archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31

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Original Research Article

Processing and properties evaluation of functionally

continuous graded 7075 Al alloy/SiC composites

T. Ram Prabhu
CEMILAC, Defence R&D Organization, Bangalore 560037, India

article info abstract

Article history: In the present investigation, functionally continuous graded AA 7075 Al/SiC composites
Received 30 May 2016 (Al-6.5%SiC and Al-9.5%SiC) were processed through the centrifugal casting technique.
Accepted 22 August 2016 Additionally, the as cast AA 7075 alloy was prepared for comparison purposes. The wear,
Available online 8 September 2016 hardness, strength and microstructure properties were characterized for the alloy and
composites. The composites show clearly smooth and uniform SiC particles gradient from
Keywords: the core to the surface. The density of the composites decreases with the increasing particle
Functional graded composites volume fraction due to the increased defects. The improvement of hardness and wear
Centrifugal casting resistance from the core to the surface of the FG composites is in accordance with the
Microstructure increasing amount of the particles. The wear rate of the FG composites increases with the
Wear increasing sliding speed, load and sliding distance conditions. Among the as cast alloy and
Hardness the composites, the FG Al-9.5%SiC composite is found to be superior in terms of hardness
and wear resistance. At low sliding speed (2 m/s) and load (15 N) conditions, the abrasive
wear and matrix cracking are found to be dominant in contrast to the complex interaction of
multi mode wear mechanisms such as tribo-oxidation, abrasive and delamination wear
exist at higher load and speed conditions.
# 2016 Politechnika Wrocławska. Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.

expansion) and mechanical (Young's modulus) properties

1. Introduction
Functional graded (FG) particle reinforced metal matrix
composites (MMCp) are novel composites in which the
particles are spatially distributed across the section [1,2].
The particle gradients are broadly classified into two types: (1)
stepwise and (2) gradual or continuous. The step gradient is
usually obtained by layer by layer compaction and sintering
techniques or deposition methods [1,2]. The major problems
with the functionally step gradient composites are weak
interlayer bonding characteristics between the different layers
and the wide difference in thermal (coefficient of thermal
between layers [3].
This problem can be overcome by changing the gradient
from step (abrupt) to continuous (smooth) in the composites.
The processing of continuous gradient composites is relatively
simple. The centrifugal casting process is one of the popular,
simplest and cost effective process to obtain continuous
gradient composites among other processes such as sol–gel
process, thermal spraying, self propagating high temperature
synthesis, liquid infiltration, spray forming, chemical/physical
vapor deposition and so on [4,5]. The centrifugal force
generated during the mold rotation plays a key role in creating
a continuous gradient in the composites. This force distributes

