Orbital Mechanics!

Space System Design, MAE 342, Princeton University!

Robert Stengel

Conic section orbits

Equations of motion
Momentum and energy
Kepler’s Equation
Position and velocity in orbit

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html 1

Orbits 101
Satellites Escape and Capture
(Comets, Meteorites)

2
Two-Body Orbits are Conic Sections

Classical Orbital Elements

Dimension and Time
a : Semi-major axis
e : Eccentricity
t p : Time of perigee passage
Orientation
! : Longitude of the Ascending/Descending Node
i : Inclination of the Orbital Plane
" : Argument of Perigee
4
 Orientation of an Elliptical Orbit

!irst Poin"
of Aries

Orbits 102
(2-Body Problem)
•! e.g.,
–! Sun and Earth or
–! Earth and Moon or
–! Earth and Satellite
•! Circular orbit: radius and velocity
are constant
•! Low Earth orbit: 17,000 mph = 24,000
ft/s = 7.3 km/s
•! Super-circular velocities
–! Earth to Moon: 24,550 mph = 36,000
ft/s = 11.1 km/s
–! Escape: 25,000 mph = 36,600 ft/s =
11.3 km/s
•! Near escape velocity, small changes
have huge influence on apogee
6
 Newton’s 2nd Law
!! Particle of fixed mass (also called a point mass)
acted upon by a force changes velocity with
!! acceleration proportional to and in direction of force
!! Inertial reference frame
!! Ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of the
particle: F = m a
d dv ( t )
!" mv ( t ) #$ = m = ma ( t ) = F ! v (t ) $ ! f $
dt dt x
d # & # x &
! fx #
m # vy ( t ) & = # fy &
% &
F = % fy & = force vector dt # & # &
% f & #" vz ( t ) f
&% #" z &%
%" z &$
7

Equations of Motion for a Particle

Integrating the acceleration (Newton’s 2nd Law)
allows us to solve for the velocity of the particle
! f x m $ ! ax $
dv ( t ) 1 # & # &
= v! ( t ) = F = # fy m & = # ay &
dt m # f m & # a &
#" z &% #" z &%

T dv ( t ) T T 1
v (T ) = ! dt + v ( 0 ) = ! a ( t ) dt + v ( 0 ) = ! F dt + v ( 0 )
0 dt 0 0 m

3 components of velocity
! v (T ) $ ! a (t ) $ ! v (0) $ ! f (t ) m $ ! v (0) $
# x & T#
x
& # x & T # x
& # x &
# vy ( T ) & = ' # ay ( t ) & dt + # vy ( 0 ) & = ' # fy ( t ) m & dt + # vy ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # & 0# & # &
#" vz (T ) &% #" az ( t ) &% #" vz ( 0 ) &% #" fz ( t ) m &% #" vz ( 0 ) &% 8
Equations of Motion for a Particle
Integrating the velocity allows us to solve for the
position of the particle

! x! ( t ) $ ! vx ( t ) $
dr ( t ) # & # &
= r! ( t ) = v ( t ) = # y! ( t ) & = # vy ( t ) &
dt # & # &
#" z! ( t ) &% #" vz ( t ) &%

T dr ( t ) T
r (T ) = ! dt + r ( 0 ) = ! v dt + r ( 0 )
0 dt 0

3 components of position
! x (T ) $ ! v (t ) $ ! x (0) $
x
# & T# & # &
# y (T ) & = ' # vy ( t ) & dt + # y ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # &
#" z (T ) &% #" vz ( t ) &% #" z ( 0 ) &% 9

Spherical Model of the

Rotating Earth
Spherical model of earth

s surface,
earth-fixed (rotating) coordinates

! xo $ ! cos LE cos ' E $

# & # &
R E = # yo & = # cos LE sin ' E &R
# z & # sin LE &
" o %E " %

LE : Latitude (from Equator), deg

! E : Longitude (from Prime Meridian), deg
R : Radius (from Earth's center), deg

Earth's rotation rate, ! , is 15.04 deg/hr

10
 Non-Rotating (Inertial) Reference
Frame for the Earth
Celestial longitude, !C, measured
from First Point of Aries on the
Celestial Sphere at Vernal Equinox

