M I N I N G A N D S U S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T

ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS OF MINING
A N D E R S W I D E R L U N D A N D B J Ö R N Ö H L A N D E R , L U L E Å U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y,
F R A U K E E C K E , S W E D I S H U N I V E R S I T Y O F A G R I C U LT U R A L S C I E N C E S
Published by
Luleå University of Technology, 2014.
Contents
Abstract...............................................................................4
Preface.................................................................................5
1. Introduction.....................................................................6
1.1 Objectives and Scope of work........................................6
2. General overview of previous and on-going activities
related to mining and environmental sustainability......7
2.1National and international environmental
objectives, directives and legislation................................7
2.2 National and international initiatives................................8
2.3 Academic research......................................................10
2.3.1 Biogeochemical studies.......................................10
2.3.2 Ecological studies and biodiversity ......................16
3. Gaps in knowledge........................................................17
3.1 Characterization of emissions ......................................17
3.1.1 Mine water effluents............................................17
3.1.2 Airborne emissions..............................................18
3.2 Dispersion of emissions...............................................18
3.2.1 Surface and ground waters..................................18
3.2.2 Aquatic-terrestrial linkages
along longitudinal and lateral gradients.................19
3.2.3 Airborne emissions..............................................19
3.3 Biogeochemical and ecological effects..........................19
4. Suggestions for future work.........................................20
5. Conclusions....................................................................21
6. References.....................................................................22
3
Environmental Aspects of Mining
ABSTRACT
Abstract
This report forms an integrated part of a larger
feasibility study on Mining and Sustainable Develop-
ment performed at Luleå University of Technology
during 2014. The report comprises a literature review
of previous and on-going activities related to mining
and environmental sustainability, subdivided into the
following three main topics: 1) national and inter-
national environmental objectives, directives and
legislation, 2) national and international initiatives
and 3) academic research. A major aim of the report
is to identify gaps in knowledge that indicate impor-
tant topics for a future research on mining and sus-
tainable development. The report is limited to metal
mining (excluding uranium mining), and includes
environmental issues related to acid mine drainage,
circumneutral mine waters, and aquatic–terrestrial
4 linkages in areas affected by mining and dust/air-
borne emissions. The report focuses on water, soil,
and air quality issues in the local–regional surround-
Environmental Aspects of Mining
ings of mine sites. Thus, questions concerning for
example mineral reserve management and issues of a
more global nature such as energy consumption and
climate effects are not included.
The report identifies research gaps judged as criti-
cal for improved environmental impact assessment
of mining. There is a need for more in-depth case
studies to clarify the biogeochemical and ecological
footprint and environmental sustainability of mining.
State-of-the Art analytical techniques and modelling
software should be used to study emissions, transport
distances, attenuation mechanisms, and ecological
effects in the receiving waters downstream of the
mine. Studies of the environmental sustainability
should be integrated with parallel studies of
economic and social sustainability of mining in
the same area.
 PREFACE

Preface
Minerals are essential for human welfare. However, their extraction is associated with both opportunities
and challenges. Historical concerns around work conditions and the competitiveness of the mining
sector have been complemented by a growing number of other issues. Today, an overarching goal is to
find ways by which the mining sector can promote sustainable development.

Sustainable development is often defined as “devel-
opment that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.” Furthermore, it is commonly
agreed that this must incorporate economic, environ-
mental and social concerns.
There is a growing literature that examines the rela-
tionship between extractive industries and sustainable
Four other review reports have also been undertaken
as a part of this pre-study.
• Making Mining Sustainable: Overview of Private and
Public Responses, by Petter Hojem from Luleå Uni-
versity of Technology.
•  Environmental Regulation and Mining-Sector Com-
petitiveness, by Kristina Söderholm, Patrik Söder-
holm, Maria Pettersson, Nanna Svahn and Roine

5
development, yet much research is still conducted in Viklund from Luleå University of Technology and
a siloed fashion. For this reason, the Swedish state- Heidi Helenius from the University of Lapland.
owned iron ore mining company LKAB and Luleå
•  Gender, Diversity and Work Conditions in Mining, by
University of Technology initiated a pre-study with
Lena Abrahamsson, Eugenia Segerstedt, Magnus
the aim to establish a new multidisciplinary research
Nygren, Jan Johansson, Bo Johansson, Ida Edman
programme on mining and sustainability.
and Amanda Åkerlund from Luleå University of
The pre-study was conducted from January to Technology.
October 20141. One part of the pre-study was to
•  Mining, Regional Development and Benefit-Sharing, by
review existing research attempting to address mining
Patrik Söderholm and Nanna Svahn from Luleå
and sustainable development – the current state-of-
University of Technology.
the-art – with focus on the past, present, and future
situation in Sweden, but also to put the Swedish Together these reports provide a broad picture of the
case into a broader perspective by comparing several challenges and opportunities created by mining.
international examples. The pre-study has been made possible through a
One of the outcomes of the pre-study is this report. generous contribution from LKAB. All errors and
It reviews previous and on-going initiatives and opinions expressed in this report belong solely to the
research that address environmental aspects of min- authors.
ing. This includes critical issues related to acid mine
drainage, nutrient-rich mine waters, and water–land Luleå and Uppsala, October 2014
interactions in areas affected by dust. Anders Widerlund, Frauke Ecke and Björn Öhlander
The report highlights a number of future research
needs. Notably, there is a need for more detailed
information on the characteristics of emissions from
mining, their effect in different environments and
how they are transported. Also, further investigation is
needed on their effect on fauna and flora.

1
Project leader: Patrik Söderholm. Project group: Lena Abrahamsson, Frauke Ecke, Petter Hojem, Anders Widerlund, Roine Viklund, and Björn Öhlander.