E-mail address: ramprabhu.t@gmail.com.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2016.08.004
1644-9665/# 2016 Politechnika Wrocławska. Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31
the constituent from the axis of rotation (core) to the periphery
(surface) in the continuous manner without any mechanically
weak interfaces based on their density [6,7]. In general, the
particles are selected to have a higher density than the matrix
so that they get enriched on the surface to provide superior
wear resistance and friction properties. The particle devoid
inner region provides high toughness to the material [8–10].
Besides forming the gradient structure, the centrifugal force
helps in providing complete mold filling with the desired
microstructure control in the product [11,12].
Among various types of MMCp, Al matrix composites
(AMCs) are widely researched due to their several attractive
properties: (1) high stiffness, (2) high strength to weight ratio,
(3) high wear and corrosion resistance, (4) mature processing
technology, (5) less expensive than other low density alloys
(Mg, Be or Ti based alloys), (6) easy availability, (7) high thermal
strength, stability and conductivity and so on [2,13–15]. They
have innumerous automobile and aerospace applications
such as structural members, brake rotors and cylinders, fuel
systems and so on. Particularly, the Al/SiC composite is
promising in the tribological applications such as brake rotors
and cylinders, pistons and connecting rods [9,16]. However,
the presence of uniformly distributed particles in AMCs
reduces the ductility and fracture toughness properties [17].
The loss of these properties due to the uniform particle
distribution in MMCs may be regained by the systematic non-
uniform particle distribution. This kind of particle distribution
is possible through the functional graded approach. By
creating the particle rich and devoid regions in the FG
composites, crack initiation and growth resistance can be
improved by crack branching and deflection phenomena
through reducing the crack driving force [18]. This way of
improving the toughness of the composites is referred to as the
macrostructure toughening mechanism. The improvement of
toughness in MMCs is important in the wear resistance
applications because the wear resistance not only depends on
the hardness but also the toughness [19]. In addition, the FG
approach improves thermal stability, surface friction, matrix
and particle interface bonding, and minimizes thermal
stresses, interface stresses, the thermal mismatch between
the particle and the matrix in MMCs [20,21]. Rajan et al. [8] have
studied the functional graded concept in the cast Al (A356)/SiC
and the wrought Al (2124)/SiC composites. They found that the
freezing range of the matrix decides the particle gradient. They
observed maximum hardness at the outer zone and recom-
mended that these composites have a potential in the
engineering applications in which the higher surface hardness
and wear resistance with the reasonable toughness are the
prime requirements. Vieira et al. [9] processed the FG Al-Si
alloy/SiC composites through the centrifugal casting method
and showed improved wear resistance. Savas et al. [11] have
investigated the wear behavior of FG Al-Cu-Mg/5%SiC pre-
pared by the centrifugation process. They reported that the
external particle rich region had six times lower wear volume
loss than the interior particle free region. The improvement of
wear resistance at the external region was attributed to the
high hardness effected from high surface volume fraction of
SiC particles. Rajan et al. [16] have prepared FG ex situ Al
(A356)/20%SiC and in situ A390/20%SiC composite brake discs
by the vertical centrifugal casting process. The hardness,
21
tensile strength and elastic modulus decreased from the
periphery (particle enriched zone) to the core (particle depleted
zone) for both the composites. As the disk surface is the
contact area in any braking applications, the observed highest
properties in the region lead to the enhanced braking
performance and efficiency in the functional graded compo-
sites. Gomes et al. [22] compared the wear resistance of the FG
Al-Si/20%SiC against the homogenous composite of similar
composition and showed that FG composites show a lower
wear rate than the homogenous composites due to the higher
SiC particles enrichment on the surface. Inaguma et al. [23]
have developed FG nano TiO2 particle reinforced Al composites
using the centrifugal mixed particle method. They showed
that the surface hardness of the ring was much higher than the
core due to the high particle gradient on the surface. Qin et al.
[24] have developed FG hypereutectic Al-Si/SiC composite
tubes using the horizontal centrifugal casting process. In this
composite, both inner and outer periphery regions were
particle rich regions and the intermediate region was the
particle depleted region. This kind of gradient was developed
by optimizing the stirring condition and the heat transfer
during the casting. The outer particle rich region was created
by centrifugal forces and the inner particle rich region was
created by heat convection and radiation processes. Zhang
et al. [25] have studied the influence of cooling rate and
rotation speed on the Mg2Si particle distribution character-
istics of the FG hypereutectic Al-Mg2Si alloy tubes. It was found
that the decrease of rotation speed improves the uniformity of
the particle gradient profile in the tubes. Higher cooling rate is
desirable to obtain a very fine microstructure in the compo-
sites. Velhinho et al. [26] have investigated the effects of SiC
particle sizes on the hardness and microstructure of the
centrifugally cast FG Al-10%Si/SiC composites. It was found
that the hardness and slope of the particle gradient increase
with an increase of particle size. Melgarejo et al. [27] have
prepared the FG Al-Mg/AlB2 in situ composites through the
centrifugal casting process. The presence of dense AlB2
particles improved the wear resistance and hardness of the
outer layer of the composites. The abrasive and oxidative wear
mechanisms were identified to be dominant causing the wear
loss of the composites. Nai et al. [28] have successfully
developed FG Al/SiC, Al-Cu/SiC and Al-Mg/SiC composites
through the gradient slurry disintegration and deposition
process. It was found that the hardness, porosity and volume
fraction of SiC particles increased along the deposition
direction for Al/SiC and Al-Cu/SiC composites. The reverse
trend was observed for the FG Al-Mg/SiC composite. The
higher velocity of particles in the Al-Mg matrix and the low
viscosity of the Al-Mg melt were attributed to the reverse
trend. Babu et al. [29] processed the FG Al/SiC composites and
showed that the outer periphery provides higher strength and
elastic modulus, and lower ductility due to the particle
enrichment created by the centrifugal force. Castro et al. [30]
have studied the tensile and fracture toughness properties of
centrifugally cast FG A356/SiC composites. The tensile
strength increases in the region where the volume fraction
of SiC is 20–30% and it decreases in the region where the
volume fraction of SiC is 30–40% range. The fracture toughness
decreases in the direction of increasing SiC volume fraction.
The particle fracture is dominant over the particle/matrix
22 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31

