions of the wave equation. To check this
solution we substitute in the wave equation and we get:
,a a
0 = h̄mn ,a = −ka k h̄mn (16)

So for the perturbation to have nonzero components we must have

ka k a = 0 (16)

which means the k must be a null vector. Now we have to verify if this solution
satisfies the Lorentz gauge condition. Substituting we find out
a
0 = h̄ma,a = iAmn km eika x (17)

which implies
Amn km = 0 (18)
So we say that the vector is ortogonal to Amn .

2.4 TT gauge
The tensor Amn has 10 independent components (it went down from 16 due to
symmetry). Condition (18) imposes another 4 equations which reduces Amn to
six independent components. We can see that there are only two independent
coordenates by specifying a coordenate sistem. First we choose a constant
timelike unit vector, call it U b . Then we impose that in the coordenate sistem

Aaa = 0 (19) (A is trace free)

Aab U b = 0 (20) (A is ortogonal to U )

These two conditions define Transverse-Traceless(TT) Gauge. Choosing U a =
(1, 0, 0, 0) we get

Aa0 = 0 (Time components of A equal zero) (21)

Doing this we choose a coordenate frame.To orient it we define z direction to

be the propagation direction,. k = (ω, 0, 0, ω) Then, by ortogonality

Aa3 = Aa0 = 0 (22)

Finally we can write (using simetry and all the zeros we find out):

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 Axx Ayx 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
A=[ ] = Axx [ ] + Ayx [ ]
0 Ayx −Axx 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Realising that in this gauge, because h̄ is trace free, h̄ = h we can also write
h = hX eX + h+ e+ (23)
were a
hX = Ayx eika x = Ayx e−iw(t−z)
h+ = Axx e−iw(t−z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
eX = [ ]
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
e+ = [ ]
0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0
This is the solution of the wave equation. We can see that all waves can be
written as a linear combination of e+ e−iw(t−z) and eX e−iw(t−z) . So, like elec-
tromagnetic waves, they have two ways of polarization.

2.5 Geodesic desviation

With the solution for the metric we would like now to find out what is the
behavior of test particles in the presence of a wave. As we have seen before,
to describ the evolution of a sistem of test particles, and hence the effect of a
wave, what we need is geodesic desviation equation (7)
D2 a
S = Rabcd U b U c S d
dτ 2
We would like to compute the left-hand side to first order in hab .If we take our
test particles to be moving slowly then we can express the four-velocity as a
unit vector in the time direction plus corrections of order hab and higher; but
we know that the Riemann tensor is already first order, so the corrections to
U a may be ignored, and we write
U a = (1, 0, 0, 0)
a
Therefore we only need to compute R00n . Using equation () we find out that it
is
1 as
η (hsn,00 + h00,sn − h0n,0s − h0s,0n )
2
As ha0 = h0b = 0 it follows that
a 1 1
R00n = η as hsn,00 = han,00
2 2
On the other hand, for our slowly-moving particles we have = x0 = t to lowest
order, so the geodesic deviation equation becomes
∂2 a 1 n ∂2 a
S = S h
∂t2 2 ∂t2 n
For our wave travelling in z direction, this implies that only S 1 and S 2 will be
affected the test particles are only disturbed in directions perpendicular to the
wave vector. This is of course familiar from electromagnetism, where the electric
and magnetic fields in a plane wave are perpendicular to the wave vector.

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 Figure 1: 10 GeV design

Figure 2: 10 GeV design

2.6 Polarization
As we have seen befor gravitational waves have two polarizations. Lets consider
their effects separately, beginning with the case hX = 0 we have

∂2 1 1 1 ∂2
S = S h+
∂t2 2 ∂t2
and
∂2 2 1 2 ∂2
S = − S h+
∂t2 2 ∂t2
These can be immediately solved to yield, to lowest order,
1
S 1 = (1 + h+ )S 1 (0)
2
and
1
S 2 = (1 − h+ )S 2 (0)
2
Thus, particles initially separated in the x1 direction will oscillate back and forth
in the x direction, and likewise for those with an initial y separation. That is, if
we start with a ring of stationary particles in the x-y plane, as the wave passes
they will bounce back and forth in the shape of a +.
In the other case when h+ = 0 the equivalente equtions are
1
S 1 = (1 + hX )S 2 (0)
2
and
1
S 2 = (1 − hX )S 1 (0)
2
In this case the circle of particles would bounce back and forth in the shape of
a X.

