Variability in second language ~

From the behaviourist view L2 learning consists in

overcoming differences between L1 and l2. These
assimilations gave raise to contrastic analysis of the two
linguistics systems with the resultant teaching sequences
organised according to hierarchy of difficulty. The highest
level of difficulty occurs when there is no choice at all
in the learner’s L1 but an obligatory choice in the L2.

So, the behaviourist stated that learners have to re-

structure the language so this is known as re-structuring
hypotheses.

Teachers teach translating.

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Aprender L2 consiste en superar las diferencias que podría

haber entre L1 y L2.

Contrastic análisis >>>> organizo una secuencia de lo más

difícil a lo más fácil. Lo más difícil ocurre cuando no se
puede hacer un contraste entre el L1 y L2 porque no hay
opciones en el primero.

The creative-contrasting hypotheses

In this light learner’s errors are no longer sings of
failure but rather evidence of a system under development.
Errors may be classify into two types: inter-lingual and
intra-lingual. The former are those resulting of the
transfer or rules from the L2. The later includes those
incorrect notions derived by direct reference to the target
language (L2).

It is assumed that the learners contract creatively their

language and while they do that, they make errors. These
errors may come out of two sources the L1 and the L2.

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Inter-lingual errors: errores que se transfieren de L1

Intra-lingual: errores dentro de la misma lengua (no

compara con L1)
Inter language:
The notion of inter-language is central in the extranation
of L2 acquisition. Inter-language is the result of the
interaction among the many language acquisition factors
within two or three language developing more or less
simultaneously.

It may be view as an adapted strategy which uses

simplification, overgeneralization, transfer, formulaic
(formula) language, omissions, etc.

“It is the strategy…”

Fossilisation:
It refers to the notion that we although we expect the
learner to progress along the learning continuum so that
his/her inter-language moves closely to the target language
model, it often happens that some errors are describe as
fossilised. Hence, we can distinguish between transitional
errors “those in processes and those which would never
disappear in time (fossilised)

Internal syllabus: Creative Construction Hyphoteses stays.

Learners endowed with an internal syllabus. It may be in
conflict with the external syllabus.

External syllabus: Something we are born with. Factors out

of the learners (illness, problems, teachers [teachers can
help or kinder the learner])

The teacher need to know more about the natural sequences

the learners follow, they should also know that in the
early stages of the language development, learners adopt
many unanalysed formulas or prefabricated patterns.

Code switching(change):
The term code switching is used to refer to that point in
the learning process where learners are conscious of the
target language use but they resort to the L1 to solve a
communicative need. It may include mixing, transferring and
borrowing. It sometimes co-occurs with inter language
forms, it may form part of it and may also lead to
fossilization, co-switching implies the use of two
languages simultaneously or interchangeably. It implies
some degree of competence in the two languages.

Variability:
Inter languages exhibits a great degree of variability that
natural language. The examination of the different factors
involve in inter-language development contributes to a
better understanding of the process learns under go when
occurring a L2.

Interlanguage variability is the result of an array of

factors. Some of them are personality traits of individual
learners such as age, motivation, aptitude, attitude, among
some others. A number of factors refer to inner process,
such as the degree of attention to form, and other factors
are of a more socio-linguistic nature, such as functions of
linguistic forms and linguistic environment. Some factors
are easier to predict, such as, style-shifting, while
others caouse non-systematic variation, such as the
learners emotional and physical state at a given moment.

Individual Variability:
The study of systematic variability (variations follow a
pattern) in inter language is a product of individual
learners factors focuses on the influence of personality,
age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive style and motivation
in L2 acquisition.

Age:

The learner’s age has been studied extensively in L2

acquisition. Success in L2 acquisition and rate of
acquisition appear to be greatly influence by age. Older
learners appear to learn faster, especially with respect to
the morphology and the syntax of the target language. In
pronunciation, however, children are believed to be
superior to adults.

Intelligence:
Intelligence appears to be closely releted with success in
the L2 classroom as it was found to influence the
acquisition of skills associated with L2 learning. However,
outside the classroom the role of intelligence for language
acquisition is limited especially with respect to the
acquisition of oral fluency skills.

Aptitude:
The learner’s aptitude also influences his or her success
in linguistic competence. The lightest the learner’s
aptitude, the more rapidly the learner is likely to learn a
L2.