Environmental Aspects of Mining

1. INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.1 Objectives and Scope of work
According to the Brundtland Report (United
Nations, 1987), sustainable development is defined as
a “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future genera-
tions to meet their own needs”. This report com-
prises an overview of previous and on-going activi-
ties related to mining and environmental sustainability,
subdivided into the following three main topics:
1) national and international environmental object-
ives, directives and legislation, 2) national and inter-
national initiatives and 3) academic research.
6 as energy consumption and climate effects are not
Environmental Aspects of Mining
Regarding academic research on environmental
issues, a major aim of this report is to identify gaps in
knowledge that indicate important topics for a future
research programme on Mining and Sustainable De-
velopment.
The report is limited to environmentally sustainable
development related to metal mining (excluding
uranium mining), and includes environmental issues
related to acid mine drainage (AMD), circumneutral
mine waters, and aquatic–terrestrial linkages in areas
affected by mining and dust/airborne emissions. The
report focuses on water, soil, and air quality issues in
the local–regional surroundings of mine sites. Thus,
questions concerning for example mineral reserve
management and issues of a more global nature such
included.
 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

2. General overview of previous

and on-going activities related
to mining and environmental
sustainability
This section deals with the following three main topics: 1) national and international environmental
objectives, directives and legislation, 2) national and international initiatives, and 3) academic research.
The main emphasis is on academic research that has been performed on mining-related environmental
issues during the last decades. Both basic research and applied research has been performed, and a
similar combination of basic / applied research should be the goal also for future research.
7
2.1 National and international environmental macroinvertebrates and fish) (Naturvårdsverket, 2007).
objectives, directives and legislation Since mining process water can be especially rich
in different nitrogen species (Chlot, 2013) including
In Sweden, permits for mineral exploration and
highly toxic ammonia, also nationally and interna-
mining are managed by the Mining Inspectorate
tionally approved threshold concentrations need to be
(SGU, 2014). Permit applications are tried under the
considered (EIFAC 1970, SFS 2001). The operation
Swedish Minerals Act (Minerallagen). This Act aims
andor extension of mines might also bebe in conflict
to secure Sweden’s supply of metals and minerals.
with the Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the
However, exploration and mining projects tried un-
conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and
der the Swedish Minerals Act are not exempted from
flora (here called Habitat Directive, HD) (European
Swedish environmental legislation (SGU, 2013).
Union, 1992) including the previously approved so
There are several international legal documents on called Birds Directive (European Union, 1979). In ad-
environmental issues that directly relate to mining dition to international directives, Sweden has approved
operations. According to the Directive 2000/60/EC 16 Environmental Objectives and related indicators of
of 23 October 2000 on establishing a framework for which several relate to mining operations (e.g. Natural
Community action in the field of water policy (here Acidification Only, Zero Eutrofication,Thriving Wetlands,
called Water Framework Directive, WFD) (European A Magnificent Mountain Landscape, A Rich Diversity of
Union, 2000), all natural recipients of mining effluents Plant and Animal Life, and Flourish Lakes and Streams)
(including streams and lakes) must reach at least good (Naturvårdsverket, 2012; 2013). However, only A
ecological status. In Sweden, the WFD was imple- magnificent Mountain Landscape refers directly to mining
mented in 2007 (Naturvårdsverket, 2007; 2008). The operations as a threat to fulfilling the Environmental
assessment of ecological status is based on biological Objective.
quality elements (diatoms, phytoplankton, macrophytes,