debonding as the volume fraction of SiC increases in the Table 1 – Chemical composition (wt%) of the AA 7075 Al
composites. Lin et al. [31] have investigated the fracture alloy.
toughness of the FG Al 2124/SiC composite processed by a Matrix Zn Mg Cu Si Fe Mn Ti Others
metal forming process. They observed that the crack growth
AA 7075 5.7 2.5 1.7 0.25 0.4 0.25 0.16 <0.1
resistance increases from the higher SiC content layer to the
lower one.
Most of the studies of FGMMCs are on cast Al alloys (Al-Si
and Al-Cu alloys). There have been few reports on wrought Al pit, spin table, rotating mold arrangement, mold base, anti-
alloys. Particularly, the wear studies on high strength vibration system, bearings, V belt and two pulleys were the
wrought 7XXX alloys are not reported yet. In light of these main components. The dimension details are given in Fig. 1(c)
facts, the present work investigates the functional graded and (d). The motor speed was regulated with the dimmerstat.
concept in AA 7075 Al alloy/SiC composites. The composites The Al alloy matrix metal was superheated to 780 8C at a
of 6% and 9% SiC were prepared through the centrifugal heating rate of 25 8C/min in a resistance furnace (7.5 kW) under
casting method. They were characteristised for hardness and the normal air atmosphere. The SiC particles were preheated
microstructure across the section. In addition, the wear to 400 8C for 30 min before they were added to the molten
behavior of FG composites was evaluated at a range of speed metal to prepare the composite slurry. The composition of the
(2 and 5 m/s) and load (15 and 30 N) conditions and compared AA7075 Al matrix and the characteristics of the SiC particles
with the as cast AA 7075 alloy. are given in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The slurry was
agitated with a mechanical stirrer to wet the particles by the
molten metal. The pouring temperature of the slurry was
2. Experimental approximately 700 8C. The graphite mold was preheated to
250 8C before placing in the centrifugal casting unit to avoid the
2.1. Materials processing mold chilling effect. The rotation speed of the mold was
700 rpm. The diameter and length of the casting were 25 mm
The schematic of the centrifugal casting unit is shown in Fig. 1. and 100 mm respectively. The image of the centrifugal casting
Initially, three designs ((1) direct connection of the motor to the machine with the cast sample (inset in Fig. 2(a)) is shown in
mold, (2) gear transmission, (3) belt transmission) were Fig. 2.
explored to construct the machine. Comparing the advantages
and disadvantages of all the designs, a belt transmission 2.2. Testing
design was finalized due to the advantages of very low noise
and better stability and rigidity of the machine. In this The bulk density of the samples was measured using the
construction, the single phase electric motor, fixed base or Archimedes method. The void fraction was evaluated using