( )
!C = ! E + " t # t epoch = ! E + " $t

11

Transformation Effects of Rotation

Transformation from inertial frame, I, to
Earth’s rotating frame, E
$ cos !"t sin !"t 0 ' $ cos !"t sin !"t 0 ' $ xo '
R E = & # sin !"t )R = & )& y )
& cos !"t 0 ) I & # sin !"t cos !"t 0 )& o )
&% 0 0 1 )( &% 0 0 1 )( & zo )
% (I

Location of satellite, rotating and inertial frames

" cos LE cos ! E % " cos LE cos !C %

$ ' $ '
rE = $ cos LE sin ! E ' ( R + Altitude ); rI = $ cos LE sin !C ' ( R + Altitude )
$ sin LE ' $ sin LE '
# & # &

Orbital calculations generally are made in an

inertial frame of reference 12
 Gravity Force Between Two Point
Masses, e.g., Earth and Moon
Magnitude of gravitational attraction

Gm1m2
F=
r2
G : Gravitational constant = 6.67 ! 10 "11 Nm 2 /kg 2
m1 : Mass of 1st body = 5.98 ! 10 24 kg for Earth
m2 : Mass of 2 nd body = 7.35 ! 10 22 kg for Moon
r : Distance between centers of mass of m1 and m2 , m
13

Acceleration Due To Gravity

Gm1m2
F2 = m2 a1on2 =
r2 “Inverse-square
Law”
Gm µ
a1on2 = 2 1 ! 21
r r
µ1 = Gm1
Gravitational parameter of 1st mass

At Earth’s surface, acceleration due to gravity is

µE 3.98 ! 1014 m 3 s 2
ag ! goEarth = 2 = 9.798 m s
2
=
Rsurface
2
( 6, 378,137m )
14
 Gravitational Force Vector
of the Spherical Earth
Force always directed toward the Earth’s center
( x +
µ E " rI % µE * -
Fg = !m 2 $ ' = !m 3 * y - (vector), as rI = rI
rI # rI & rI
*) z -,
I

(x, y, z) establishes the

direction of the local vertical
! x $
# &
# y & ! cos LE cos ' I $
rI #" z &% # &
# cos LE sin ' I
I
= = &
rI x I2 + yI2 + zI2 # &
sin LE 15
" %

Equations of Motion for a Particle

in an Inverse-Square-Law Field
Integrating the acceleration (Newton’s 2nd Law)
allows us to solve for the velocity of the particle
( x +
dv ( t ) 1 µ E " rI % µE * -
= v! ( t ) = Fg = ! 2 $ ' = ! 3 * y -
dt m rI # rI & rI
*) z -,

T dv ( t ) T T 1
v (T ) = ! dt + v ( 0 ) = ! a ( t ) dt + v ( 0 ) = ! F dt + v ( 0 )
0 dt 0 0 m

3 components of velocity
! v (T ) $ ! x r3 $ ! v (0) $
# x & T#
I
& # x &
# vy ( T ) & = ' µ E ( # y rI 3 & dt + # vy ( 0 ) &
0
# & # & # &
#" vz (T ) #" z rI #" vz ( 0 ) &%
3
&% &% 16
 Equations of Motion for a Particle
in an Inverse-Square-Law Field
As before; Integrating the velocity allows us to
solve for the position of the particle
! x! ( t ) $ ! vx ( t ) $
dr ( t ) # & # &
= r! ( t ) = v ( t ) = # y! ( t ) & = # vy ( t ) &
dt # & # &
#" z! ( t ) &% #" vz ( t ) &%

T dr ( t ) T
r (T ) = ! dt + r ( 0 ) = ! v dt + r ( 0 )
0 dt 0

3 components of position
! x (T ) $ ! v (t ) $ ! x (0) $
x
# & T# & # &
# y (T ) &=' # v y (t ) & dt + # y ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # &
#" z (T ) &% #" vz ( t ) &% #" z ( 0 ) &% 17