Environmental Aspects of Mining

2. G ENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
2.2 National and international initiatives
In the late nineties the global mining industry real-
ised that it must address to the concept of sustainable
development rather than passively wait for new rules
and expectations. Nine of the largest mining com-
panies established a new initiative with the aim to
change the way industry approached the concept of
sustainable development, called the Global Mining
Initiative. Through the World Business Council for
Sustainable Development (WBCSD), they started
the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development
(MMSD) project and commissioned the International
Institute of Environment and Development (IIED) to
perform a scoping study. The final report of the study
was published in 2002 (IIED, 2002), and a follow
up-report was published in 2012 (Buxton 2012).
A set of global rules for best practice on sustainable
development and minerals has been developed. The
number of standards and best practice guidance,
8 helping stakeholders to understand what sustainable
development means, has increased. However, in a
large number of cases, it is not clear how exactly
these should be translated into basic environmental
practices.
The scoping paper Mining and Metals in a Sustaina-
ble World was presented at World Economic Forum
Annual Meeting, February 2014 (World Economic
Forum, 2014). It was concluded that the definition of
“sustainability” is unclear. It was considered important
that the mining and metals sector should shape the
agenda on this issue rather than react to it. With this
background, the World Economic Forum introduced
the new initiative “Mining and Metals in a Sustaina-
ble World 2050”. The suggested roadmap to a sustain-
able world identified actions that the sector needs to
undertake. One of the most important was to invest
in research and development: “Mining and metals
enterprises must start developing the technologies to
operate in a clean, affordable and safe environment in
frontiers previously considered inaccessible”.
Formation of acid rock drainage (ARD) in sul-
phide-bearing mine waste (waste rock and tailings) is
the major potential long-term environmental effect
of mining, and can last for hundreds or even thou-
sands of years in a waste deposit. The International
Network for Acid Prevention (INAP) works collab-
Environmental Aspects of Mining
oratively to address the ARD issue. INAP members
presently are: Anglo American, Antofagasta Minerals,
Barrick Gold, Freeport McMoRan, Kinross, New-
crest Mining Limited, Newmont Mining Corpora-
tion, Rio Tinto and Vale. All of these except Barrick
and Kinross provide detailed information on their
websites about how they relate to sustainable devel-
opment. Barrick and Kinross instead give information
about their environmental standards.
INAP has developed the GARD Guide (GARD
Guide, 2014), which is intended as a state-of-the-
art summary of the best practices and technology to
assist mine operators and regulators to address issues
related to sulphide mineral oxidation. Regarding sus-
tainable development, the GARD Guide states:
“The economic benefit derived from mining is an
essential contributor to sustainable development but
the environmental and social consequences can offset
this benefit unless managed appropriately”.
The above quote is also a good summary of what
is stated on the home pages of the individual INAP
members.
In a European perspective, Euromines is the common
association of the European mining industry. Eu-
romine´s members have set forth series of guidelines
for sustainable development in the European mining
sector.
The Mining Association of Canada established in
2004 a programme called Towards Sustainable Min-
ing. Its main objective is to enable mining companies
to meet society’s needs for minerals, metals and en-
ergy products in the most socially, economically and
environmentally responsible way. The programme
is focused on best available technology rather than
research.
A “Vision of growth for the Swedish mining indus-
try” was published in September 2012 by the Swedish
Mining Association (SveMin). The vision is that the
Swedish Mining Industry will triple its production by
2025 (SveMin, 2012). Five important initiatives that
must be taken to reach that goal are described. One
of these is R&D including research on the efficient
use of resources and sustainable development.
Several countries have developed national miner-
al strategies. Sweden´s mineral strategy, published
 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
in 2013, claims that Sweden should maintain and
strengthen its position as Europe´s leading mining
country (Sveriges regeringskansli, 2013). Mineral
resources should be utilized in a sustainable manner.
Here as well, five action points are described, one of
which is research. However, environment and sustain-
able development are not emphasised.
Regarding the two major mining companies in Swe-
den, Boliden Mineral AB clearly addresses all three
aspects of sustainable development (environmental,
social, and economic) on its website, while LKAB
focuses on the environmental aspects. However, both
companies clearly state that they have high ambitions
to leave as little impact as possible on the environment.
The Vision 2050 in Finland´s mineral strategy is that
Finland is a global leader in the sustainable utilization
of mineral resources, and the minerals sector is one of
the key foundations of the Finnish national economy
(GTK, 2014).
In both Sweden and Finland the national miner-
al strategies are matched by mining research pro-
grammes. In Finland the state together with the
industry finances the Green Mining Programme via
TEKES. The main objective of the TEKES Green
Mining Programme is to make Finland a global
leader of a sustainable mineral industry by 2020. In
Sweden,VINNOVA and the industry finances the
Strategic Innovation Area Swedish Mining and Metal
Producing Industry Research and Innovation Programme
which will run during the period of 2013–2016. The
vision of the programme is that “The Mining indus-
try is an important supplier of efficient and sustaina-
ble solutions to meet the needs of modern society for
metals and minerals”. In both the Swedish and Finn-
ish research programmes, projects aiming at reducing
the environmental impact of mining are included.
However, they do not include research that takes an
overall control on the environmental footprint of
mining or mining and sustainable development.
Also Norway has a national mineral strategy stressing
the importance of the sector and pointing out that
the environmental impact must be acceptable and the
industry sustainable (Norges närings- och handelsde-
partement, 2014).
On the university level there are several initiatives.
For example the Australian Centre for Sustainable
Mining Practices (ACSMP) has been established at
School of Mining Engineering at University of New
South Wales in Australia. They define themselves
as an “active research organization focused on new
mining practices, and development and application
of technologies and systems for sustainable mining
initiatives”. In other words, it has a purely technical
focus. Also the Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI) at
the University of Queensland, Australia, has a techni-
cal focus. However, this university also has a Centre
for Social Responsibility in Mining (CSRM). At
Lakehead University in Northern Ontario, Canada,
the Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Mining
& Exploration (CESME) has been established with
the goal to encourage and support research, edu-
cation and outreach activities regarding the nature
and impacts of mineral resource exploration and
9
extraction particularly in Northern Ontario. The
large mining universities in Canada such as Univer-
sity of BC, McGill University, University of Western
Ontario and University of Waterloo all have strong
research on mining and the environment, but have
no programmes or centres for mining and sustain-
able development. The Center for Environmentally
Sustainable Mining (CESM) at University of Arizona
in USA has a clear focus on methods to decrease the
environmental impact of mining. Colorado School of
Mines has no particular emphasis on neither environ-
ment nor sustainability. Camborne School of Mines
Research in the UK has a research theme involving
environmental protection and corporate social re-
sponsibility. University of the Witwatersrand, Johan-
nesburg, South Africa, has a Centre for Sustainability
in Mining and Industry (CSMI).
Thus, the importance of sustainability in mining is
clearly recognized by government agencies, univer-
sities and the mining industry. In reality, research and
development is in most cases focused on decreasing
the environmental impact of mining. It appears that
the industry, to a higher degree than government
agencies and universities, includes and assesses the im-
portance mining has for economy and development
of a sustainable society.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
2. G ENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Most funding agencies for mining related research,
including national programmes, act like research
councils. It is open to anyone to apply for funding.
The result in most cases is a number of projects of
good quality, but without mutual coordination.
To tackle such a big issue as sustainable mining
including the environmental, social and economic
footprint of mining, there is an obvious need for a
coherent research initiatives focusing on mining and
sustainable development.
2.3 Academic research
During the last decades a considerable amount of
academic research has been performed on mining-
related environmental issues. This research has been
carried out both within the framework of large, co-
ordinated research programmes such as the Canadian
MEND programme (Mine Environment Neutral
Drainage) (MEND, 2014) as well as a large number of
10 separate studies. In addition, mining-related environ-
mental research is performed by organizations such as
the US Geological Survey (USGS, 2014a).
In previous mining-related environmental research,
biogeochemical and ecological effects of mining
activities have to a large extent been studied separate-
ly. Only a limited number of studies have attempted
to provide a synthesis of inorganic geochemical and
biological/ecological effects on systems receiving
mine effluents. Thus, for practical reasons, previous
geochemical and ecological studies of mining-
influenced systems are reviewed separately in this
Section 2.3. In Section 3.3, the importance of in-