Fig. 1 – Schematic of the centrifugal casting machine (a) and (c) front view, (b) isometric view, (d) top view.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31
Table 2 – Properties of the SiC powders
Powder Mean size (mm) Density (g/cc)
SiC 7–34 mm 3.2
the rule of mixture. The hardness of the alloy and composites
was measured in a Vickers hardness tester. The hardness of
the composites was measured at a distance of 1, 3, 6, 9,
12.5 mm from the outer periphery region (edge). The load and
indenter type used were 500 gf and pyramidal diamond
indenter with the square base having an angle of 1368 between
the opposite diagonals respectively. The hardness test was
performed according to the ASTM E 384 standard. Maximum of
five indentations were taken for each location in the sample
and the average value was reported as hardness. The tensile
samples were prepared from the alloy and the composites.
The dimension of the samples used was 8 mm diameter and
32 mm length. The procedure followed for the tensile testing
was according to the ASTM E8/E8M. The testing was carried out
at a strain rate of 10 3 s 1 in an Instron machine (capacity:
25 kN). The samples for microstructure were prepared by
standard metallographic techniques. The microstructure of
the samples was analyzed in the scanning electron micro-
scope (ZWISS, EVO MA 10) to study the particles distribution
and the nature of the particle/matrix interface.
The wear test was performed in the pin on disk tribometer.
The photo of the wear test unit is shown in Fig. 2(b) along with
the sample. The length and diameter of the pin sample used
were 30 mm and 8 mm respectively. The disk was an EN 32
hardened steel (C: 0.15%, Mn: 0.8%, Si: 0.26%, S and P: 0.04%,
and UTS: 430 MPa). The diameter of the disk and the wear track
were 500 mm and 80 mm respectively. The hardness and
surface roughness of the disk were 65 HRC and 1.8 Ra
respectively. The input parameters for wear testing were
given below:
Sliding speed: 2 m/s and 5 m/s
Applied load: 15 N and 30 N
Sliding distance: 0–5 km in a step of 1 km.
The wear test was carried out at a temperature and
humidity of 27 8C and 60% RH respectively without lubrication.
The ASTM G 99 standard was followed for the wear testing.
After each 1 km run, the samples were ultrasonically cleaned
Fig. 2 – (a) Centrifugal cast FG AA7075-6% SiC composite, (b) pin on disk machine (inset shows the sample for wear test).
23
Grade Purity Source
a-SiC (6-H) 95% Grindwell Norton Ltd, India
in acetone, dried and weighed in a digital balance (METTLER,
precision: 0.01 mg). The wear rate (mm3/m) of the composites
was estimated by dividing the mass loss (g) with the density
(g/cc) and the sliding distance (m). The wear tracks were
studied in a stereo microscope (SEIWA) to identify the
prevailing wear mechanisms responsible for the wear loss.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure
Figs. 3–4 shows the functional graded Al/6% SiC and Al/9%SiC
composites respectively. Both the microstructures show
continuous gradient of SiC particles in the Al matrix. As seen
in Figs. 3(d) and 4(d), the outer region is enriched with the SiC
particles. This is created by the radially outward motion of the
particles under the centrifugal force. The amount of SiC
particles decreases from the outer region edges to the core
with completely free of particles, as seen in Figs. 3(a) and 4(a).
This result is in agreement with previous studies reported in
FG composites processed by centrifugal casting [8,11,16,22,24–
27,29,30]. The concentration of particle segregation with
respect to the distance is affected by several factors: (1) the
fluidity characteristics of the melt (viscous drag force), (2) the
speed of rotation, (3) the particle geometrical characteristics
(size and shape), (4) the particle collusion with the mold wall
and the particle–particle interaction, (5) the pouring tempera-
ture, (6) cooling rate, and (5) the density difference between the
matrix and the particles [8,32,33]. The presence of negative
gradient from the surface to the core indicates that the effects
of advancing solidification front in pushing particles toward
the core, the particle to particle collision, the melt viscosity
barrier effects to the particle motion, and the outer surface
mold chilling effects are insignificant in the present case.
Compared to the Al-6.5% SiC composite, the Al-9.5% composite
shows higher segregation indicating that the volume fraction
24 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31

Fig. 3 – SEM microstructure images of FG AA7075-6% SiC composites, (a) core, (b) 7 mm depth from surface, (c) 2 mm depth
from surface, and (d) surface.

of particles decides the segregation potential. The microstruc-
ture of the FG composites does not show the dendritic
structure. The movement of particles and the liquid melt
agitation due to the centrifugal action help in fragmenting
dendritic arms of Al matrix grains during the solidification [34].
Thus results in the refined microstructure.
It is reported that the high centrifugal velocity causes
particle size reduction. The particles fragment by collision
events due to the high velocity impact [26]. In the present case,
the measurement of particle sizes in the microstructure shows
no significant change in particle sizes after casting. It indicates
that the selected mold rotation speed (G number 13.67)

