A Visual Analytics Approach for Exploration of

High-Dimensional Time Series Based on

Neighbor-Joining Tree
Michael Shell
School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332–0250
Email: http://www.michaelshell.org/contact.html
Homer Simpson James Kirk
Twentieth Century Fox and Montgomery Scott
Springfield, USA Starfleet Academy
Email: homer@thesimpsons.com San Francisco, California 96678–2391
Telephone: (800) 555–1212
Fax: (888) 555–1212

Abstract—High-dimensional time series analysis through visual
techniques poses many challenges. Several visualization solutions
have been proposed for exploratory tasks on time series col-
lections. As the data sets grow large, the visual alternatives do
not allow for a good association between similar time series.
In this paper we introduce a visual representation based on
Neighbor-Joining Tree for high-dimensional time series data sets.
The approach consists internally by six time series dimension
reduction techniques widely used in this field and two similarity
measures with the aim to explore high dimensional Time series
data.
I. I NTRODUCTION
High-dimensional time series data is increasingly found in
economics, biology, meteorology, and many other scientific
fields [1]. The ubiquity of such kind of data deserves the at-
tention of scientific community due to temporal dimensionality
and complex dynamics [2]. Besides, we do not have enough
tools to do exploratory analysis.
One of the interesting tools to do exploratory analysis is
Temporal-PEx [3] which supports the user to have a general
view of time series collections, as well as to find groups
with similar behavior. This tool is equipped by two projection
techniques (IDMAP [4] and LSP [5]) and three dissimilarity
measures (Euclidean distance, DTW [6], and CDM [7]).
The problem with this tool is that only provides support to
projection techniques.
Currently, trees as visualization technique are widely used
by providing hierarchical information of data collections. The
tree is capable of representing the degree of relationships
that allows the user to quickly assimilate the information
contained in the datasets. The well-known tree-based vi-
sualization method is Neighbor-Joining (NJ) similarity tree
technique which was initially used in the exploration of text
document collection by mapping them on 2D space [8]. This
technique was also applied satisfactory to image organization
and classification [9] [10].
Han [11] proposes a tree-based technique for visualizing
image collections into arbitrary layout shapes. This work is a
hybrid of the projection-based method and the image collage
method. First, a property-based tree construction scheme is
used to organize image collection into a tree structure ac-
cording to user-defined properties. Then, this tree structure
is projected into a visualization plane, the desired correlations
among images can be well reflected in the layout. Furthermore,
a two-step visualization optimization scheme is applied to op-
timize image layouts such that image overlap and layout shape
can be properly controlled. Finally, a tree-transfer scheme
is used which enables the adaptive updating of visualization
layouts.
In this paper, we propose a visualization technique based
on Neighbor-Joining similarity tree for exploration of high
dimensional time series. This approach consists internally
by six dimensionality reduction techniques widely used in
time series analysis and two similarity measure. It also is
equipped by interaction capabilities (such as zoom and details
on demand). We highlight the capabilities of similarity tree
to showing hierarchical relationship of high dimensional time
series. This technique provides visually the degree of similarity
between the time series in a hierarchical fashion.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section
II reviews related work regarding time series visualization
and Neighbor-Joining similarity tree visualization. Section III
describes our proposal. Section IV discusses the experimental
results. Finally, we conclude this work in Section V.
II. R ELATED W ORK
A. Time Series Visualization
Traditional time series visualization approaches such as line
graph are lacking explorations that facilitate the analysis of
a large set of data. For this, recent studies that aim to join
temporal data with visual analysis have shown prominence to
approach this problem.
Alencar [3] proposes a visual tool called temporal-PEx.
This tool allows the exploratory analysis of time series
collections by projecting in two-dimensional space through
two techniques: IDMAP (Interactive Document Map) and
LSP (Least-Square Projection) and three similarity measures:
DTW (Dynamic Time-Warping), Euclidean distance and CDM
(Compression-based Dissimilarity Measure). The usefulness
of this tool [12] was proved on a real dataset of time series
describing the behavior of hydroelectric power plants with the
visual analysis.
The above approaches are based on the similarity of entire
time series but visual analysis does not only address these
issues. The visual exploration of time series is also useful in
other branches of time series analysis such as [13] where it
is applied successfully to find frequent patterns (also known
as motifs) in large time series . The justification for using
visual analysis lies in the fact that in a large set of time series
