Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Reduction of the NOx emissions in vehicle diesel engine in order to fulfill

future rules concerning emissions released into air
Juraj Sinay, Michal Puškár ⁎, Melichar Kopas
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, TU Košice, Letná 9, 040 01 Košice, Slovak Republic

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• The article deals with possible solution

of the cause “dieselgate”.
• High values of NOx were eliminated by
software installed in vehicles.
• The study is focused on emissions of die-
sel engine using experimental fuels.
• Results of study present possibilities for
solution of emission problems.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the past period occurred information about a fact that in some of the motorcars was installed a software, which
Received 26 November 2017 enabled to hide the over-limit values of the nitrogen oxides during the emission testing process. This affair is
Received in revised form 16 December 2017 called “dieselgate”. It is a well-known fact that the actual emission limits are very hard and there is arising a se-
Accepted 21 December 2017
rious problem for automobile factories to meet the demanding emission requirements. The emission standard
Available online xxxx
Euro is an obligatory standard, which is valid within the European Union. On the present there is valid the newest
Editor: P. Kassomenos standard Euro 6, which should help to eliminate most of the undesirable substances that are influencing quality
of air. However, already in this year or during the next year 2018 there will be implemented a new, stricter emis-
Keywords: sion standard Euro 7 in the EU. From this reason started to be used some of the alternative fuels in this branch.
Reduction There was performed a study, which investigated emissions of the vehicle diesel engine during application of
Emissions the experimental fuels. The experimental engine was equipped with the turbocharging and with the direct
Vehicle fuel injection. The different testing fuels were created using the ratios 0%, 50%, 80% and 100% between the biodie-
Diesel engine sel and the ULSDF (Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel Fuel), whereas the individually mixed fuels were marked B0:U100,
B50:U50, B80:U20 and B100:U0. The first kind of the applied fuel is the pure ULSDF and the last fuel is the pure
biodiesel. The experimental measurements were performed at the different engine loading levels and various en-
gine speeds in order to investigate an influence of the mixed fuels on the engine operational characteristics.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The vehicle industry is a strategic branch of industry within the

⁎ Corresponding author. home and international framework. It is permanently facing to the du-
E-mail address: michal.puskar@tuke.sk (M. Puškár). rable challenges that are presented in the form of requirements