Fig. 4 – SEM microstructure images of FG AA7075-9% SiC composites, (a) core, (b) 7 mm depth from surface, (c) 2 mm depth
from surface, and (d) surface.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31 25

Fig. 5 – SEM microstructure images of FG AA7075-9% SiC composites showing (a) homogenous particle distribution in the
matrix, (b) strong interface bonding between the SiC particles and the Al alloy matrix. Circle indicates the porosity associated
with the particle clustering zone, (1) flawless interfaces, and (2) porosity in the matrix.

does not cause any turbulence/particle fragmentation in the
present study.
The microstructure of the FG composites shows the particle
clustering near to the particle rich outer region, as seen in Fig. 5
(a). The particle collision and the low viscosity of the melt are
responsible for particle clustering [35]. These cluster regions
are potential sites for the formation of porosity associated with
the agglomeration of particles [36]. However, the examination
of the Al matrix and SiC particles shows that the interfaces
are continuous and free from any volumetric defects such as
porosity, gas voids and shrinkage. It indicates that the
wettability of the SiC particles with the Al matrix is
satisfactory. The bonding of SiC and Al matrix is mechanical
in nature. There are no observations of reaction products at the
Al/SiC interfaces. The porosities due to the shrinkage and gas
evolution are observed in the Al matrix. These are formed
during the Al alloy matrix solidification. The fraction of gas
porosity decreases toward the particle enriched regions. It is
because of low density gases getting dragged by the centrifugal
force toward the particle free region (core).
3.2. Density, pore fraction and strength
The results of density and calculated pore fraction are
tabulated in Table 3. On the contrary to the expectation of
increasing density due to the higher density of SiC (r = 3.21 g/cc)
compared to the matrix density (r = 2.81 g/cc), the density
decreases with increasing SiC volume fraction. The decrease in
density is attributed to the defects such as shrinkage, the
porosity associated with the matrix and the particle clustering.
The porosity is formed due to the trapped air in the solidifying
melt. Cornie et al. [37] reported that the increasing particle
concentration reduces the viscosity of the melt which assists
the gas entrapment. This argument supports the present
observation of high porosity in the FG Al/9.5%SiC composites.
The high porosity in the FG Al/9.5%SiC composites also comes
from the porosity associated with the particle clustering, as
seen in Fig. 5(a). These porosities are developed due to the
entrapment of growing gas bubbles at the particle interfaces
during solidification [38]. As it is expected, the strength
decreases with the increasing porosity, as seen in Table 3.
The porosity is a strength limiting flaw and acts a nucleation
site for cracks. Once the crack is nucleated, the stress
concentrates on the propagation of the crack leading to the
lowering of the strength. The positive load bearing effects of the
ceramic particles offset the negative porosity effects for some
extent leading to a minimal loss of the strength in the
composites.
3.3. Hardness
The hardness results based on the position of composites are
given in Table 4. As expected, the hardness values are very
high at the outer surface and reduce toward the core (center).
These results correspond well with the change in the volume
fraction of SiC particles based on the position. Compared to the
FG Al-6.5% SiC composite, the FG Al-9.5%SiC composite shows
higher hardness at all similar locations. It is because of the
higher volume fraction of particles resulting in a greater
amount of segregation. The main strengthening mechanisms
responsible for high surface hardness are the increased
thermally induced, geometrical necessary dislocation density
around the particles and the matrix, constrained matrix plastic
flow caused by the particles, deformation induced plastic
strain gradients, Orowan particle strengthening effects, the
particle induced grain refinement [15,39]. The differences in
hardness between the outer surface and the inner core are 32
and 45 BHN respectively for Al-6.5% SiC and Al-9.5% SiC