hundreds of motifs can be found.
Visual analysis was also applied in the selection of suitable
models in the preprocessing stage of a time series by using
interactive visual interfaces [14]. The aim of this work was
to make time series preprocessing visible and accessible to
domain experts by making to compose a pipeline of individual
operations drawn from an extensible toolkit. The composition
is guided by a series of line-charts showing intermediate
results and statistics. A user learns about the characteristic
properties of the data, and how these properties are changed
by every step of the pipeline. By exposing the preprocessing
and its effects in a visual way, the confidence of the experts
to the results have been increased greatly.
More recent works offer a visualization where time series
data obtained from sensor networks are analyzed to detect
anomalies [15]. To achieve this task, dimensionality reduction
is applied due to the large size of the data. After that, system
as a 2D projection method based on MotionExplorer [16] is
applied to visualize them. In [2], an approach to translate time
series into the network graph for visualization and pattern
mining is introduced. This graph can able to encode both
temporal ordering and statistical dynamics of the original
time series through the Markov Transition Field. Within this
study a preprocessing is carried out by using reduction of
dimensionality for later visualization.
Finally, Shurkhovetskyy [1] describes the challenges of
large time series visualization and substantiates the need for
abstraction by discussing the requirements that need to be
considered to find a suitable abstraction method for time
series visualization. A framework for the classification of time
series abstraction algorithms that specifies and justifies the
essential criteria for informed method selection is proposed
and a classification of a large number of existing abstraction
methods, which can be practically used for method selection
is provided.
B. Neighbour Joining Tree Method
The neighbor-joining method [17] was originally proposed
for reconstructing phylogenetic trees of species by using their
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as a feature vector. It has been
applied successfully to other areas of knowledge such as visual
analysis of text documents [8], organization of images [9] [10],
visualization of music collections [18] and demonstrates its
usefulness in understanding visualization designs [19].
In the text collection data, the first work that proposes the
use of NJ for visual analysis is Cuadros [8] by projecting
them in 2D space (similar to a projection technique). In this
work, a tree is constructed that allows the visualization of
similarity by content. Likewise, applying the knowledge of
the previous work, Polato [20] used the NJ method for a
systematic revision of the literature to assess Apache Hadoop
Research. The great amount of research in this area made
a challenge to give an overview of the entire literature. A
recent work [21] used of phylogenetic trees (NJ) combined
with summarization techniques (Themeriver and Wordclouds)
to analyze text collections that change over time.
Another area of knowledge in which NJ has been applied
successfully is in the field of visual analysis of images. In [22],
a visual analysis tool called PEx-Image was introduced. This
tool is equipped by several projection techniques (including
neighbor joining method) with the aim to do visual exploration
of sets of images. A related work proposes a visual classifi-
cation methodology (VCM) that makes use of visualization
techniques for a better understanding of the nature of the data
used in the classification [23].
Projections of data using NJ were also applied in music
as in the work of [18] where it makes use of a visual
interface to explore collections of music, making use of Iconic
Representation and then projecting them in a two-dimensional
plane.
Finally, De Oliveira [24] proposed hybrid visualization
that integrates multidimensional projections and parallel co-
ordinates in a single view for a better exploration and a
better understanding of the data being treated. In a single
view, the user can analyse the instances relationship and
attributes behaviour without using coordination mechanisms.
This approach overcome the challenge of keeping track of
data elements highlighted among multiple views. In this paper,
Multidimensional Projection and a point placement based on
tree were used to compute the graphical representations based
on similarity, but any kind of visualization technique could be
used to display the similarities among data instances.
III. P ROPOSAL
The overview of our approach is shown in Figure 1. Our
approach mainly includes four components. First, feature
extraction algorithm are applied. Then, similarity measure can
be selected. Finally, NJ algorithm and radial layout is convined
to organize time series data into a tree structure. All the process
is interactive and iterative.
A. Dimensionality Reduction
There are several techniques for dimensionality reduction
of time series.
1) Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT): DCT only uses
cosine functions to transform original time series into fre-
 Fig. 1: A schematic overview of our proposed approach