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.266
0048-9697/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1422 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428
concerning efficient exploitation of the fuel energy, reduction of the
emissions and application of the new technologies.
In the past period occurred information about a fact that in some of
the motorcars was installed a software, which enabled to hide the over-
limit values of the nitrogen oxides during the emission testing process.
This affair is called “dieselgate”. Officially, all the motorcars fulfill limits
defined for production of the nitrogen oxides (NOx). The emission test-
ing process is performed in the laboratory conditions and the above-
mentioned “special” software was able to overreach the testing ma-
chine. The collusive software cooperated with the engine control unit,
identified the measuring process and switched the engine into the oper-
ational regime with the reduced emission values.
The emission standard Euro is an obligatory standard, which is valid
within the European Union. This standard defines the limit values of the
harmful pollutants occurring in the exhaust gases of the gasoline en-
gines and diesel engines installed in the motor vehicles. The limit values
of the pollutants are given in dependence on the weight of harmful sub-
stance and on the distance passed by the vehicle. The standards deter-
mine limits of the carbon monoxide (CO), the hydrocarbons (NOx)
and the particulate matters (PM); whereas these standards are taking
into consideration neither the carbon oxide nor the sulphuric com-
pounds. On the present there is valid the newest standard Euro 6,
which should help to eliminate most of the undesirable substances
that are influencing quality of air. However, already in this year or dur-
ing the next year 2018 there will be implemented a new, stricter emis-
sion standard Euro 7 in the EU.
It is a well-known fact that the actual emission limits are very hard
and there is arising a serious problem for automobile factories to meet
the demanding emission requirements. Development of the new, better
engines and application of the anti-emission measures are connected
with expensive investments, together with a doubtful future. From
this reason it is necessary to look for the clear fuels, e.g. biodiesel. The
biodiesel is not only a renewable natural resource, but another advan-
tage of it is a minimal content of the aromatic hydrocarbons and sul-
phur, high value of the cetane number, very good lubricity, high flash
point, non-toxicity and possibility of biological degradation. Moreover,
it is not necessary in this situation to modify the diesel engine because
the biodiesel can be applied in a clear form or as a mixture. There are
also known some disadvantages of the biodiesel, for example low
level of the fuel efficiency, low fugitiveness, high viscosity and high
value of the solidification point (Geng et al., 2016).
There are elaborated several studies that investigated environmen-
tal impacts of the biodiesel. The obtained results present the significant-
ly reduced values of the CO-emissions, sulphur level, unburned
hydrocarbons and particulate matters in the exhaust gases in compari-
son with the conventional diesel fuels. The biodiesel is dissolvable in
the standard diesel oil and therefore it can be mixed in any ratio with
Fig. 1. Experimental model.
the diesel oil. Nowadays, in addition to the well-known and widely
used rapeseed oil, another kind of the biodiesel is becoming more and
more popular, namely it is the waste cooking oil. The up to now per-
formed studies focused on the biodiesel applications were oriented
only to the diesel engines that are installed in the motor cars, whereas
a portion of the biodiesel in the mixed fuels was reduced (Yamada
et al., 2016). Moreover there are missing relevant studies describing a
relation between the NO-emissions and NO2-emissions during utilizing
of the mixtures biodiesel-diesel oil (Simmons and Seakins, 2012; Fameli
and Assimakopoulos, 2015; Feng et al., 2014).
The presented research work was elaborated due to a deficiency of
research information concerning influence of the biodiesel on combus-
tion process and emissions of the vehicle diesel engines. There were ap-
plied within this study the mixed fuels with various ratios between the
biodiesel and the Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel Fuel (ULSDF). The main task
of this research was to determine an influence of a high biodiesel por-
tion and diesel oil mixtures on combustion and NOx-emissions in the
case of the vehicle diesel engine. There is described in the following
part the applied experimental engine as well as utilization of the fuel.
The individual measurements were performed using the diagnostic
equipment specified for measuring of the emissions. The obtained re-
sults and findings are described in the next sections.
2. Experimental model and conditions
2.1. Experimental model and fuel mixtures
The applied experimental model is the 4-cylinder vehicle TDI engine
produced byt VW group (dieselgate engine). There were tested the indi-
vidual fuel mixtures with various ratios between the biodiesel and the
ULSDF. Fig. 1 illustrates the given experimental model of diesel engine.
The main technical parameters of the tested engine are in Table 1. The
tested engine was connected with a dynamometer (Puškár et al., 2015).
The applied ULSDF contains b10 ppm of sulphur and the biodiesel
fuel fulfills requirements of the European standard EN 14214 (Table 2).
The individual testing fuels were created by mixing of the biodiesel
with the ULSDF using the ratio values 0%, 50%, 80% and 100%, whereas
they are marked BU(0:100), BU(50:50), BU(80:20) and BU(100:0).
The first kind of fuel is the clear ULSDF and the last fuel is the pure diesel
oil. The experimental measurements were also performed using other
ratios between the biodiesel and the ULSDF, however taking into con-
sideration the main purpose of this study the chosen ratios are the
most suitable. Content of the biodiesel below 50% in the fuel mixture
does not offer the required results with regard to reduction of the emis-
sions and therefore such ratio is neglected. The brake specific fuel con-
sumption was measured for each of the fuels under the laboratory
 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428 1423

Table 1 installed in the first cylinder of the tested diesel engine (Puškár et al.,
The technical parameters of the experimental engine. 2015). The pressure sensor was interconnected with the amplifier and
Model 2.0 TDI CR with the sensor of crankshaft angular displacement in order to obtain
Type 4 cylinders, common rail injection
data about the pressure values inside of the cylinder within the 0.5°
Compression ratio 16.2:1 range of the crankshaft angular displacement. The NOx emissions
Bore × stroke 81 × 95.5 mm were measured using a mobile system, which is determined for the
Displacement 1968 cm3 emission testing (TEXA) (Sinay et al., 2014).
Rated output 110 kW
Engine speed 3500–4000 r·min−1
Air intake way Turbocharged
2.3. Measuring procedure