Table 3 – Density, porosity and strength of the alloy and the composites.
Location (distance from the surface) Theoretical density Measured density Porosity Tensile strength
(g/cc) (g/cc) (%) (MPa)
As cast AA 7075 alloy 2.85 2.845 0.17 230
FG AA7075-6%SiC 2.871 2.78 3.13 223
FG AA7075-9%SiC 2.8815 2.77 3.88 217
26 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31
Table 4 – Vickers hardness (HV500) results of the alloy and the composites.
Location (distance from the surface) As cast AA 7075 alloy
On surface 81.2  1.6
1 mm
3 mm
6 mm
9 mm
12.5 mm
composites. Analysis of the hardness data indicates that the
gradient in hardness values for both the composites is nearly
equal, in other words, the transition of SiC particles rich and
depleted regions is gradual and smooth. The longer freezing
range (158 8C) of the matrix helps to attain the smooth
transition. Similar behavior was observed for FG wrought
2124Al/SiC composites [40]. This result also implies that
the particle distribution is not very much affected by the
particle volume fraction. Another important observation from
the hardness results is that the particle enrichment at the
outer periphery has not exceeded the critical volume fraction
which otherwise degrades the properties of the composites.
3.4. Wear behavior
The variations of wear rate with the sliding distance for
various sliding speed (15 and 30 N) and load (2 and 5 m/s)
combinations are shown in Figs. 6–9. In general, the wear rate
increases with the increasing sliding distance. At any sliding
distance, the FG composites (Al-6.5% SiC and Al-9.5%SiC) show
clearly higher wear resistance than the as cast Al alloy for all
sliding speed and load combinations. The high wear resistance
is attributed primarily to the enrichment of SiC particles at
the surface and the relatively clean, dense and defect-free
surface created by the centrifugal force. Also, the smooth
Fig. 6 – Volumetric wear rate as a function of sliding
distance (contact load: 15 N, disk speed: 2 m/s).
FG AA7075 – 6%SiC FG AA7075 – 9%SiC
114.1  2.4 127.5  3.5
109.7  3.1 122.3  2.7
106.8  2.7 112.5  3.8
98.4  1.8 100.7  3.4
91.7  2.1 94.4  2.4
81.7  1.6 82.6  1.8
gradient optimizes the hardness and toughness properties in
the composite that helps to improve the wear resistance. The
slope of the wear rate curve is nonlinear for the FG composites
in contrast to the linear trend observed for the as cast AA 7075
Al alloy. The non linearity in the curve reduces with an
increase of sliding speed and load. The non linearity could be
explained based on the particle gradient. In FG composites,
the surface is enriched with the particles that enhance the
hardness significantly. Also, the centrifugal action helps to
distribute the defects (porosity, inclusion) preferably at
the core. That provides a relatively defect-free, clean surface.
The enriched particles also help in the grain refinement by the
grain pinning effects during the solidification. The cooling
rate in the outer mold is relatively high due to the mold chilling
effects. These factors facilitate more grain refinement at the
periphery over the core region. Hence, the hardness/strength
increases with a decrease of grain size according to the Hall–
Pitch relation. The wear resistance of the FG composites
increases due to the direct relation between the hardness and
the wear resistance according to the Archard's relationship
[41]. All these factors contribute to the reduction of the wear
rate substantially at the surface. With the increasing sliding
distance, the strong surface gets worn off. Next, the relatively
less strong sub surface is exposed to the wear process and
wears out fast. An increase in the load bearing SiC particles
depleted regions, an increase in the probability of finding
casting defects, and the relatively coarse grains toward
the core cause the hardness to drop quickly. Thus results in
the steep rise of the wear rate. Therefore, the slope of the wear
rate curve rises steeply as the wear progresses to the inner
surface.
At all sliding distance and load combinations, the wear rate
increases with an increase of sliding speed. The increase of
speed rises the contact friction temperature and accelerates
the oxidative wear. The softened wear debris due to the higher
contact temperature gets loosely embedded into the compos-
ite surface during the sliding process. The repetitive collision
of these embedded particles with the surface is increased due
to an increase of sliding speed. That removes the surface
material by matrix cracking and creates large cavities. In
addition, the critical thickness of the oxide scale reaches
quickly with an increase of speed that enables the earlier break
down of oxide scales from the surface. Thus, the wear loss is
increased significantly. The observation of increasing wear
rate with an increase of sliding speed implies that the critical
speed (below which the wear rate reduces with the sliding
speed) for the present composites is much lower than 2 m/s
[42]. Similarly, the wear rate increases with an increase of
load for all the sliding distance. It is because the increasing
load accelerates the ploughing effects from counter surface
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31
Fig. 7 – Volumetric wear rate as a function of sliding
distance (contact load: 15 N, disk speed: 5 m/s).
asperities and the third body wear debris causing more
abrasive and delamination wear. In addition, the shear
stress at the particle/matrix interface increases with the load
that enables easy removal of particles from the matrix.
Comparing the relative effects of load and sliding speed, the
load effects are relatively high in influencing the wear rate.
In FG composites, there is a transition sliding distance after
which the wear rate curve approaches linearity. The transition
point varies with the volume fraction of SiC particles, sliding
speed and load. For instance, the FG Al-6.5% SiC composite
shows the transition at 3000 m whereas the FG Al-9.5% SiC
Fig. 8 – Volumetric wear rate as a function of sliding
distance (contact load: 30 N, disk speed: 2 m/s).
27
Fig. 9 – Volumetric wear rate as a function of sliding
distance (contact load: 30 N, disk speed: 5 m/s).
composite show the transition at 4000 m for the wear test
condition of 15 N and 2 m/s (Fig. 6). A comparison of the Figs. 6
and 7 of the FG Al-9.5% SiC composite shows the similar
transition for the increasing sliding speed. For instance: the
transition occurs at 4000 m for the 15 N and 2 m/s condition
(Fig. 6) in contrast to the transition observed at 3000 m for the
15 N and 5 m/s condition (Fig. 7). Similarly for the increasing
load condition, the transition point is clear. For instance, the
FG Al-6.5% SiC composite shows the transition at 3000 m for
the condition of 15 N and 2 m/s (Fig. 6) whereas the transition
takes place at 2000 m for the condition of 30 N and 5 m/s
(Fig. 9). There is a complex interaction observed among the
volume fraction, load and speed variables in deciding the
transition point. There are no clear relationships found
between the transition point and these variables. Further
experimentation is required to understand the influence of
each variable on the transition sliding distance, which is the
focus of our ongoing research.
The wear rate of reinforced composites (FG composites) is
much lower than that of unreinforced as cast AA 7075 Al alloy
at any sliding speed, load and sliding distance condition.
Similar results were reported in the Al matrix composites by
other investigators [14,43,44]. The linear increase in the wear
rate of the as cast alloy is attributed to the direct metal to metal
contact wear. The failure to inhibit the large plastic deforma-
tion due to the absence of load bearing SiC particles allows
higher wear loss in the as cast alloy. Compared to the FG Al-
6.5% SiC composite, the FG Al-9.5% SiC composite shows a
lower wear rate at all sliding distances for all sliding speed and
load combinations. Higher amount of SiC particles and smooth
gradient in SiC particles are attributed to the better wear
resistance properties. The higher amount of SiC particles
prevents effectively the sub surface plastic deformation by
impeding dislocation motion and thereby minimizes the
28 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31