quency domain. DCT for a time series x = {x1 , . . . , xn } of 3) Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT): DWT represents
length n is defined as [25]: time series in terms of wavelets, which are basic functions
used to represent any other function. DWT processes data at
n   different scales or resolutions. The simplest form of wavelets
X π 1 is Haar Wavelet [27]. The complexity of DWT using the Haar
xf = K(f ) xi cos (i − )(f − 1) , f = 1, . . . , n
i=1
n 2 transformation is O(n). The main drawback of this technique
(1) is that the length of the time series n must be power of 2.
where f is a index of feature vector x and K(f ) is defined 4) Piecewise Aggregate Approximation (PAA): Let the time
as follows: series as x = {x1 , . . . , xn } of length n. The time series is
 divided into d windows of equal length k. The average of the
 √1 , when f = 1 data falling within each window is calculated [28].
n
K(f ) = q 2
 , n when 2 ≤ f ≤ n k∗i
1 X
xi = xj for 1 ≤ i ≤ d (4)
The feature vector is defined by the first d coefficients: k
j=k∗(i−1)+1

x = {x1 , . . . , xd } with d ≤ n where k = nd is the length of each window and d is the

 

desired dimension of feature vector x.

It is possible to calculate all DCT coefficients using Its representation is defined by:
O(n log n) operations in a similar way to the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT). x = {x1 , ..., xd }
2) Singular Value Decomposition (SVD): SVD requires that
all the time series are of equal length represented by a matrix with d ≤ n.
X of dimension M × N [26]. 5) Chebyshev Polynomials (CP): Let us define time series
S = h(t1 , v1 ), ..., (tN , vN )i with −1 ≤ t1 ≤ ... ≤ tN ≤ 1 and
the intervals [29].
XM ×N = UM ×M × AM ×N × VN ×N (2)
 t1 +t2


where N is the length of all time series, M is the number 
 −1, 2 , if i = 1
h t +t t +t 
of time series, U is an orthogonal matrix by columns of order Ii =
i−1 i
, i i+1
, if 2 ≤ i ≤ N − 1 (5)
h 2 2
M × M , A is a diagonal matrix of order M × N and V is a 
 tN −1 +tN , 1 ,

if i = N
matrix N × N orthogonal by rows. 2

The reduction of the dimensionality is obtained by speci-

fying the value of d (desired dimension of the characteristic
Chebyshev polynomial  of degree N is defined as PN (t) and
their roots as tj = cos (j−0.5)∗π , 1 ≤ j ≤ N.
vector). N
The step function is defined by:

X M ×d = UM ×M × AM ×d = [λ1 u1 , . . . , λd ud ] (3) g(t) = vi , if t ∈ Ii for 1 ≤ i ≤ N (6)