The experiments were realised during the stabilized engine opera-

Table 2 tion and they investigated an influence of the combined fuel mixture
The specifications of the applied biodiesel and ULSDF. “biodiesel-ULSDF” on the combustion characteristics and on the NOx
Specification Biodiesel ULSDF emissions (Balland et al., 2014; Grega et al., 2015). The tested diesel en-
−3
Density, 15 [kg·m ] 860–900 810–850
gine operated at two stable engine speed levels: 1750 r·min−1 and
Viscosity (40 °C) [mm2·s−1] 3.5–5.0 2.0–4.0 3500 r·min− 1, using different engine loadings according to Table 3.
Cetane number Min. 51 Min. 48 There were applied during the testing process also other engine speeds
Sulphur content [mg·kg−1] b10 b10 and various engine loading levels, however the results obtained using
Heat of evaporation [kJ·kg−1] 250–290 282–338
the above-mentioned defined values are the most suitable with regard
Flash point [°C] 101 82
Carbon content [wt%] 81.5 97.1 to presentation of the achievements. In order to obtain high accuracy
of the measured results the tested engine was working initially several
minutes without measuring so as to reach the stable temperature values
conditions and the detailed operational conditions are presented in of the cooling water, lubricating oil and exhaust gases. The temperature
Table 3. of the cooling water was maintained in the range of 75 °C ÷ 85 °C and
the lubricating oil temperature was stabilized between 90 °C and 100
°C according to the engine operational conditions (Homisin et al.,
2.2. Measuring conditions 2016). The fuel consumption, the exhaust gas temperature and the
NOx emissions were measured continuously during a three minutes
Measuring of the internal pressure in the cylinder was performed by time interval. The tested diesel engine burned two various testing
means of the measurement system Kistler with a pressure converter fuels and the obtained experimental results were averaged. Every

Table 3
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) measured for various fuel mixtures at different engine speeds and engine loading levels.

Engine speed Engine loading ULSDF B50:U50 B80:U20 Biodiesel

BSFC BSFC BSFC BSFC

[g·kW−1·h−1] [g·kW−1·h−1] [g·kW−1·h−1] [g·kW−1·h−1]

1750 r·min−1 102 Nm (30%) 272 293 304 315

204 Nm (60%) 223 240 249 258
306 Nm (90%) 203 219 227 236
3500 r·min−1 87 Nm (30%) 321 349 366 384
174 Nm (60%) 264 287 301 316
261 Nm (90%) 232 252 265 278

Fig. 2. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 1750 r·min−1 and engine load 30%.
1424 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428

Fig. 3. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 1750 r·min−1 and engine load 60%.

experiment performed during the stable operation was repeated at least
two-times in order to eliminate the measuring inaccuracies.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Influence of the different fuel mixtures on the engine characteristics
Figs. 2–7 illustrates the average values of the pressure in cylinder, to-
gether with the curves describing the heat generation speed in the case
of various testing fuels. The data concerning the pressure values in the
cylinder were obtained by averaging of N100 cycles so that an influence
of random changes in the working cycle can be reduced in this way
(Puškár and Bigoš, 2010). It is possible to say, according to Figs. 4, 7
that the pressure in cylinder is moderately decreasing during higher
loading of engine with an increasing portion of biodiesel in the testing
fuels. The curves describing a speed of the heat generation are different
in the case of combustion regime with the ULSDF and in the biodiesel re-
gime. The pressure in cylinder is rising earlier using a mixture of biodie-
sel with ULSDF in comparison with the pure ULSDF. It is a well-known
fact that the cetane number of biodiesel as well as speed of its laminar
flame is higher compared to the ULSDF. It is evident that the maximal
speed of heat generation is significantly reduced with an increasing
volume of biodiesel in the testing fuels and the ignition lag is decreasing
when amount of biodiesel in the testing fuels is higher. If the tested en-
gine was working at the loading level 30% of the maximum torque, so
the combustion process of the ULSDF has begun in the crankshaft
angle position −1° CA (Crank Angle), whereas combustion of the bio-
diesel started at the angle position −2° CA. If the loading level reached
90% of the maximum torque, the corresponding angle in the case of
ULSDF was −4° CA and the value of this angle was −5° CA for biodiesel,
i.e. there is recorded a reduction of the ignition lag about 1° CA approx-
imately. Moreover, higher ratio biodiesel/ULSDF reduces the momen-
tary speed of heat generation.
3.2. Influence of the different fuel mixtures on the exhaust gas temperatures
The temperature of exhaust gases depends on combustion efficiency
and this temperature influences generation of emissions. There are il-
lustrated in Fig. 8 the exhaust pipe temperatures for the different ratios
of biodiesel in the testing fuels. A moderate decrease of the exhaust pipe
temperature is observed with an increasing amount of biodiesel in the
testing fuels, however there is also evident a marked increasing of this
temperature as a result of higher engine speed and engine loading.
The high level of the engine speed, together with high loading of the