3 Generation of waves and power radiated

3.1 Generation of waves
Now that we have discussed the waves in vacuum we proceed dicussing their gen-
eration. To do that we need linearized equations in the presence of matter.From
our previous discussion they came immediatly to be

h̄mn,a,a = −16πTmn

The solution for this equation is

Z
1
h̄mn (t, x) = 4 Tmn (tr , y)d3 y,
|x − y|

6
 tr = t − |x − y|
Let us now consider the case where the gravitational radiation is emitted by an
isolated source, far away, and slowly moving. This means that we can consider
the source to be centered at a (spatial) distance R, with the different parts of the
source at distances R + δR such that δR << R. Since it is slowly moving, most
of the radiation emitted will be at frequencies sufficiently low that δR << ω −1 .
We start by doing the Fourier transform of h̄mn
Z
˜ (ω, x) = √1
h̄ eiωt h̄mn dt =
mn
2π
Z
T̃mn (ω, y) 3
= 4 eiω|x−y| dy
|x − y|
iω|x−y|
With the previous aproximations we are allowed to substitute the term e |x−y|
iωR
by e R and put it out of the integral. This leave us with
iωR Z
˜ (ω, x) = 4 e
h̄ T̃ (ω, y)dy 3
R
Lorentz gauge condition in Fourier space implies

˜ 0n = i ∂ h̄
h̄ ˜ kn , k  {1, 2, 3}
k
ω
˜
We therefor only need to concern ourselves with the spacelike components of h̄ mn
and so we only need to do the integral of spacelike components of T̃mn (ω, y)..
Integrating by parts we find out
Z Z Z
T̃ jl (ω, y)d3 y = ∂k (y j T̃ k l)d3 y − y j (∂k T̃ kj )d3 y

The first term is a surface integral which will vanish since the source is isolated,
while the second can be related to T̃ 0l by the Fourier-space version of energy
conservation equation (∂a T ab = 0):

−∂a T̃ ab = iω T̃ 0b

Thus, Z Z
T̃ kj (ω, y) = iω ˜ 3y =
y k 0jd
Z
iω
= [∂l (y k y j T̃ 0l ) − y k y j (∂l T̃ 0l )]d3 y =
2
ω2
Z
=− y k y j T̃ 00 d3 y
2
Second line is obteined by integration by parts. Third line is again aplication
of energy conservation equation. It is convencional to define the qudrupole
moment tensor of the energy density of the source,
Z
qkj (t) = 3 y k y j T 00 (t, y)d3 y,

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 Figure 3: 10 GeV design

a constant tensor on each surface of constant time. In terms of the Fourier

transform of the quadropole moment, our solution takes on the compact form
2 iωR
˜ (ω, x) = − 2ω e
h̄ q̃kj (ω)
kj
3 R
or tranforming back to t
2
¯ x) = 2 d qkj (tr )
kj(t,
3R dt2
The gravitational wave produced by an isolated nonrelativistic object is there-
fore proportional to the second derivative of the quadrupole moment of the
energy density at the point where the past light cone of the observer intersects
the source. In contrast, the leading contribution to electromagnetic radiation
comes from the changing dipole moment of the charge density. The difference
can be traced back to the universal nature of gravitation. A changing dipole
moment corresponds to motion of the center of density charge density in the
case of electromagnetism, energy density in the case of gravitation. While there
is nothing to stop the center of charge of an object from oscillating, oscillation
of the center of mass of an isolated system violates conservation of momentum.
The quadrupole moment, which measures the shape of the system, is gener-
ally smaller than the dipole moment, and for this reason (as well as the weak
coupling of matter to gravity) gravitational radiation is typically much weaker
than electromagnetic radiation. Another thing that cames from this is that only
the kinetic energy in the nonspherical motion of the source contributes to the
strength of the perturbation.

3.2 Binary stars

Binary Stars are the most numerous sources of weak gravitational waves. Lets
apply what we have learn until now to them and calculate h̄kj . For simplicity
let us consider two stars of mass M in a circular orbit in the x1 -x2 plane, at
distance r from their common center of mass.
In Newtinian aproximation the angular frequency of the orbit is
r
M
Ω=
4r3
In terms of ω the path of star a can be written as,

x1a = rcos(Ωt), x2a = rsin(Ωt)

and for star b

x1b = −rcos(Ωt), x2a = −rsin(Ωt)
The corresponding energy density is

T 00 (t, x) = M δ(x3 )[δ(x1 −rcos(Ωt))δ(x2 −rsin(Ωt))+δ(x1 +rcos(Ωt))δ(x2 +rsin(Ωt))]

8
Then the qudrupole moment will be

q11 = 6M r2 cos2 Ωt = 3M r2 (1 + cos2Ωt)

q22 = 6M r2 sin2 Ωt = 3M r2 (1 − cos2Ωt)

q12 = q21 = 6M r2 (cosΩt)(sinΩt) = 3M r2 (sin2Ωt)
qj3 = 0
And metric pertubation will have spacelike components