where d ≤ N , {λi }di=1 are eigenvalues (diagonal elements where vi is the value of time series at time ti or the value
of matrix A) and {ui }di=1 are column vectors of the matrix U . at interval Ii .
 The lower boundary lemma is satisfied with the inclusion 2) Dynamic Time Warping (DTW): DTW is useful when
of the chebyshev weight function and the length of each the two time series are not aligned to the X-axis. One of
subinterval: the drawbacks of DTW is its computational cost, however,
g(t) it presents good results when there is little data [31].
f (t) = p , if t ∈ Ii for 1 ≤ i ≤ N (7) The algorithm finds the distance between time series of
w(t)|Ii |
different length without any problem. Suppose time series
1
where g(t) is defined by Equation 6, w(t) = √1−t 2
and |Ii | X = x1 , x2 , ..., xm with length m and another time series
is the length of the subinterval Ii . Y = y1 , y2 , ..., yk with length k. The warping path W =
The feature vector is formed by the first chebyshev coeffi- w1 , w2 , ..., wN where max(k, m) ≤ N < k + m − 1 is
cients, n. found using dynamic programming to compute the cumulative
N N
distance Cd (i, j):
1 X 1 X
c0 = f (tj )P0 (tj ) = f (tj ) (8)
N j=1 N j=1

N
Cd (i, j) = dist(i, j)+
2 X min{Cd (i − 1, j − 1), Cd (i − 1, j), Cd (i, j − 1)} (14)
ci = f (tj )Pi (tj ), para 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 (9)
N j=1
Where the k × m matrix distance is defined such that the
6) Autoencoder (AUTOE): An autoencoder neural network
(i, j) element contains the distance of Xi and Yj [31].
is an unsupervised learning algorithm that applies backprop-
agation by setting the target values to be equal to the inputs. Path warping is subject to several constraints such as
The basic form of an autoencoder consists of the input layer boundary conditions, continuity, monotonicity, which are made
of visible units x, the layer of hidden units h and the to optimize the performance of its calculation.
layer of reconstructed units x b. These layers are connected
through the weight matrices W (1) and W (2) . The hidden layer C. Neighbor-Joining Tree
and the reconstruction layer have bias vectors b(1) and b(2) ,
respectively. The NJ algorithm receives as input a matrix of dissimilarity.
Since hidden units are less than input unit, the network Then, it joins two closest objects in each iteration and at the
is forced to learn a “compressed” representation of the input same time separates from the other objects, according to the
very similar to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) [30]. The function of separation S []. The result is a similarity tree
feedforward activations are calculated as: where each pair of nodes are joined by a hypothetical ancestor
node. The function to calculate the similarity between two
X
1 objects i and j is defined as:
hj = σ( Wji xi + b1j ) (10)
i
Pn P
k6=i,j (Dik + Djk ) Dij Dkl
X
x
bi = σ( Wij2 hj + b2i ) (11) S(i, j) = + +
k,l6=i,j
(15)
j 2(n − 2) 2 n−2
where σ(.) is the activation function. Once the pair of objects to group are selected, the length of
The cost function is defined as: the new edges must be calculated to the hypothetical ancestor
N
node by this equation:
1 X X (n) (n)
J(θ) = bi )2
(xi − x (12)
2N n i P P
1 k6=i,j Dik k6=i,j Djk
where N is the number training samples. DiX = (Dij + − ) (16)
2 n−2 n−2
B. Similarity Measure
1) Euclidean Distance: The Euclidean distance between P P
1 k6=i,j Djk k6=i,j Dik
two time series: X = x1 , x2 , ...xn and Y = y1 , y2 , ...yn is DjX = (Dij + − ) (17)
calculated as: 2 n−2 n−2

p When the objects i and j are joined and an object (ij) is

ED = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 + ... + (xn − yn )2 (13) created as a consequence of removing the objects i and j, the
distance between (ij) to any different k node is calculated by
The use of Euclidean distance in time series has some limita- the equation:
tions: a) it is necessary that the two time series have the same
length and scale, b) the time series should not have any gaps, Dik + Djk
in addition, c) it is also sensitive to the presence of noise [31]. D(ij)k = (18)
2
D. Radial Layout
Radial Layout has been used in the visualization of the
NJ algorithm. Paiva [23] used to support classification tasks
through visual analysis of the data and Li [19] used to group
visualization designs generating a categorization. It was also
used with other types of trees such as minimum spanning
tree(MST) [32] to visulize financial markets.
The main idea of radial layout is to assign each subtree to a
wedge of angular width proportional to a number of leaves in
that subtree. The wedge of an inner vertex is divided among
its children, and tree edges are drawn along wedge angle
bisectors, so that they can have any length without violating
disjointness [33]. (a) DTW Distance (b) Euclidean Distance