tegrating biogeochemical and ecological effects is
emphasized, with the aim of linking ecological effects
to levels of emissions in water, sediments and air.
2.3.1 Biogeochemical studies
The term “biogeochemical” is defined here as reactions
involving the flow of chemical elements and com-
pounds between living organisms and the physical
environment. The term thus includes biological uptake
of nutrient elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen,
and redox reactions mediated by bacteria, e.g. bacte-
rially catalysed precipitation of iron hydroxides. The
term does not include the ecological topics of distribu-
tion, abundance and interaction of living organisms.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
Overall the main focus of previous geochemical re-
search on mine waste has been on acid mine drainage
(AMD), with particular emphasis on prevention and
remediation measures. This research has been de-
scribed in textbooks (e.g. Lottermoser, 2003) as well
as various reports from major research programmes
such as Passive In-Situ Remediation of Acid Mine/
Industrial Drainage (PIRAMID), Mitigation of the
Environmental Impact from Mining Waste (MiMi),
and Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND)
(PIRAMID, 2003; Höglund and Herbert, 2004;
MEND, 2014). The International Network for Acid
Prevention (INAP) with the support of the Global
Alliance sponsored the development of the Global
Acid Rock Drainage (GARD) Guide (GARD Guide,
2014). This guide deals with the prediction, preven-
tion and management of drainage produced from
sulphide mineral oxidation, and also addresses metal
leaching caused by sulphide mineral oxidation. The
GARD Guide is intended as a state-of-practice sum-
mary of the best practices and technology to assist
mine operators, excavators, and regulators to address
issues related to sulphide mineral oxidation.
Compared to work related to AMD prevention and
remediation measures, considerably less work appears
to have been performed regarding the effects of mine
water effluents on receiving waters downstream of
mine sites. In some cases, effects on receiving waters
have been addressed within the framework of research
programmes mainly focusing on prevention and re-
mediation (e.g. Sjöblom, 2003; MEND, 2009). Nord-
strom (2011) reviewed selected US Geological Survey
research on hydrogeochemical processes governing
trace element mobilization, dispersion and attenuation
from mineralized areas during transport in surface
waters. It was concluded that the mobility of contam-
inants (metals) from mining operations depends on
1) occurrence: is the mineral source of the contaminant
present? 2) abundance: is the mineral present in quan-
tities to be important as a source? 3) reactivity: what
are the reaction rates relative to the water flow rate?
4) hydrology: what are the main flow paths for con-
taminated water? Nordstrom (2011) also suggested a
number of approaches that can be used to study the
fate of mining-related metals in surface waters.
 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Relatively few studies have attempted to integrate
studies of biogeochemical effects (e.g. metal concen-
trations in waters and sediments) with studies of any
corresponding biological/ecological effects. Niyogi et
al. (2002) proposed a hypothesis that related biodi-
versity, community biomass, and ecosystem function
to a gradient of stress related to AMD. Interactions
between trace metals and aquatic organisms were also
compiled in a literature and review report published
within the MEND programme (MEND, 2009). This
report describes the development and application of
tools to predict the effects of transition metals in sedi-
ment, water and aquatic food. These tools can be used
to assess the potential for metal toxicity in sediments
and to derive site-specific water quality guidelines.
In Sweden, biogeochemical effects in aquatic systems
receiving AMD have been studied by e.g. Sjöblom
(2003). Sjöblom (2003) discussed various aspects
of environmental sustainability in wetland systems
receiving metal-rich AMD from the Kristineberg
mine site, and concluded that correctly constructed
wetlands can treat certain kinds of drainage to com-
pliance with discharge requirements. Sjöblom (2003)
also studied metal immobilization in natural wetlands
as a complement to other treatment methods. The
overall conclusion was that the investigated natural
system had a limited influence on the attenuation of
trace metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc.
Consequently, these metals to a large extent were
transported further downstream in the system.
In addition to environmental monitoring based on
present-day lake and stream water data, several studies
have focused on historical changes of the environ-
mental situation in aquatic systems downstream of
mine sites. Dated lake sediment cores have success-
fully been used to monitor historical variations in
biogeochemical processes such as metal pollution and
eutrophication such systems. Although annually lami-
nated sediments are best suited for this type of inves-
tigations (O’Sullivan, 1983; Renberg, 1986), studies
can be performed in any undisturbed sediment that
can be dated, e.g. by the 210Pb method (Turner and
Delorme, 1996). In Sweden, monitoring of environ-
mental effects of mining based on dated sediment
cores have been performed e.g. at the abandoned
Laisvall lead mine (Widerlund et al., 2002) and in the
Rakkurijoki system receiving water from the Kiruna
iron mine (Widerlund et al., 2014). In addition, stud-
ies of bioindicators such as diatom frustules in dated
sediment cores can reveal pre-industrial conditions in
lakes as well as mining-related environmental effects
(e.g. Peinerud et al., 2001).
Wolkersdorfer and Bowell (2005) presented a review
of mine water studies in 21 European countries. The
case studies described addressed environmental issues
both at mine sites and consequences of mining on
receiving waters, and included abandoned as well as
active mines. At Swedish mine sites, limited ground-
water quality data were considered as a major gap
in Swedish water quality monitoring and manage-
ment. The review also pointed out that no Swedish
institution has the responsibility for coordinated
monitoring, supervision, and management of diffuse
water pollution sources over the wide scale of spatial–
temporal scales associated with mine water pollution
(Wolkersdorfer and Bowell, 2005).
Pit lakes
11
Production of acid mine drainage (AMD) with pH
values below 3 and high dissolved concentrations of
sulphate and metals is a common problem in sulphide
mine pit lakes. Thus, pit lake water quality is one of
the most significant environmental issues facing the
global mining industry today. Decreasing ore grades
and more efficient, open pit mining methods will
result in an increasing number of large pit lakes, and
hydrological, chemical and ecological conditions
downstream of the lakes will be affected by overflow
and groundwater seepage from the lakes. Globally,
open pit mines and pit lakes are located in all major
mining districts, with the highest numbers in North
America, Australia and South America (Castendyk
and Eary, 2009). In the Skellefte Field alone, about 20
small- to medium-sized pit lakes exist today. In other
Swedish mining districts, several large pit lakes will
start to form when existing and future open pit mines
are closing within the next two to three decades.
In Sweden, the Udden and Rävlidmyran pit lakes in
the Skellefte Field have been studied, and datasets exist
for these two lakes (Ramstedt et al., 2003; Lu, 2004).
However, no hydrological, physical limnological or
ecological modelling of the lakes has been performed.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Figure 1. Large biomass of macrophytes (in the background stand of horsetail Equisetum fluviatile) in the Rakkurijoki system downstream of the Kiruna mine site.
12 Nutrients and eutrophication
The mining industry is a major consumer of ammo-
nium-nitrate-based explosives worldwide. In 2011,
approximately 2.6 million tonnes of these explosives
were used in mining operations in the USA (USGS,
2013), and in 2010, around 11 500 tonnes of ammo-
nium nitrate emulsion explosives were used at the
Kiruna iron ore mine in Sweden. Previous studies
show that up to 28% of the N contained in explosives
may be discharged into receiving waters as dissolved
nitrate, ammonium, and nitrite (Morin and Hutt,
2009). Nitrogen leaching from mine sites depends on
many site-specific factors, but explosives that remain
undetonated appear to be a major issue. In addition
to ammonium-nitrate based-explosives, sodium cya-
nide (NaCN) is a major N source at mine sites where
this chemical is used in gold extraction (Logsdon et
al., 1999; Lottermoser, 2003). It is becoming evi-
dent that eutrophication is an emerging problem in
aquatic systems receiving circumneutral, nutrient-rich
mine waters, particularly if P originating from apatite
or mineral processing (flotation) chemicals such as
dithiophosphate is also present (Fig. 1; Chlot, 2013;
Widerlund et al., 2014).
Few case studies have been published regarding N
leaching from mine sites (Morin and Hutt, 2009).
Thus, considering the worldwide use of ammonium
Environmental Aspects of Mining
nitrate blasting agents in mining operations, eutroph-
ication of receiving waters close to mine sites may be
more common than previously realized. Recently, the
environmental relevance of N-releases from mining
has been acknowledged by VINNOVA, Boliden Min-
eral AB and LKAB, resulting in a 27 MSEK research
project running 2013-2016 which focuses on reduc-
ing N-discharges in mining processes and mitigation
of their environmental impact.
Chlot (2013) studied nitrogen and phosphorus inter-
actions and transformations in two aquatic systems
receiving mine waters from the Boliden and Kiru-
na mine sites. This work focused on speciation and
transformation processes of nitrogen and phosphorus,
and the natural nitrogen removal capacity of these
systems. The question of limiting nutrient was also
addressed, and this study emphasized that phytoplank-
ton and macrophytes may be limited by different nu-
trients (nitrogen or phosphorus). These aspects have
implications for assessing the environmental influence
of nutrient-rich mine effluents. A study of historical
changes related to nutrient-rich effluents from the
Kiruna mine showed that phytoplankton and macro-
phyte detritus have increased in lake sediments in the
Rakkurijoki system downstream of the Kiruna mine
since around 1950, when nutrient-rich mine waters
began to reach the system (Fig. 2).
 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