−cos2Ωtr −sin2Ωtr 0
8M 2 2
h̄kj (t, x) = Ω r [ −sin2Ωtr cos2Ωtr 0 ]
R
0 0 0

3.3 Power radiated

It is natural at this point to talk about the energy emitted via gravitational
radiation. However this needs more than linear aproximation so we will just
present some results that will allow us to estimate the power radiated by a
binary star. As we have seen before gravitational waves are quadripolar. The
power radiated by a source due to its mass quadripular moment is
Z
1 1 1
L= < q̃ 2 >= < Υ̃jk Υ̃jk >, υjk = T 00 (xj xk − δjk r2 )d3 x
45 5 3

We can estimate υ and consequently power radiated (LGW ) calculating the

power flowing from one side of sistem to other (≡ Linternal ). In fact we have

LGW Linternal
∼
Linternal L0

where L0 = c5 /G = 1 in the units we are using. Returning to binary star we

have
M2 M3
LGW ∼ Ω(kineticenrgy) = Ω( )= 4
4r 16

4 Astronomical sources of gravitational waves

5 Gravitational waves detection
Until now we have deal with the theorical features of gravitational waves. We
have preditected the existence of such waves from Einstein gravitational theory
and studied their generation and effect on test particles. However one can ask if
they really exist, that is, if we can detect them. This is the experimental feature
of gravitational waves.

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5.1 The problem of having small values for h
Considering what we have learn befor we first note that diametrically opposite
ends of a circle or alternatively an arrangement consisting on the center of the
circle and two particles on the ring subtending a rigth angle at the centre , can
be used to prove the existence of gravitational waves. Both these arrangements
find application in the desin of most popular gravitational wave detectors. The
idea is to detect the change in the distance of the particles due to the presence
of a gravitational wave. Althoug this is the rigth principle, in practice this is
very dificult to do. In fact for a strong source suvh as a supernova exploding in
our galaxy, the metric perturbation will be more a less of the orther of 10−17 .
The change in particles distance is hl where l is the particle distance between
particles. This means that if the particles are one meter appart the change in
that distance will be of the order of 10−17 meters. This is one hundred times
smaller than the size of the nucleous. To deal with this problem we have to
use very precise intruments such as laser interferometers, put test particles very
large distances appart, as in space-based interferometers and more important
than this we have to systematically excude noises. This is done by bringing the
most up-to-date technology. For exemple we have to use Cryogenics, siesmic iso-
lation,stabilized lazers, vacuum tecnology etc. Even after stretching the tecnics
to their limits, the output is still noisy so we need sophisticate data analysing
techniques have to be devised to extract the sinal from the noise. And if we want
data to be analised in reasonable time we need superfast computers. Having
models of the waves we are going to detect is also usefull and there are groups
of scientists working on it.

5.2 Lab sources of gravitational waves

Another way of solving the problem coud be to produce gravitational waves
stronger and consequently more easly detected. A formula that can be used to
estimate the strength of the wave is

G (nonespherical kinetic energy)

h∼
C4 R
From this formula we can see that producing gravitational waves on earth has
the advantage of reducing R. However the problem here is the kinetic energy.
Consider a steel rod being spun laterally about its centre with a large angular
velocity. The rod would produce gravitational waves. The nonspherical kinetic
energy to counteract the very tinny factor G/C 4 is mlω 2 , where l is the length
of the rod, ω its angular frequency and m its mass. Considering ω ∼ 104 rad/s,
l to be 10m , m ∼ 1000 Kg and R about 100m the amplitude of the waves will
be h ∼ 10−33 which is too small to be detected.

5.3 Detectors
There are two important types of detectors: Resonant bars and Laser interfer-
ometres. A resonant bar consist of large , solid bar usually made of aluminium
in which mecanical oscilations are produced by gravitational waves. Typical
lengths of the bar are about 2 meters, masses around several tonnes and the
fundamental resonat frequency about 1kHz. A transducer attached to its end

10
converts the mecanical signal into an electrical one wich is amplified and the
recorded. To guard against noise the bar has to be seismically isolated, sup-
ported on a thin wire, placed in vacuum and shielded from electromagnetic
effects. To reduce htermal noise within the bar itself, it is cooled by liquid
Helium to 4.2 kelvin degrees. Laser interferometers are similar to Michlelson
interferometer with test masses being placed at the ends of its arms. Such a
sistem as many advantages over bar detectors: Mass can be large distances far
from each other, the sistem is inherently wideband (masses are freely suspended)
and because the quadripolar arrangement is tuned to the quadripolar nature of
the waves, polarization information is more conviniently obteined.

6 Actual projects
7 Conclusion
Gravitational waves are predicted by Einstein theory of gravity.They are gener-
ated by moving masses and are quadripolar.Their astronomical sources include
binary star sistems. Their effect in a sistem of test particles is to change the
distence between them.They are very weak and so very hard to detect.There
are some projects like LIGO that we expect will detect gravitational waves.

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