IV. E XPERIMENTAL RESULTS Fig. 3: The results of our approach of plane dataset without
any reduction method
In this section we explore some of the results of our
approach in two datasets. The rest of the results, applying all
reduction methods and similarity measure can be found online
1
. The complete code is available in github 2 .
A. Dataset
In the experiments we used Plane dataset [34]. This is a
data set of plane outlines 2. This dataset has 7 classes a total
of 210 examples and a dimensionality of 144.

(a) DTW Distance (b) Euclidean Distance

Fig. 4: Applying autoencoder as dimensionality reduction. We
reduce to 72 dimensions
Fig. 2: Description of Plane dataset [35]

B. Detecting Similar Planes organization. In addition our approach allows to make zoom-
in interactions and we can also see time series in detail by
In the Figure 3, the Plane dataset without applying any hovering each node of the tree. This makes the analysis more
dimensionality reduction methods is showed. Visualization intuitive as shown in the Figure 5.
using DTW (Figure 3a) groups similar time series better than
using Euclidean distance (Figure 3b). In the Figure 4, the
reduction method based on autoencoders was used. We reduce
the dimensionality from 144 to 72. It seem that the DTW
distance 4a performs better than the Euclidean distance 4b.
We can also find interstering conclusions about the data in
analysis while we use the interation mechanism.
C. Interactive Exploration
The interaction offered by our approach allows us to inter- Fig. 5: Zoom-in to detail and visualize time series in the node
play between dimensionality reduction methods and similarity
measure techniques. Each of these choices will produce differ-
ent visualizations of the dataset while maintaining hierarchical V. C ONCLUSION
1 Results: https://rawgit.com/rjru/EvolutionOfThemes/master/cytoscape/ As one of the future work, we are interested in designing a
main visual/test2.html unified user interface to build a set of interaction mechanism to
2 Code: https://github.com/rjru/EvolutionOfThemes/tree/master/time series
and https://github.com/rjru/EvolutionOfThemes/tree/master/cytoscape/main enable the active exploring of the time series through similarity
visual trees by the users.
 Another interesting work to do is to deeply incorporate the
statistical theory with the visual analytics framework to pro-
vide theoretical support and further reinforce the visulization
of high-dimensional time series.
An important point to note is that, without using a dimen-
sionality reduction techniques, the proposed approach becomes
slower, especially when using a distance measure with high
cost such as DTW.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
R EFERENCES
[1] G. Shurkhovetskyy, N. Andrienko, G. Andrienko, and G. Fuchs, “Data
Abstraction for Visualizing Large Time Series,” in Computer Graphics
Forum. Wiley Online Library, 2017.
[2] L. Liu and Z. Wang, “Encoding Temporal Markov Dynamics in Graph
for Visualizing and Mining Time Series,” 2016.
[3] A. B. Alencar, M. C. De Oliveira, F. V. Paulovich, R. Minghim, and
M. G. d. Andrade, “Temporal-PEx: Similarity-based visualization of
time series,” in Proceedings 20th Brazilian Symposium on Computer
Graphics and Image Processing, SIBGRAPI, 2007.
[4] R. Minghim, F. V. Paulovich, and A. d. A. Lopes, “Content-based
text mapping using multi-dimensional projections for exploration of
document collections,” Visualization and data analysis, vol. 6060, no. 1,
pp. 259–270, 2006.
[5] F. V. Paulovich, L. G. Nonato, and R. Minghim, “Visual Mapping of
Text Collections through a Fast High Precision Projection Technique,”
in Tenth International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV’06),