Fig. 4. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 1750 r·min−1 and engine load 90%.
 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428 1425

Fig. 5. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1 and engine load 30%.

engine causes increase of the exhaust gas temperature up to 400 °C. The
exhaust pipe temperature influences the NOx emissions, as well. It is
also evident from the same Fig. 8 that a higher ratio between the biodie-
sel and the diesel fuel reduces the exhaust gas temperature in compar-
ison with the pure ULSDF, because the heating capacity of the biodiesel
is lower and in this way the heat release rate is reduced, as well. This
phenomenon causes reduction of the exhaust gas temperatures
(Puškár and Bigoš, 2012).
3.3. Influence of the different fuel mixtures on the NOx emissions
The NOx emissions belong among the main pollutants of the diesel
engine. They consist of the following components: NO (nitrogen mon-
oxide), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) and N2O (nitrous oxide) (Puškár et al.,
2012). The dominant part, i.e. N 60%, represent the NO emissions. The
NO2 emissions create b40% and the N2O emissions are negligible.
From this reason the NOx emissions are considered to be the emissions
of NO and N2O within this our study. Composition of the NOx emissions
is influenced by the ratio air/fuel, by the ignition delay and by the fuel-
air mixture temperature. It is evident according to Fig. 9 that a higher
portion of the biodiesel in the fuel mixture is influencing creation of
the NOx emissions very significantly. Increasing of the biodiesel amount
in the testing fuels reduces the NOx emissions substantially.
The increased engine speed and engine loading are generating
higher volume of the NOx emissions for each of the tested fuels, namely
up to 800 ppm during the working regime with the pure ULSDF and up
to 700 ppm using the pure biodiesel (Fig. 9). The exhaust gas tempera-
ture is higher if the engine speed and engine loading are rising. This is
the main factor, which causes higher global amount of the NOx emis-
sions (Puškár et al., 2012; Puškár et al., 2013; Puškár et al., 2014;
Puškár and Bigoš, 2013).
There are also several reasons resulting in the decrease of the total
NOx formation when the test engine operates in the biodiesel and diesel
blended mode. Compared with diesel fuel, biodiesel with high cetane
number leads to the smaller premixed combustion and ignition delay.
Additionally, the lower cylinder temperature also decreases the total
NOx concentration in the combustion process.
3.4. Influence of the different fuel mixtures on the NO and NO2 emissions
Figs. 10 and 11 describe an influence of the various fuel mixtures on
the NO and NO2 emissions. Amount of the NO emissions is significantly
increasing during rising of the engine loading, but these emissions are

Fig. 6. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1 and engine load 60%.
1426 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428

Fig. 7. Influence of different testing fuels on the cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1 and engine load 90%.