Motivation and attitude:

Motivation and attitude influence L2 acquisition in terms
of success. Different types of motivation, such as
instrumental or integrative; facilitate successful L2
acquisition in specific situations.

Personality traits:
Certain personality traits have been believed to affect L2
acquisition. For example, it was a common belief that
learners, who are extroverted, with good social skills and
little inhibition, were more successful language learners
than introverts, with poor social skills and great
inhibition. However, the effects of personality are more
visible in the development of communication skills rather
than linguistic competence.

Contextual variability:
When we talk about contextual variability we have to
differentiate situational context from linguistic context.
The effects of situational context are represented as a
continuum of speech styles. At to one end of the continuum,
it is the vernacular style which is employed by the
language learners when she/he is least focusing on form. AT
the other end of the continuum is the careful style which
the learners assume when she/he is focusing on forms and
accuracy. The careful style is more open to L1 influence
and it is the most variable and least systematic speech
style. Different language tasks involve different degrees
of attention, thus resulting in variability in performance.

The linguistic context also affect inter language. For

example, when two different linguistic contexts which
secured the same target language structure exist from the
learner two target language response.

Non- systematic or free variation:

Free variability is the result of acquisition of new
linguistic items. Learners are still unaware of the
specific functions these new items perform in the target
language, and therefore, they use these items in free
variation on with the linguistic items they have already
acquired and internalised. Free variation causes most of
the problems for teachers and researchers due to the lack
of systematicity in inter-language production. However,
free variability plays a crucial role in inter-language
development, since it is evidence of the grow and
development the language learners undergo towards acquiring
a target language.

Performance variability:
The second type of non-systematic variability is
performance variability. It is the result of the learner’s
emotional states at a given moment. Such factors depend
highly in the individual for these reasons performance
variability has not been investigated in L2 acquisition
research as much as other types of variability.

Socio-linguistic variability:
La Vob distinguish social factors responsibilities for
inter-speaker variation (two speakers) and stalistic
factors as responsible for intra-speaker variation (within
the person). The variable forms in which individual
differences evident are called indicators. When variables
manifest both inter and intra speakers variation they are
refer to as markers. He examined the speech of some Yorkers
and he connected a variety of tasks in order to sample a
range of speech styles which he classify as 1) casual
speech 2)careful speech 3)reading 4) words lists 5)minimal
pairs. These styles spread a long a continuum according to
the amount of attention being paid.

He got to the conclusion that attention is seen as a

mechanism which affects the style. Others affect style are
the topic, the interlocutor, the setting or the role of the
participants.
La Vob referred to style changes as style shifting and he
indicated that this shift was predictable and systematic.
The systematicity is evident when can be of two kinds:
categorical and probabilistical. Categorical systematicity
is evident when can be shown that speakers always use one
particular feature in one style and another feature in a
different style. Probabilistical systematicity takes place
when a specific feature occurs in a given style.

Social psychological models:

These models try to relate the language attitude of
speakers to their actual language use. the theory developed
in this particular examination of variability of L2
acquisition is known as speech accommodation theory. This
theory identifies these principle type of variation
according to the nature of the adjustment which speakers
make to their speech during interaction.

Convergence: Occurs when speaker adjust their normal speech

to make it more similar to their interlocutor’s speech or
to stereotype. For example, the speaker moves to a some
prestige norm that he/she believes his/her interlocutor
values.

Divergence: occurs when speakers try to make their speech

dissimilar from that of the addressee.

Speech Maintenance: Occurs when the speakers do not make

any changes.

Both convergence and divergence can take place both upwards

and downwards. Upwards convergence occurs when the speaker
adjust their speech in the direction of the speech norms of
person of higher social states. Downwards convergence
involves adjustment in the direction of speech norms of
persons of low social status. Upwards divergence involves
speaker emphasizing the standard features in their
repertoire. Downwards divergence involves speakers
emphasizing the non-standard features.

Accommodation can take place at any level of language use

such as volume, speed, pronunciation, choice of vocabulary,
grammatical structure and discourse features such as length
of turn choice of topic. Speakers may switch or change to
convergence to divergence as they re-asses their addressee
during the course of an interaction.