Jul. 2006, pp. 282–290.
[6] D. J. Berndt and J. Clifford, “Using Dynamic Time Warping
to Find Patterns in Time Series,” in Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining,
ser. AAAIWS’94. AAAI Press, 1994, pp. 359–370. [Online]. Available:
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3000850.3000887
[7] E. Keogh, S. Lonardi, C. A. Ratanamahatana, L. Wei, S.-H. Lee, and
J. Handley, “Compression-based data mining of sequential data,” Data
Mining and Knowledge Discovery, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 99–129, Feb.
2007. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10618-006-0049-3
[8] A. M. Cuadros, F. V. Paulovich, R. Minghim, and G. P. Telles, “Point
Placement by Phylogenetic Trees and its Application to Visual Analysis
of Document Collections,” in 2007 IEEE Symposium on Visual Analytics
Science and Technology, Oct. 2007, pp. 99–106.
[9] D. M. Eler, M. Y. Nakazaki, F. V. Paulovich, D. P. Santos, G. F.
Andery, M. C. F. Oliveira, J. Batista Neto, and R. Minghim,
“Visual analysis of image collections,” The Visual Computer,
vol. 25, no. 10, pp. 923–937, Oct. 2009. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-009-0368-7
[10] J. G. Paiva, L. Florian, H. Pedrini, G. Telles, and R. Minghim, “Improved
Similarity Trees and their Application to Visual Data Classification,”
IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 17,
no. 12, pp. 2459–2468, Dec. 2011.
[11] X. Han, C. Zhang, W. Lin, M. Xu, B. Sheng, and T. Mei, “Tree-
Based Visualization and Optimization for Image Collection,” IEEE
Transactions on Cybernetics, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1286–1300, Jun. 2016.
[12] A. B. Alencar, F. V. Paulovich, R. Minghim, M. G. de Andrade Filho,
and M. C. F. de Oliveira, “Similarity-based visualization of time series
collections: An application to analysis of streamflows,” in 2008 12th
International Conference Information Visualisation. IEEE, 2008, pp.
280–286.
[13] M. C. Hao, M. Marwah, H. Janetzko, U. Dayal, D. A. Keim, D. Patnaik,
N. Ramakrishnan, and R. K. Sharma, “Visual exploration of frequent
patterns in multivariate time series,” Information Visualization, vol. 11,
no. 1, pp. 71–83, 2012.
[14] J. Bernard, T. Ruppert, O. Goroll, T. May, and J. Kohlhammer, “Visual-
interactive preprocessing of time series data,” in Proceedings of SIGRAD
2012; Interactive Visual Analysis of Data; November 29-30; 2012;
Växjö; Sweden, no. 081. Linköping University Electronic Press, 2012,
pp. 39–48.
[15] M. Steiger, J. Bernard, S. Mittelstädt, H. Lücke-Tieke, D. Keim, T. May,
and J. Kohlhammer, “Visual Analysis of Time-Series Similarities for
Anomaly Detection in Sensor Networks,” in Computer Graphics Forum,
vol. 33, no. 3. Wiley Online Library, 2014, pp. 401–410.
[16] J. Bernard, N. Wilhelm, B. Krger, T. May, T. Schreck, and J. Kohlham-
mer, “Motionexplorer: Exploratory search in human motion capture data
based on hierarchical aggregation,” IEEE Transactions on Visualization
and Computer Graphics, vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 2257–2266, Dec 2013.
[17] N. Saitou and M. Nei, “The neighbor-joining method: a new method
for reconstructing phylogenetic trees.” Molecular biology and evolution,
vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 406–425, 1987.
[18] A. Soriano, F. Paulovich, L. Nonato, and M. Oliveira, “Visualization of
music collections based on structural similarity,” SIBGRAPI 2014, 2014.
[19] S. Li, R. J. Crouser, G. Griffin, C. Gramazio, H.-J. Schulz, H. Childs,
and R. Chang, “Exploring hierarchical visualization designs using phy-
logenetic trees.” in Visualization and Data Analysis, 2015, p. 939709.