0 0

5 5

10 10
1950
1950
Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)
15 15

20 20

25 25
Soil
Terrestrial vegetation
30 30
Littoral vegetation

a b Phytoplankton
35 35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
% Contribution % Contribution

Figure 2. Calculated relative contributions of the four organic matter source end-members soil, terrestrial vegetation, littoral vegetation, and phytoplankton in
sediments of a) Lake Mettä-Rakkurijärvi, and b) Lake Rakkurijärvi at Kiruna. The relative contribution of each component is expressed as wt-% of the total OM
content in the sediment. Nutrient-rich mine waters began to reach the lakes around 1950 (Widerlund et al., 2014).

Saline waters and low temperatures reduce the overall efficiency of

Pristine, natural surface waters draining Precambrian
rocks in Scandinavia are typically low-ionic strength
waters with specific conductivities below 100 µS/cm.
In contrast, specific conductivities of effluents from
major Swedish mine sites may exceed 2000 µS/cm. In
addition to this salinity increase by a factor of approx-
imately 20, the water composition generally changes
from typical Ca–HCO3-dominated freshwaters to Ca–
SO4–Cl–NO3-dominated mine waters. Basic studies
of ecological effects of salinity have shown that the
relative proportions of major cations and the ratios of
monovalent/divalent cations can influence the metab-
olism of algae and submersed macrophytes as much as
the absolute concentrations do (Wetzel, 2001).
Cold climate and climate change
The Canadian MEND programme presented a report
on issues, strategies, and research requirements for
disposing of potentially acid-generating mine waste
in permafrost environments (MEND, 1996). Similar
aspects, although in non-permafrost cold conditions,
were addressed in the Swedish research programme
Mitigation of the Environmental Impact from Mining
Waste (MiMi) (Höglund and Herbert, 2004). Sjöblom
(2003) and Chlot (2013) studied various aspects of
natural attenuation of metals and nutrients in receiving
waters downstream of cold-climate mine sites. Both
studies indicated that high spring-flow water discharge
13
natural attenuation processes in wetlands and lakes.
Expected future changes in climate will present chal-
lenges to environmental management and mitigation
with, for example, heavier rainfall increasing the risk
of tailings dam failures and discharge of contaminated
waters into aquatic systems (Nelson and Schuchard,
2014). A report by the David Suzuki Foundation
(2009) described the vulnerability of the Canadian
mining industry to climate change, and opportunities
for adaptation.
Airborne emissions
Airborne emissions are generated during all stages of
mining operations, i.e. during exploration, develop-
ment, construction, mining, and mineral processing.
Emissions occur in two principally different forms:
gas emissions of mainly CO, CO2, SO2, and NOX,
and particulate matter (dust and aerosols) (Fig. 3).
Three main types of sources of airborne emissions
can be identified: 1) mobile sources including all
types of vehicles used in mining operations, 2)
stationary sources including combustion of fuels in
power generation plants and mineral processing oper-
ations (drying, roasting and smelting), and 3) fugitive
emissions defined as emissions that could not rea-
sonably pass through a stack, chimney, vent or other
equivalent opening (EIA, 2014). Fugitive emissions
include for example gases from ore blasting and dust