Dynamic Model with Inverse-

Square-Law Gravity
No aerodynamic or thrust force
Neglect motions in the z direction
msatellite << mEarth
Dynamic Equations Example:
Initial Conditions at Equator
v!x ( t ) = ! µ E x I ( t ) rI 3 ( t )
vx ( 0 ) = 7.5, 8, 8.5 km/s
v!y ( t ) = ! µ E yI ( t ) rI 3 ( t )
vy ( 0 ) = 0
x! I ( t ) = vx ( t )
x (0) = 0
y! I ( t ) = vy ( t )
y ( 0 ) = 6, 378 km = R
where rI ( t ) = x ( t ) + y ( t )
2
I
2
I
18
 Equatorial Orbits Calculated with
Inverse-Square-Law Model

19

Work
“Work” is a scalar measure of change in energy
With constant force,
In one dimension
W12 = F ( r2 ! r1 ) = F"r

In three dimensions
W12 = FT ( r2 ! r1 ) = FT "r
With varying force, work
is the integral

r2 r2
" dx %
W12 = ! F dr = !
T
( ) $
fx dx + fy dy + fz dz , dr = $ dy '
'
r1 r1
$# dz '&
20
 Conservative Force
Iron Filings
!! Assume that the 3-D force Around Magnet
field is a function of position

F = F(r)
!! The force field is conservative if Force Emanating
from Source
r2 r1

! F (T
r ) dr + ! ( r ) dr = 0
F T

r1 r2

… for any path between

r1 and r2 and back
21

Gravitational Force is
Gradient of a Potential, V(r)

Gravity potential, V(r), is a function only of position

µE " # µ & "

Fg = !m r = % m E ( ! V (r)
rI 3 I
"r $ r ' "r

22
 Gravitational Force Field
Gravitational force field
µE
Fg = !m rI
rI 3

Gravitational force field is

conservative because
r2 r
! 1
!
"r !r V ( r ) drI # " !r V ( r ) drI =
1 r2

r2 r
µE 2
µ
# " m 3 rI drI + " m E3 rI drI = 0
r1
rI r1
rI

… for any path between

r1 and r2 and back
23

Potential Energy in
Gravitational Force Field
Potential energy, V or PE, is defined with
respect to a reference point, r0

PE ( r0 ) = V ( r0 ) = V0 ( ! "U 0 )

# µ & # µ & µ µ
!PE ! V ( r2 ) " V ( r1 ) = " % m + V0 ( + % m + V0 ( = "m + m
$ r2 ' $ r1 ' r2 r1

24
 Kinetic Energy
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law to the definition of Work

dr dv
= v; dr = vdt F=m
dt dt
1 2 2 1
r2 t2 T t
" dv %
W12 = ! F dr = ! m $ ' v dt = mv = m "# v 2 ( t 2 ) ! v 2 ( t1 ) $%
T
# dt &
r 1 t 1 2 t1 2
t2 t
1 d T 1 2 d 2 1
= m ! ( v v ) dt = m ! ( v ) dt
2 t1 dt 2 t1 dt = m "# v22 ! v12 $% ! T2 ! T1 ! &KE
2
Work = integral from 1st to 2nd time
T (= KE) is the kinetic energy of the point mass, m
25

Total Energy in Point-Mass

Gravitational Field
!! Potential energy of mass, µ
m, depends only on the V = PE = !m
gravitational force field r

!! Kinetic energy of mass, m,

1 2
depends only on the velocity T ! KE = mv
magnitude measured in an 2
inertial frame of reference
E = PE + KE
!! Total energy, E, is the µ 1
sum of the two: = !m + mv 2
r 2
= Constant

26
 Interchange Between Potential and
Kinetic Energy in a Conservative System
E 2 ! E1 = 0
" µ 1 2% " µ 1 2%
$# !m r + 2 mv2 '& ! $# !m r + 2 mv1 '& = 0
2 1

P2

" µ µ% " 1 2 1 2%
$# !m + m = $ mv2 ! mv1 '
r2 r1 '& # 2 2 &
PE2 ! PE1 = KE2 ! KE1
P1