Fig. 10 – Wear surface morphology of the as cast AA 7075 Al alloy, (a) 15 N load and 2 m/s, and (b) 30 N load and 5 m/s,
(1) matrix cracking, (2) fine groove line (abrasive wear), (3) oxide scale (oxidative wear), and (4) delaminated wear sheets.

delamination assisted wear process [42]. These particles
provide better thermal stability to the matrix and also,
reduce the fraction of matrix contact to the counter surface.
Thereby, the matrix softening by frictional heating is mini-
mized [42]. Similar results of the reducing wear rate with the
increasing particle amount are observed by many investiga-
tors [45,46].
The wear surface morphologies of the as cast AA 7075 alloy,
the FG Al-6.5%SiC and the FG Al-9.5%SiC are shown in
Figs. 10–12. As seen in Fig. 10, the sample tested at low speed
(2 m/s) and load (15 N) conditions shows mostly abrasive groove
lines, matrix cracking with slight oxidation. The plowing
grooves are created by the scratching of counterface asperities
and loose wear debris trapped in between contact surfaces [47].
These features show that the abrasive wear, third body wear
and matrix cracking are dominant mechanisms at low speed
and load conditions in the as cast AA 7075 Al alloy. In contrast,
the sample tested at high speed (5 m/s) and load (30 N)
condition shows large cavities, extensive oxidation and
delaminated wear sheets. The large plastic deformation at
the subsurface increases with an increase of the contact load
resulting in earlier nucleation of delamination cracks at the
potentially weak void sites [47]. The nucleation of cracks takes
place at a depth where the plastic deformation effects are
greater than the hydrostatic pressure effects [42]. These cracks
run along the sliding direction and remove the large scale
material as delaminated wear sheets, as seen in Fig. 10(b). In
general, the depth increases with an increase of load. Therefore,
the size of the wear sheet is larger with the increasing applied
load. The presence of cavities indicates the possibility of
adhesive assisted seizure wear. At high sliding speed, the
interface temperature is so high to soften the surface and