Environmental Aspects of Mining

2. G ENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Figure 3. Dust development caused by trucks at the LKAB site in Kiruna on 28 June 2014.
from storage and handling of materials, construction
activities, roadways, tailings ponds and waste rock
piles. EIA (2014) concluded that airborne emissions
14 are difficult to predict and calculate, but should be
considered since they are a potentially significant
source of hazardous pollutants.
Csavina et al. (2012) presented a review on the
importance of metals and metalloids in atmospheric
dust and aerosols from mining operations. The review
summarizes the results of 34 case studies performed
from the mid 1970 up to the present, focusing on
1) the environmental fate and transport of metals and
metalloids, 2) current methods used to study contam-
inant concentrations and particulate emissions, and 3)
the potential health and environmental risks associ-
ated with airborne mining-related contaminants. The
review also points out future research priorities (re-
ported in Section 3.1.2), and concludes that mining
activities play an important but underestimated role
in the generation of atmospheric dust and aerosols.
Dust and aerosol dispersion is best investigated
through integration of field data, physical approach-
es and computer modelling (Csavina et al., 2012).
The Dust Regional Atmospheric Model (DREAM)
can provide forecasts in both time and space of the
emission, transport and deposition of dust and aer-
osols (Nikovic et al., 2001). However, to date only
few attempts have been made to model atmospheric
particulate emissions from mine tailings. One such
model was presented by Kon et al. (2007).
Environmental Aspects of Mining
It is often assumed that air pollution in remote areas
is a recent problem related to modern industrial
activities. However, a study of Swedish lake sediments
showed that pre-industrial airborne emissions resulted
in lead concentrations that exceeded previous back-
ground concentrations by a factor of 20–30 as early
as 1000 to 2000 years ago. These emissions appear to
have been derived from lead production by Greek
and Roman cultures in continental Europe (Renberg
et al., 1994). This example of pre-industrial, airborne
emissions emphasizes the importance of determining
accurate pre-mining background concentrations in
mining areas, but also the difficulties involved in this
determination.
Environmental monitoring programmes at mining companies
Today mining companies are required to carry out
environmental monitoring programmes where
discharges and emissions are quantified in terms of
chemical composition and discharge rates. The Metals
Mining Sector of the Acid Drainage Technology
Initiative (ADTI–MMS) is developing a handbook
describing the best scientific and engineering practic-
es for the design of such programmes (McLemore et
al., 2009). An important aspect of such a programme
is that sample and data quality should be acceptable
for modelling and prediction studies.
During the last two to three decades, Swedish mining
companies have systematically collected and analysed
samples of water, biota and airborne particulate mat-
 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
ter close to mine sites. In general, both the quantity
and the quality of the data have improved over time.
These long-term datasets provide important informa-
tion on historical variations of emissions, and should
be used in future studies of mining-related environ-
mental effects and sustainability.
In contrast to Swedish authorities, Environment
Canada has developed guidelines for monitoring
environmental effects of metal mining (Environment
Canada, 2012).
Biogeochemical and ecological modelling
A large number of biogeochemical and ecological
numerical models are now available. Although these
models in most cases were not specifically devel-
oped for studies of mining-related environmental
issues, many of these models can be applied to study
various biogeochemical and ecological aspects related
to the dispersion of chemical compounds in waters
receiving mine effluents. Fundamentals of ecological
modelling are described in Jørgensen and Bendor-
icchio (2001), and a large number of studies have
been published (e.g. Asaeda et al., 2001). Five differ-
ent computer softwares/models are briefly described
below.
HYPE simulates water flow and substances on their
way from precipitation through soil, river and lakes
to a river outlet. The model also simulates concentra-
tions and river transport of the nutrients nitrogen and
phosphorus (Lindström et al., 2010).
PHREEQC is a computer programme designed
to perform a variety of aqueous geochemical cal-
culations (PHREEQC, 2014). The programme has
capabilities for speciation and saturation-index calcu-
lations, one-dimensional transport calculations etc.,
and has been used extensively to model mine water
compositions.
AQUATOX is a simulation model for aquatic sys-
tems, and predicts the fate of various pollutants, such
as nutrients and organic chemicals, and their effects
on the ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates and
aquatic plants (Fig. 4, AQUATOX, 2014a).
Figure 4. Modelling of ecological processes with AQUATOX (AQUATOX,
2014b).
MODFLOW is the USGS’s three-dimensional
finite-difference groundwater model, considered an
international standard for simulating and predict-
ing groundwater conditions and groundwater/sur-
face-water interactions (USGS, 2014b).
15
AERMOD Modeling System is a steady-state plume
model recommended by the US EPA for modelling of
atmospheric dispersion of aerosols. The model incor-
porates air dispersion based on planetary boundary
layer turbulence structure and scaling concepts, includ-
ing treatment of both surface and elevated sources, and
both simple and complex terrain (AERMOD, 2014).
In addition to the more general modelling software
mentioned above, models have also been developed
more specifically for mining-influenced waters. For
example, Chapra and Whitehead (2009) simulated the
transport and fate of cyanide in a Romanian river, but
the model is of general nature and it would be possi-
ble to apply the model to any pollutant with first-or-
der decay kinetics. Chlot et al. (2011) modelled
nitrogen transformations in waters receiving mine
effluents from the Boliden sulphide ore concentrator.
During the last 10–20 years, significant progress has
been made in the field of predictive modelling of
pit lake water quality (Castendyk and Eary, 2009).
However, in 2009 only one study had been published
on prediction of physical limnological conditions in
a pit lake that did not exist at the time of prediction.
Depending on pit lake volume, the time perspec-
Environmental Aspects of Mining
2. G ENERAL OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS AND ON-GOING ACTIVITIES RELATED TO MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
tive relevant to lake formation and biogeochemical
development ranges from years to decades. This
implies that global climate change must be taken into
account in predictive modelling of the development
of future as well as existing pit lakes.
Predictive modelling is an important tool in the
development of site closure plans and post-mining
rehabilitation of pit lakes. Today modern software
engineering techniques are employed to couple
different models together so that various hydrological
–biogeochemical aspects of pit lake processes can be
addressed (Hydrocomputing, 2014).
2.3.2 Ecological studies and biodiversity
Ecological effects of mining can derive from mainly
mine water effluents and airborne emissions exposing
organisms to the environmental conditions at mine
sites. The effects can be detected in both aquatic and
terrestrial systems and at small and large spatial scales,
16 respectively. Effect types range from elevated con-
centrations in biota, via physiological to behavioural
effects at the level of specimens, populations, commu-
nities and even whole ecosystems. Ultimately, effects
on biodiversity may be evident.
So far, most ecological studies have focused on the
impact of mining process water and drainage on
aquatic organisms. Nitrogen rich effluents general-
ly result in increased biomass of different organism
groups including phytoplankton and fish (Holopain-
en et al., 2003), which risks violating the demands set
out by the WFD. Trace elements in mining-affected
waters can, in addition to population densities (De
Jonge et al., 2008), also affect morphological traits
and can even result in deformations in the affected
species (Ferreira da Silva et al., 2009). Ecological
effects of trace elements in relation to the WFD are
however difficult to assess since most environmental
quality criteria are developed in relation to nutrients
(Mestre, 2009).
There are only few studies that have assessed the
impact of mining process water on riparian, wetland
or even terrestrial systems. A food chain risk analysis
in a mining-affected wetland in Montana, USA, did
not reveal any mining-related increased bioavailabil-
ity of several trace elements (Pascoe et al., 1994). In
contrast, Husson et al. (2014a) revealed high concen-
Environmental Aspects of Mining
trations of Cu, Cd and Zn in riparian and wetland
vegetation along Vormbäcken, the recipient of mine
effluents from the Kristineberg mining area, North-
ern Sweden. The concentrations of the trace elements
varied along the spatial gradient from the mine site
as well as among plant species, with willow species
(Salix spp.) having the highest concentrations (Hus-
son et al., 2014a). The concentrations of Cd in Salix
spp. were so high that they could potentially consti-
tute a health risk for humans if they eat moose that
has predominately browsed on willows from that area
(Göran Ericsson, personal communication).
Small mammals are keystone species in many eco-
systems due to their role as herbivores, dispersers of
fungi and viruses and prey for many predators. There-
fore, their study enables inferences of the whole-eco-
system effects of mining. In addition, small mammals
(voles, lemmings and shrews) have generally a small
home range, which makes them highly suitable study
organisms to investigate mining related impacts (see
also Rodushkin et al., 2011). Airborne emissions from
smelters affect trace element concentrations in differ-
ent organs of small mammals (Johnson et al., 1978)
as well as densities and community structure of small
mammals (Kataev et al., 1994). At mine sites, trace
elements even affect the genetic structure of small
mammals (Mussali-Galante et al., 2013).
During the last two decades there has been an
increasing interest in biodiversity and the need for
expressing the health of ecosystems and their in-
tegrity in terms of e.g. ecosystem functioning (syn.
ecosystem processes) and provided ecosystem servic-
es (Karr, 1993; Costanza et al., 1997; Haines-Young
and Potschin, 2013). Indices of stress (related to e.g.
concentrations of the hormone cortisol or incidence
of stress-related diseases) are an increasingly used as
a tool to assess ecosystem integrity (Amiard et al.,
2000). Direct assessments of stress in biota (especially
higher up in the food chain) related to mining are to
our knowledge missing. Lee and Bukaveckas (2002)
showed that leaf litter decomposition as a measure of
ecosystem functioning was lower in mining impacted
sites compared to reference sites. Generally, there is
however a lack in studies assessing ecosystem func-
tioning at mining affected areas, especially in those
using multi-functional approaches.
 3. GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE

3. Gaps in knowledge
A major aim of this report is to identify gaps in knowledge that will indicate important topics for a future
research on mining and sustainable development. This overview of gaps in knowledge is organized into
three sections dealing with 1) characterization of different types of emissions from mining activities, 2)
the dispersion of these emissions into terrestrial and aquatic systems and the atmosphere, and
3) biogeochemical and ecological effects of these emissions.