27

Specific Energy…
Energy per unit of the satellite’s mass

E S = PES + KES P1

1 " mµ 1 2 %
= $# ! + mv '
m r 2 &
µ 1
= ! + v2
P2

r 2
28
 Angular Momentum of a Particle
(Point Mass)

h = ( r ! mv ) = m ( r ! v ) = m ( r ! r! )
29

Angular Momentum
of a Particle
•! Moment of linear momentum of
a particle
–! Mass times components of the
velocity that are perpendicular to
the moment arm

h = ( r ! mv ) = m ( r ! v )
•! Cross Product: Evaluation of a determinant with
unit vectors (i, j, k) along axes, (x, y, z) and (vx, vy,
vz) projections on to axes
i j k
r!v= x y z ( ) ( )
= yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
vx vy vz

30
 Cross Product in
Column Notation
Cross product identifies perpendicular
components of r and v

i j k
r!v= x y z ( ) ( )
= yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
vx vy vz

Column % z(
# yv " zv
y ) &
( " 0 !z y % " vx %
notation $ '$ '
r ! v = % ( zvx " xvz ) ( =$ z 0 !x ' $ vy '
% (
(
% xv " yv ) ( $ !y x 0 ' $ vz '
%$ y x
(' # & $# '&
31

Angular Momentum Vector is

Perpendicular to Both Moment
Arm and Velocity
% (
# yv " zv
z y ) &
(
h = mr ! v = m % ( zvx " xvz ) (
% (
%$ (
% xv " yv
y x ) (
('
# 0 "z y & # vx &
% (% (
= m% z v
0 "x ( % y ( = mr! v
% "y x 0 ( % vz (
$ ' %$ ('
32
 Specific Angular Momentum
Vector of a Satellite
… is the angular momentum per unit of the satellite’s
mass, referenced to the center of attraction

m
hS = r ! v = r ! v = r ! r!
m
Perpendicular to the orbital plane

33

Equations of Motion for a Particle

in an Inverse-Square-Law Field
Acceleration is

µ " rI ( t ) % µ
a ( t ) = v! ( t ) = !!
r (t ) = ! 2 $ ' = ! r (t )
r (t ) # r (t ) & r (t )
3

… or

µ
r+
!! r=0
r3
34
 Cross Products of Radius
and Radius Rate
Then

" µ %
r ! $!!
r + 3 r' = 0
# r &

r!r=0 r! ! r! = 0
… because they are parallel

Chain Rule for Differentiation

d
( r ! r! ) = ( r! ! r! ) + ( r ! !!r ) = ( r ! !!r )
dt 35

Specific Angular Momentum

" µ % µ
r ! $!!
r + 3 r ' = ( r ! !!
r) + 3 (r ! r)
# r & r
0
d dh
= ( r ! r! ) = S = 0
dt dt
Consequently
h S = Constant
h S ! h = ( r ! r" ) (Perpendicular to the plane of motion)

Orbital plane is fixed in inertial space

36
 Eccentricity Vector is a
Constant of Integration
! µ $ µ
r + 3 r & ' h = !!
#"!! r'h+ 3 r'h = 0
r % r
µ µ
r!h="
!! r ! h = " 3 r ! ( r ! r! )
r 3
r
With triple vector product identity (see Supplement)
µ µ d # r&
r!h="
!! r ! ( r ! r! ) = " 2 ( rr
! " r!r ) = µ % (
r 3
r dt $ r '
Integrating
#r &
" (!!r ! h) dt = r! ! h = µ %$ r + e('
e = Eccentricity vector (Constant of integration )
37

Significance of Eccentricity Vector

T
) # r &, ) # r &,
+ r
! ! h " µ % + e ( h = 0 because r
! ! h " µ %$ + e (' . = 0
* $r ' .- +
* r -

µr T h
! ( r! " h ) h # # µ eT h = 0
T

r
0 0

!" µeT h = 0
!! e is perpendicular to angular
momentum,
!! which means it lies in the orbital plane
!! Its angle provides a reference direction
for the perigee 38
 General Polar Equation
of a Conic Section
) # r &,
r T + r! ! h " µ % + e ( . = 0
* $r '-