Fig. 11 – Wear surface morphology of the FG AA7075-6% SiC composites (a) 15 N load and 2 m/s, (b) 15 N load and 5 m/s,
(c) 30 N load and 2 m/s and (d) 30 N load and 5 m/s, (1) matrix cracking, (2) fine groove line (abrasive wear), (3) oxide scale
(oxidative wear), and (4) particulate pullout zones (delamination wear).
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 17 (2017) 20–31 29

Fig. 12 – Wear surface morphology of the FG AA7075-6% SiC composites (a) 15 N load and 2 m/s, (b) 15 N load and 5 m/s,
(c) 30 N load and 2 m/s and (d) 30 N load and 5 m/s, (1) matrix cracking, (2) fine groove line (abrasive wear), (3) oxide scale
(oxidative wear), and (4) particulate pullout zones (delamination wear).

subsurface materials. At higher loads, the removal of a portion

of softened surface/subsurface layer through the material
transfer process to the counter surface creates a large cavity
in the worn surface. In summary, multiple wear mechanisms
such as oxidative, adhesive and delamination wear are found
operative with an increase of load and/or speed in the as cast
alloy.
The wear surface morphologies of FG composites with the
increasing sliding speed and load conditions, as shown in
Figs. 11–12, show clearly that the gradual transition of wear
mechanisms from abrasive and/or matrix cracking wear to the
oxidative and delamination wear. The matrix cracks are found
to be propagating perpendicular to the sliding direction. The
particle/matrix interfaces and the pores at the matrix are the
potential sites for the crack nucleation. Once the crack
nucleates, it runs to join the next weak interface regions
leading to the fracture of surface materials. The counter
surface asperities scratch the fracture material and remove as
the wear debris. The particle pullout sites and delaminated
wear sheet removal sites increase with an increase of sliding
speed and/or load [47]. In addition, the intensity of third body
loose debris assisted wear is also accelerated. The tribo
oxidation increases with an increase of load and speed [47].
Particularly, the load effects are found to be higher in
increasing the oxidation, as seen in Figs. 11(c) and 12(c). As
the contact load increases, the interlocking of contact surface
asperities (the contact surface area) increases that raises the
friction at the interface. Consequently, the temperature rises
at the interface resulting in a higher oxidation rate at the
surface of the composites. The observed wear mechanisms for
the various load and speed conditions of the FG composites are
nearly similar to that of the as cast alloy except the intensity of
the occurrence.
4. Conclusions
Centrifugal casting process was used to fabricate the functional
graded Al/SiC composites of two compositions (Al-6.5% SiC and
Al-9.5%SiC). The composites are found to have a smooth and
continuous gradient from the surface to the core based on the
SEM microstructure characterization. The porosity associated
with the particle clustering and the matrix reduces the density
of the FG composites. The fraction of porosity increases with
the increasing volume fraction of SiC. The improvement of the
hardness and wear resistance from the core to the surface of
the FG composites is in agreement with the increased particle
volume fraction. The wear rate of the FG composites increases
with the increasing sliding speed, load and sliding distance
conditions. The transition sliding distance at which the wear
rate approaches linearity decreases with the increasing sliding
speed and load. Compared to the sliding speed, the effects of
load on increasing wear rate are intensive. Among the as cast
alloy and the composites, the FG Al-9.5%SiC composite is found
to be superior in terms of hardness and wear resistance. At low
sliding speed (2 m/s) and load (15 N) conditions, the abrasive
wear and matrix cracking are found to be dominant in contrast
to the multi mode wear mechanisms such as tribo oxidation,
abrasive wear, third body wear and delamination wear are
operative at higher load and speed conditions.
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