[20] I. Polato, R. Ré, A. Goldman, and F. Kon, “A comprehensive view of
Hadoop research - A systematic literature review,” Journal of Network
and Computer Applications, vol. 46, pp. 1–25, 2014.
[21] A. C. Ribeiro, “Visualização de mudanças em coleções de textos por
árvores de similaridade,” Master’s thesis, Universidade Estadual de
Campinas, Feb. 2017.
[22] D. M. Eler, M. Y. Nakazaki, F. V. Paulovich, D. P. Santos, M. C. F.
Oliveira, J. E. B. Neto, and R. Minghim, “Multidimensional visualiza-
tion to support analysis of image collections,” in 2008 XXI Brazilian
Symposium on Computer Graphics and Image Processing. IEEE, 2008,
pp. 289–296.
[23] J. G. S. Paiva, W. R. Schwartz, H. Pedrini, and R. Minghim, “An
approach to supporting incremental visual data classification,” IEEE
transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. 21, no. 1,
pp. 4–17, 2015.
[24] R. A. P. De Oliveira, L. F. Silva, and D. M. Eler, “Hybrid Visualization:
A New Approach to Display Instances Relationship and Attributes
Behaviour in a Single View,” in 2015 19th International Conference
on Information Visualisation. IEEE, 2015, pp. 277–282.
[25] I. Batal and M. Hauskrecht, “A Supervised Time Series Feature Extrac-
tion Technique Using DCT and DWT,” in 2009 International Conference
on Machine Learning and Applications, Dec. 2009, pp. 735–739.
[26] F. Korn, H. V. Jagadish, and C. Faloutsos, “Efficiently Supporting
Ad Hoc Queries in Large Datasets of Time Sequences,” SIGMOD
Record, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 289–300, Jun. 1997. [Online]. Available:
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/253262.253332
[27] K. pong Chan and A. W. chee Fu, “Efficient Time Series Matching
by Wavelets,” in Proceedings of the 15th International Conference
on Data Engineering, ser. ICDE ’99. Washington, DC, USA: IEEE
Computer Society, Mar. 1999, pp. 126–133. [Online]. Available:
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=846218.847201
[28] E. Keogh, K. Chakrabarti, M. Pazzani, and S. Mehrotra, “Dimensionality
Reduction for Fast Similarity Search in Large Time Series Databases,”
Knowledge and Information Systems, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 263–286, 2001.
[Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/PL00011669
[29] Y. Cai and R. Ng, “Indexing Spatio-temporal Trajectories with
Chebyshev Polynomials,” in Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGMOD
International Conference on Management of Data, ser. SIGMOD ’04.
New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2004, pp. 599–610. [Online]. Available:
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1007568.1007636
[30] G. E. Hinton and R. R. Salakhutdinov, “Reducing the Dimensionality of
Data with Neural Networks,” Science, vol. 313, no. 5786, pp. 504–507,
Jul. 2006. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127647
[31] T. Mitsa, Temporal data mining. CRC Press, 2010.
[32] K. Soramaki, S. Cook, and A. Laubsch, “A network-based method for
visual identification of systemic risks,” Journal of Network Theory in
Finance, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 67–101, 2016.
[33] C. Bachmaier, U. Brandes, and B. Schlieper, “Drawing phylogenetic
trees,” in ISAAC, vol. 5. Springer, 2005, pp. 1110–1121.
[34] Y. Chen, E. Keogh, B. Hu, N. Begum, A. Bagnall, A. Mueen, and
G. Batista, “The ucr time series classification archive,” July 2015, www.
cs.ucr.edu/∼eamonn/time series data/.
[35] A. Bagnall, J. Lines, A. Bostrom, J. Large, and E. Keogh, “The great
time series classification bake off: a review and experimental evaluation
of recent algorithmic advances,” Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery,
vol. Online First, 2016.