1st term is angular momentum squared

r T ( r! ! h ) = hT ( r ! r! ) = hT h = h 2

Then
" rT r T %
h ! µ$
2
+ r e' = 0 h 2 = µ ( r + r T e ) = µ ( r + recos! ) = 0
# r &

h2 µ
r=
1+ ecos!
39

Elliptical Planetary Orbits

!! Assume satellite mass is negligible
compared to Earth’s mass
!! Then
!! Center of mass of the 2 bodies is at
Earth’s center of mass
!! Center of mass is at one of ellipse’s
focal points
!! Other focal point is “vacant”

p h2 µ
r= = , m or km
1+ e cos! 1+ e cos!
! : True Anomaly =
Angle from perigee direction, deg or rad
40
 Properties of Elliptical Orbits
Eccentricity can be determined
from apogee and perigee radii

ra ! rp ra ! rp
e= =
ra + rp 2a

rp = a / (1! e) ra = a / (1+ e)

Semi-major axis is the

average of the two
ra + rp
a=
2 41

Properties of Elliptical Orbits

!! Semi-latus rectum, p, can be
expressed as a function of h
or a and e

p = h 2 µ = a (1! e2 )
!! Semi-minor axis, b, can be
expressed as a function of ra
and rp
b = ra rp

!! Area of the ellipse, A, is

A = ! a b = ! a 2 1" e2 , m 2
42
Energy is Inversely Proportional to
the Semi-Major Axis
At the periapsis, rp

r!p = 0 and v = rp!! p p = h 2 µ = a (1! e2 )

1 µ 1 h2 µ
( )
2
E S " E = rp!! p " = " rp = a (1! e )
2 rp 2 rp2 rp
1 µ
E=
2rp2
µ (
p ! 2 µ rp = )
2a (1! e )
2 #(1! e ) ! 2 (1! e ) %
" 2
$

µ (1! e)
=!
2a (1! e )

µ
E =!
2a 43

Classification of Conic Section

Orbits
Orbit Shape Eccentricity, e Energy, E! Semi-Major Semi-Latus
Axis, a Rectum, p
Circle 0 <0 >0 a

Ellipse 0<e<1 <0 >0 a(1– e2)

Parabola 1 0 Undefined 2rp

("!)
Hyperbola >1 >0 <0 a(1– e2)

44
“Vis Viva (Living Force) Integral”
Velocity is a function of radius and
specific energy

1 2 µ !µ $
v = +E v = 2# + E &
2 r "r %
!! Specific total energy, E, is µ
inversely proportional to the E =!
semi-major axis 2a

!! Velocity is a function of " 2 1%

radius and semi-major axis v = µ$ ! '
# r a&
45

Maximum and Minimum Velocities

on an Ellipse
Velocity at periapsis

" 2 1% " 2 1%
vp = µ $ ! ' = µ $ ! '
# rp a & # a (1! e) a &

µ (1+ e)
=
a (1! e)
Velocity at apoapsis

" 2 1% µ (1! e)
va = µ $ ! ' =
# ra a & a (1+ e)

46
Velocities at Periapses and Infinity
of Parabola and Hyperbola
Parabola (a " ")

2µ
vp = v! = 0
rp
Hyperbola (a < 0)

" 2 1% µ
vp = µ $ ! ' v! = "
# rp a & a

47

Relating Time and Position in

Elliptical Orbit
Rearrange and integrate angular momentum
over time and angle

d! d ( Ellipse Area )
h = µ p = r2 =2
dt dt
tf "f "f
r2 p3 d"
! dt = !
to "o µp
d" =
µ "!o (1+ ecos" )2

… but difficult to integrate analytically

48
Anomalies of an Elliptical Orbit
Angles measured from last periapsis
! (or " ): True Anomaly
E (or # ): Eccentric Anomaly
M : Mean Anomaly

49

Kepler’s Equation for the

Mean Anomaly
M = E ! esin E
From the diagram,

ae + ( p ! r ) e a ! r
cos E = =
a ae
r = a (1! cos E )
r! = E! aesin E
50
 Relationship of Time to
Eccentric Anomaly
µ 1 " 2 h2 %
E =! = r! + 2 ' ! µr
2a 2 $# r &
where h 2 = µa (1! e2 )