3.1 Characterization of emissions 3.1.1 Mine water effluents

Characterization of mine waste and emissions is im-
portant for several reasons, and is normally included
as a first step in studies of environmental effects of
mining operations. Solid mine wastes such as tailings
and waste rocks are characterized in terms of grain
size, mineralogy, chemical composition and acid-
generation to determine their potential as a source
of contamination. Emissions such as mine water
effluents and airborne emissions are also character-
ized with respect to the same properties to provide
information on their potential effects on terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems.
Mine waters are normally classified according to a
scheme based on pH, with the following four classes
of waters: a) extremely acid, b) acid, c) neutral to
alkaline, and d) saline (Morin and Hutt, 1997). Below
follows a discussion of major gaps in knowledge and
recommendations for future studies related to these
four classes of waters. Classes a) extremely acid and b)
acid are considered together due to the general sim-
ilarity of these two waters (low pH and high metal
17
concentrations).

Environmental Aspects of Mining

3. GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE
Extremely acid and acid waters (AMD)
• Regardless of the type of effluent studied, a general recom-
mendation is that screening analyses should be performed in
the initial stage of a study aiming to characterize mining-related
emissions. In a screening analysis, all elements that technically
can be determined with a particular analytical method are
included in the analysis. With a multi-element method such as
the Inductively Coupled Plasma technique, up to approximately
70 elements can be determined in a screening analysis. This
approach enables detection of less well-known, potentially
hazardous elements that may be present in effluents.
• Predictive modelling of biogeochemical conditions in pit lakes
has been performed in relatively few existing lakes, and predic-
tive, coupled hydrodynamic–physical limnological–geochemi-
cal–ecological models for future lakes are still generally lacking.
• A major data gap regarding sustainable development of pit
lakes is the general lack of long-term field data required to
compare and validate model predictions.
Neutral to alkaline waters
18 Provided that concentrations of pollutants toxic to bi-
ota are low to moderately high (Niyogi et al., 2002),
natural waters receiving neutral to alkaline, nutrient-
rich mine waters may be sensitive to eutrophication.
The following data gaps are identified regarding this
type of mine water effluent:
• Speciation data for N (total N, dissolved NO3 , NO2 , NH4 ) and
– – + • At many mine sites a large amount of biogeochemical and
P (total P, suspended P, dissolved orthophosphate) is needed as
input data for biogeochemical and ecological models.
• The N isotopic composition of mining-related N sources (mainly
ammonium-nitrate-based explosives and sodium cyanide)
should be determined. This will enable the use of N isotopes in
studies of N transforming reactions in receiving waters down-
stream of mine sites.
Saline waters
• Previous studies of mine waters have usually focused on
toxic trace metals. A major gap in knowledge regarding saline
mine waters is that the potential effects on freshwater biota of
increased concentrations and/or varying relative proportions of
major ions not normally considered to be toxic (e.g. Ca2+ and
SO42–) are poorly known.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
3.1.2 Airborne emissions
The review by Csavina et al. (2012) suggested the
following research priorities regarding characterization
of dust and aerosol emissions from mining operations:
• Size-resolved chemical analyses of dust/aerosol emissions
from mining operations are needed. Earlier studies based on
bulk collection of dust/aerosols do not fully show the related
environmental health hazards.
• Very few studies take a holistic approach at understanding dust
from mining operations, including source identification.
• Understanding the fine particle size fraction in dust/aerosols
should be prioritized in future research.
3.2 Dispersion of emissions
A study of the biogeochemical and ecological foot-
print of mining emissions requires knowledge of
transport distances and attenuation mechanisms of
these emissions in the receiving waters downstream
and/or downwind of mine sites. The following major
gaps in knowledge have been identified regarding
transport distances and attenuation mechanisms
responsible for the dispersion of mining-related water
effluents and airborne emissions.
3.2.1 Surface and ground waters
partly also biological data has been collected in environmental
monitoring programmes performed by mining companies. There
is a general need for an increased application of this data in
numerical models that can be used to identify major transport
pathways and attenuation mechanisms in clarification ponds
and receiving waters downstream of mine sites, as well as
ecological impacts.
• Tracer techniques based on mining-related elements (e.g.
Cl at LKAB mines) have been used, but should be developed
further (e.g. Nordstrom, 2011). Isotope tracer techniques that
can be used to determine sources and transport distances of
mining-related elements should be developed (e.g. isotopes of
Cl, N, S, and other elements).
• The quantitative importance of natural attenuation of N emis-
sions through biogeochemical transformation reactions such as
denitrification and anammox should be determined.
• At Swedish mine sites, limited groundwater quality data is
considered as a major gap in Swedish water quality monitoring
and management (Wolkersdorfer and Bowell, 2005).