reduced with a major portion of the biodiesel in the testing fuels. Higher
loading of the engine as well as higher amount of biodiesel in the testing
fuels causes lowering of the NO2 emissions. The ratio of NO2/NO when
the test diesel engine operates on different engine conditions for all
test fuels. When the test diesel engine operates on the low engine
load, the ratio of NO2/NO is about 3:7, due to the low cylinder tempera-
ture, while the ratio of NO2/NO decreases significantly with the increase
of engine loads. When the test engine operates on the high load, the
proportion of NO2 in the total NOx concentration is b3%. As shown in
Fig. 10, the ratio of NO2/NO decreases slightly with the increase of bio-
diesel content in the test fuels. In the previous studies (Balland et al.,
2014; Feng et al., 2014), the reactions between NO and NO2 are:
(1) O2 = 2O; (2) N2 + O = NO + N; (3) O2 + N = NO + O; (4) N
+ OH = NO + H; (5) NO + HO2 = NO2 + OH; (6) NO2 + O = NO + O2.
4. Conclusions
This scientific article is aimed at influence of the different fuel mix-
tures on the ignition characteristics and on the NOx emissions (NO
and NO2 emissions) in the case of a vehicle diesel engine. The
experiments were performed using the 2.0 TDI engine. Mixing of the
biodiesel with the ULSDF, using the ratios 0%, 50%, 80% and 100%, creat-
ed the different testing fuels. The individual mixed fuels were marked
B0:U100, B50:U50, B80:U20 and B100:U0. The first kind of the applied
fuel is the pure ULSDF and the last fuel is the pure biodiesel. The exper-
imental measurements were performed at the engine speed levels
1750 r·min−1 and 3500 r·min−1, using the loading levels from 30% to
90%. According to the data, which are obtained from the individual mea-
surements, it is possible to summarize a set of the acquired knowledge
into the following items:
1. The pressure in cylinder is rising moderately in the case of higher
amount of biodiesel in the testing fuels, whereas the speed of heat
generation is reduced significantly in this way.
2. The ignition delay is shortened with higher amount of biodiesel in
the testing fuels and the combustion speed is faster in this case.
Shortening of the ignition delay was about 1–2° CA.
3. The global NOx emissions are increased in the case of higher engine
speed and engine loading for the all testing fuels and vice-versa a

Fig. 8. Influence of different testing fuels on the exhaust gas temperature at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1.
 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428 1427

Fig. 9. Influence of different testing fuels on the NOx emissions at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1.

higher portion of biodiesel in the testing fuels causes a significant re-
duction of the NOx emissions.
4. The NO emissions are higher if the engine loading is growing, but
they are sinking with higher portion of biodiesel in the testing
fuels. The NO2 emissions are reduced markedly if the engine loading
is growing and if the portion of biodiesel in the testing fuels is higher.
the NOx emission. Biodiesel is the most promising fuel in the near future
as an alternative to fossil diesel for solution this problems (Czech, 2013;
Rybár and Beer, 2015; Rybár et al., 2016; Chríbik et al., 2014; Toman
et al., 2017; Brezinová and Guzanová, 2009; Kršák et al., 2016).
Acknowledgements

The “dieselgate” affair is able to cause a serious recession of the die-
sel engines at the European market. The share of diesel engines at the
EU-market is N50%, however during the last years the modern
supercharged gasoline engines are more attractive for the clients. How-
ever, the reason of this phenomenon is not a better gasoline technology,
but higher prices of the diesel technology. The diesel engines are more
expensive because of more complicated emission systems and therefore
application of them is decreasing in the area of smaller and cheaper mo-
torcars predominately. The “dieselgate” affair will accelerate this pro-
cess surely. The most serious problem of the diesel engines consists in
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development
Agency under the contract No. APVV-16-0259.
The article was written in the framework of Grant Projects: APVV-
16-0259 “Research and development of combustion technology based
on controlled homogenous charge compression ignition in order to re-
duce nitrogen oxide emissions of motor vehicles”, VEGA 1/0473/17 “Re-
search and development of technology for homogeneous charge self-
ignition using compression in order to increase engine efficiency and
to reduce vehicle emissions” and KEGA 041TUKE-4/2017 “Implementa-
tion of new technologies specified for solution of questions concerning

Fig. 10. Influence of different testing fuels on the NO emissions at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1.
1428 J. Sinay et al. / Science of the Total Environment 624 (2018) 1421–1428
Fig. 11. Influence of different testing fuels on the NO2 emissions at the engine speed 3500 r·min−1
emissions of vehicles and transformation of them into the educational
process in order to improve quality of education.”
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