(" 2 1 % +
then r 2 r!2 = µ *$ ! ' r 2 ! a (1! e2 ) -
) r a
# & ,
2
a3 dE
leading to (1! ecos E )2 "$# %'& = 1
µ dt
or

µ
dt = (1! ecos E ) dE
a3 51

Integrating the Prior Result …

t1 E
µ 1

!
t0
a3
dt = !E (1" ecos E ) dE
0

µ E1
3 ( 1
t " t 0 ) = ( E " esin E ) E = M 1 " M 0
a 0

Time is proportional to Mean Anomaly

M1 ! M 0 M1 ! M 0
(t1 ! t0 ) = or t1 = t 0 +
µ a3 µ a3
Orbital Period, P
µ 2"
3 (
P ! 0 ) = ( E ! esin E ) 0 = 2"
a
P = 2" a 3 µ 52
 Orbital Period

Orbital period is related to the total energy

a3 "µ2
P = 2! =! where E < 0 for an ellipse
µ 2E 3
Mean Motion, n, is the inverse of the Period

a 3 2!
P = 2! ! where n is the Mean Motion
µ n
53

Position and Velocity in Orbit at Time, t

Mean Anomaly, given time from perigee passage, tp
µ
M (t ) =
a3
(
t ! tp )
Eccentric Anomaly, E(t), given Mean Anomaly, M(t)
E ( t ) ! esin E ( t ) = M ( t )
Newton’s method of successive approximation,
using M(t) as starting guess for E(t)
Eo ( t ) = M ( t ) + esin M ( t )
Iterate until !M i < Tolerance
!M i = M ( t ) " #$ Ei ( t ) " esin Ei ( t ) %&
!Ei+1 = !M i #$1" ecos Ei ( t ) %&
Ei+1 ( t ) = Ei ( t ) + !Ei+1 54
Position and Velocity in Orbit at Time, t
Calculate True Anomaly, given Eccentric Anomaly

# 1+ e E (t ) &
! ( t ) = 2 tan % tan
"1
(
$ 1" e 2 '

Compute magnitude of radius

a (1! e2 )
r (t ) =
1+ ecos" ( t )
55

Position and Velocity in Orbit at Time, t

Radius vector, in the orbital plane

! x (t ) $ ! r ( t ) cos' ( t ) $
r (t ) = # &=# &
# y (t ) & # r ( t ) sin ' ( t ) &
" % " %
Velocity vector, in the orbital plane

! v (t ) $
x µ ! ' sin ( ( t ) $
v (t ) = # &= # &
# vy ( t ) & p # e + cos( ( t ) &
" % " %
see Weisel, Spaceflight Dynamics,
1997, pp. 64-66

56
 !ext Time:
"lanetary Defense

57

#upplemental Ma$rial

58
 First Point of Aries!
(Ecliptic Intercept at Right)"

59

Dimension of energy?"
Scalar (1 x 1)"
Dimension of linear momentum?"
Vector (3 x 1)"
Dimension of angular momentum?"
Vector (3 x 1)"
60
Sub-Orbital (Sounding) Rockets
1945 - Present

NASA Wallops Island

Control Center

Canadian LTV
Black Brant XII Scout
61

MATLAB Code for Flat-

Earth Trajectories
Script for
Script for Numerical Solution
Analytic Solution
tspan = 40; % Time span, s
g = 9.8; xo = [10;100;0;0]; % Init. Cond.
t = 0:0.1:40; [t1,x1] = ode45('FlatEarth',tspan,xo);

vx0 = 10; Function for

vz0 = 100;
x0 = 0; Numerical Solution
z0 = 0;
function xdot = FlatEarth(t,x)
% x(1) = vx
vx1 = vx0; % x(2) = vz
vz1 = vz0 – g*t; % x(3) = x
x1 = x0 + vx0*t; % x(4) = z
z1 = z0 + vz0*t - 0.5*g*t.* t;
g = 9.8;
xdot(1) = 0;
xdot(2) = -g;
xdot(3) = x(1);
xdot(4) = x(2);
xdot = xdot'; 62
end
 Trajectories Calculated
with Flat-Earth Model
!! Constant gravity, g, is the only force in the
model, i.e., no aerodynamic or thrust force
!! Can neglect motions in the y direction