• In Sweden, the assessment of water quality in relation to the
WFD is mainly focussed on eutrophication in general and phos-
phorous in particular (Naturvårdsverket 2007). The assessment
of ecological status at mine sites affected by trace elements
using these quality criteria is therefore not meaningful. In
addition, the existing criteria in relation to eutrophication are
not developed for water bodies with such skewed N/P ratios as
can be found in recipients affected by mining effluents. There
is a need for new quality criteria that are developed to assess
ecological status at mine sites.
• There is a strong need to assess ecosystem functioning and
ecosystem services in mining-affected recipients since diversity
per se has been shown to be a misleading indicator of ecologi-
cal integrity.
3.2.2 Aquatic-terrestrial linkages
along longitudinal and lateral gradients
• The environmental fate of nutrients and trace metals transport-
ed laterally, i.e. from water bodies via wetlands and riparian
zones into terrestrial systems including their respective biota
is largely unknown. This concerns especially the spatial and
temporal scale of the processes. Such knowledge is crucial for
the whole ecosystem impact assessment of mining.
• Lateral processes not only occur from water bodies to terrestrial
systems but also vice versa (e.g. via transport of dust deposition
and leaching), which also needs to be investigated.
• The spatio-temporal extent of aquatic-terrestrial linkages needs
to be assessed. Over which spatial scales are these linkages of
ecological relevance (e.g. with respect to ecosystem functioning
and ecosystem integrity) and for how long do they last?
• Determination of the ecological impact of dust and other
emissions from mine sites in relation to food chain respons-
es and trophic cascades in aquatic and terrestrial systems,
i.e. from primary producers (vegetation) via detritivores (e.g.
invertebrates), herbivores (voles, lemmings, hares), consumers
(fish) to predators (e.g. shrews). The severity of the ecological
impact needs to be assessed. Are the effects limited to elevated
concentrations of environmentally relevant compounds in biota,
are they expressed in physiological or behavioural changes or
even toxic reactions? Do potential adverse effects in biota put a
public health problem?
3. GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE
3.2.3 Airborne emissions
The review by Csavina et al. (2012) suggested the
following research priority regarding dispersion of
airborne emissions from mining operations:
• Computer modelling should be used to study atmospheric par-
ticulate emissions from mine sites. Emissions from mine tailings
piles have been modelled (Kon et al., 2007), but this type of
modelling should also be applied at Swedish mine sites and be
integrated with field studies.
3.3 Biogeochemical and ecological effects
The term biogeochemical effects is used here to
describe the effects and fate of mining-related
chemicals during and after transport from a mine
site (e.g. Nordstrom, 2011). Biogeochemical effects
thus involve speciation, bioavailability, sedimentation,
permanent/non-permanent removal, and remobiliza-
tion of chemical compounds in receiving waters. The
resulting concentrations of these compounds in water,
19
sediments and biota are also included. The following
major gaps in knowledge have been identified regard-
ing the biogeochemical effects of mining operations
in aquatic systems located downstream of mine sites.
• Screening analyses should be performed of waters and lake
sediments in aquatic systems downstream of mine sites, with
the aim of detecting less well-known, potentially hazardous
elements that may be present downstream of mine sites.
• Water and sediment concentrations of mining-related com-
pounds should be determined and compared to normal
background (pre-mining) concentrations of these compounds.
In cases where quantitative data on pre-mining conditions is
limited or lacking, the use of natural analogues and modelling
should be considered (Alpers and Nordstrom, 2000). The
geographical extent of elevated concentrations from mine sites
should also be determined.
• The bioavailability of mining-related compounds dissolved in
water as well as the extent of remobilization of compounds
from lake sediments should be determined. For metals, future
research should aim towards an improved assessment of
the metal speciation in the exposure media, and a better
understanding of the physiological effects in biota and biotas’
adaptation to trace metals.
• The question of limiting nutrient has important implications
for mitigation of eutrophication in aquatic systems receiving
nutrient-rich mine waters, and should be investigated further.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
4. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

4. Suggestions for future work

Future research focusing on the biogeochemical and ecological footprint of mining should be
performed at a mine site suitable for studies of combined biogeochemical and ecological effects
of mining. A number of criteria can be set up for the choice of a site suitable for such a study:

emissions in the receiving waters downstream of the

• Mining operations should have been performed during a long
period of time, so that any potential mining-related effects
have developed to a measurable level.
• The mine site should be located in an otherwise relatively
pristine area, with few other industries complicating the
interpretation of the environmental record.
• Environmental monitoring data and previous environmental
studies should be available dating back a considerable period
of time from the present.
mine. Biogeochemical and ecological data should
be combined to study possible connections between
biogeochemical and ecological environmental effects
in the study area. To obtain a broad perspective of the
biogeochemical and ecological footprint of mining,
the overall strategy of the project should be to com-
bine and, as far as possible, integrate three principally
different approaches: 1) field sampling/field data,
2) laboratory and field experiments, and 3) computer

20
Based on these criteria, the Kiruna mine site and its simulations (Fig. 5).
surroundings is an example of an appropriate as a case
study for an environmental impact assessment of min-
ing (EIA, 2014). Mining operations began in 1890,
when the Kiruna area can be considered to have been
entirely pristine, with practically no local anthropo-
FIELD DATA
genic influence. In addition, environmental moni-
toring data collected by the LKAB mining company
is available during the last three to four decades. A
number of environmental studies have also been
performed in the Kiruna area during the last decades LAB and
(e.g. Chlot, 2013; Husson et al., 2014b). FIELD COMPUTER
Future research should focus on the identified EXPERIMENTS SIMULATIONS
research gaps judged as critical for a biogeochemical
and ecological impact assessment of mining oper-
ations. State-of-the Art analytical techniques and
modelling software should be used to characterize
emissions from the Kiruna mine and to model trans- Figure 5. Three principally different approaches to be used in a study of the
port distances and attenuation mechanisms of these biogeochemical and ecological footprint of mining.

Environmental Aspects of Mining


5. Conclusions
National and international environmental objectives,
directives and legislation
There are several international legal documents
on environmental issues that are directly related to
mining operations. Two important Directives are the
Water Framework Directive (WFD) (European Un-
ion, 2000) and the Habitat Directive (HD) (European
Union, 1992). The WFD states that natural waters
receiving mine effluents should reach at least good
ecological status, while the HD deals with the con-
servation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna.
National and international initiatives
The importance of sustainability in mining is clear-
ly recognized by government agencies, the mining
industry and universities. Several countries have
developed national mineral strategies. Sweden´s min-
eral strategy, published in 2013, describes five action
points, one of which is research. In both Sweden and
Finland the national mineral strategies are matched
by mining research programmes.
To tackle such a big issue as sustainable mining
including the environmental, social and economic
footprint of mining, there is an obvious need for a
coherent research programme focusing on mining
and sustainable development.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Academic research
During the last decades a considerable amount of
academic research has been performed on mining-
related environmental issues. This research has been
carried out both within the framework of large, co-
ordinated research programmes such as the Canadian
MEND programme (Mine Environment Neutral
Drainage) (MEND, 2014) as well as a large number of
separate studies. In addition, mining-related environ-
mental research is performed by organizations such as
the US Geological Survey (USGS, 2014a). Regarding
academic research on environmental issues, a number
of gaps in knowledge have been indicated (summa-
rized in Section 3).
Future work
21
Future research should focus on research gaps judged
as critical for an environmental impact assessment
(EIA, 2014). The Kiruna mine site and its surround-
ings is an example of an appropriate study site to
assess the biogeochemical and ecological footprint
and environmental sustainability of mining. State-of-
the Art analytical techniques and modelling software
should be used to study emissions, transport distances,
attenuation mechanisms, and ecological effects in the
receiving waters and their riparian zones downstream
of the mine.
Environmental Aspects of Mining
8. REFERENCES
6. References
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Amiard, J.-C., Caquet, T., Lagadic, L., 2000. Use of Biomarkers for Environ-
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Buxton, A., 2012. MMSD+10: Reflecting on a decade of mining and
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Castendyk, D. N., Eary, L. E., 2009. Mine Pit Lakes. Characteristics,
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