Dynamic Equations
Analytic (Closed-Form) Solution
v x ( t ) = v x0
v!z ( t ) = !g ( z positive up ) v x ( T ) = v x0
x! ( t ) = vx ( t ) T
z! ( t ) = vz ( t ) vz (T ) = vz0 ! " g dt = vz0 ! gT
0
Initial Conditions
x ( T ) = x 0 + v x0 T
v x ( 0 ) = v x0
T
vz ( 0 ) = vz0 z (T ) = z0 + vz0 T ! " gt dt = z0 + vz0 T ! gT 2 2
x ( 0 ) = x0 0

z ( 0 ) = z0 63

Trajectories Calculated
with Flat-Earth Model
vx ( 0 ) = 10m / s
vz ( 0 ) = 100, 150, 200m / s
x (0) = 0
z (0) = 0

64
 MATLAB Code for Spherical-Earth
Trajectories
Script for Numerical Solution
R = 6378; % Earth Surface Radius, km
tspan = 6000; % seconds
options = odeset('MaxStep', 10)
xo = [7.5;0;0;R];
[t1,x1] = ode15s('RoundEarth',tspan,xo,options);
for i = 1:length(t1)
v1(i) = sqrt(x1(i,1)*x1(i,1) + x1(i,2)*x1(i,2));
r1(i) = sqrt(x1(i,3)*x1(i,3) + x1(i,4)*x1(i,4));
end

function xdot = RoundEarth(t,x)

% x(1) = vx
% x(2) = vy
% x(3) = x
% x(4) = y
Function for mu = 3.98*10^5; % km^2/s^2

Numerical Solution
r = sqrt(x(3)^2 + x(4)^2);

xdot(1) = -mu * x(3) / r^3;

xdot(2) = -mu * x(4) / r^3;
xdot(3) = x(1);
xdot(4) = x(2);
xdot = xdot';
end 65

Equations that Describe Ellipses

x 2 y2
+ 2 =1
a b
2

a : Semi - major axis, m or km y

b
o x
b : Semi - minor axis, m or km a

x (! ) = a cos (! )
y (! ) = b sin (! )
! : Angle from x - axis (origin at center) rad
66
 Constructing Ellipses

F1P1 + F2 P1 = F1P2 + F2 P2 = 2a
Foci (from center),
! xf $ ! 2 $ ! $
& = # ' a ' b &, # a2 ' b2 &
2
#
# yf & 0 0
" %1,2 "# &% "# &%

String, Tacks, and Pen

Archimedes Trammel
Hypotrochoid

67

Ellipses

Semi - latus rectum ("The Parameter"),

b2
p= , m
a

b2
Eccentricity, e = 1! 2
a
b2
= 1! e; b = a 1! e
a2

68
How Do We Know that Gravitational
Force is Conservative?
Because the force is the derivative (with
respect to r) of a scalar function of r called
the potential, V(r):
µ µ
V ( r ) = !m + Vo = !m 1 2 + Vo
r (r r)
T

" !V !x % " x %
!V ( r ) $ ' µ$ '
= $ !V !y ' = m 3 $ y ' = (Fg
!r $ !V !z ' r
$# z '&
# &
This derivative is also called the gradient
of V with respect to r 69

Conservation of Energy
Energy is conserved in an elastic collision, i.e. no
losses due to friction, air drag, etc.
“Newton’s Cradle” illustrates interchange of
potential and kinetic energy in a gravitational field

70
Examples of Circular Orbit Periods
for Earth and Moon
Period, min
Altitude above
Surface, km Earth Moon
0 84.5 108.5
100 86.5 118
1000 105.1 214.6
10000 347.7 1905

71

Typical Satellite Orbits

GPS
Constellation
26,600 km Sun-
Synchronous
Orbit 72
Geo-Synchronous Ground Track

Geo-
Synchronous
Ground Track
42, 164 km

Marco
Polo-1 & 2

73

Background Math"

Triple Vector Product Identity"

a ! (b ! c) " (a i c) b # (a i b) c
= ( aT c ) b # ( aT b ) c

Dot Product of Radius and Rate"

dr
r r! = r i r! = r
T

dt 74