PETROL ENGINE

Working of two stroke petrol engine

A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on
petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. It differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the
fuel and air, and in the fact that it uses spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel
engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into the now very hot air
at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. In a petrol engine, the fuel and air are usually
1
pre-mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now utilize cylinder-direct
petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now (except in the smallest
engines) it is done by electronically-controlled fuel injection. Pre-mixing of fuel and air allows a
petrol engine to run at a much higher speed than a diesel, but severely limits their compression, and
thus efficiency. The first fast-running petrol engine was invented by the German automobile pioneer
Gottlieb Daimler.
WORKING CYCLES
Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles
refer your book in the following topics:
• Four-stroke cycle
• Two-stroke cycle
• Wankel engine
CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-

formation. Less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds in the W formation,
similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter
typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, or 10 or 14 cylinders in two rings.

COMPRESSION RATIO

The compression ratio is the ratio between the total volumes of the cylinder AND the combustion
chambers - at the beginning, and end of the compression stroke. Broadly speaking, the higher the
compression ratio, the higher the efficiency of the engine. However, compression ratio has to be
limited to avoid pre-ignition of the fuel-air mixture which would cause engine knocking and damage
to the engine. Modern motor-car engine generally have compression ratios of between 9:1 and 10:1
but this can go up to 11 or 12:1 for high-performance engines that run on higher octane fuel.

2
Crankshaft connecting rod

Cam shaft

Working of 4 stroke petrol engine

3
 Piston-Connecting rod assembly

IGNITION

Petrol engines use spark ignition and high voltage current for the spark may be provided by a
magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic
Engine Control Unit.

4
 DISMANTLING OF MULTICYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
Exp.No: 1

Date :

AIM:
To dismantle the given 4-cylinder petrol engine
TOOLS REQUIRED:
Double ended spanner, ring spanner, tubular spanner, socket wrenches, nose pliers, circlip plier,
ball peen hammer, ratchet spanner etc.
PROCEDURE:
The given engine with its accessories and with the oil drained should be removed from the
vehicle and dismantled. Engine dismantling should be carried out in a sequence as explained below
As the components are removed they should be grouped properly and placed conveniently on
a bench or table, prior to cleaning. Before taking of any components from the engine unit make sure
that it is marked identically with mating part.

1. Get the tool set.

2. Remove the water pump.
3. Remove the exhaust manifold.
4. Remove the water outlet.
5. Remove the thermostat.
6. Remove all external accessories like motor, dynamo, ignition unit, and spark plug.
7. Remove engine sump. Disconnect oil pump drive and oil pump at the most convenient stage
in the preceding operation. The oil filter and cleaner are removed. Dipstick or level gauge is
taken out.
8. Remove timing gear cover, after removing pulley etc.
9. Remove clutch unit.
10. Take off all valves with their tappets, rocker arms, push rods etc.
11. Remove the cylinder head.
12. Remove connecting rod big end caps, pistons and connecting rods.
13. Take off timing chain and remove sprockets.
14. Remove crankshaft with flywheel by taking off main bearing caps.

5
15. Remove camshaft.
16. If necessary, drive out valve guides.
17. Clean the engine components.

18. All components are to be immersed in a bath on a deep tray containing oil scrub with bristle
brush to remove all dirt.

19. After cleaning the parts are to be placed on a metal plate or slab and dry them in a warm place

6
RESULT:

Thus the given 4-cylinder petrol engine is dismantled and its various parts are studied.

7
8
 ASSEMBLING OF MULTICYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

Exp. No: 2
Date :
AIM:
To assemble the given dismantled 4-cylinder petrol engine
TOOLS REQUIRED:
Double ended spanner, ratchet spanner, ring spanner, ball peen hammer, nylon hammer, circlip
plier etc.
PROCEDURE:
After dismantling all the parts they are inspected carefully and the defective parts arte replaced
and the reassembling of the engine is done in following sequence.
1. Get the tool set.
2. Place the oil gallery plugs in their places.
3. Place the valve tappets and push rods in their places
4. Assemble the camshaft
5. Assemble the inlet valves; exhaust valves and rocker arm assembly with cylinder head.
6. Assemble the crankshaft and tighten the main bearings to the required torque level using
torque wrench.
7. Assemble the piston and connecting rod assembly
8. Assemble the piston rings back on piston with the help of piston ring compressor
9. Assemble the clutch
10. Screw back in position the flywheel housing
11. Assemble the oil pan
12. Assemble the cylinder head
13. Assemble all external accessories like motor, dynamo, ignition unit and spark plug
14. Assemble the sprockets and timing chain.
15. Assemble the thermostat
16. Assemble the water inlet, outlet hoses, water pump and radiator.
17. Assemble the Inlet and exhaust manifolds.
In all cases the torque wrench is used to tighten the nuts to the required torque level.
RESULT:

The given dismantled 4-cylinder petrol engine is assembled

9
10
 DIESEL ENGINE

A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition
to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression.
This is in contrast to a petrol (gasoline) engine or gas engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a
fuel/air mixture is ignited by a spark plug.

It operates using the diesel cycle (named after Dr. Rudolph Diesel). Diesel engines have the highest
thermal efficiency of any internal or external combustion engine, because of their compression ratio.
Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions.

The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The four strokes
are:

Intake stroke -- The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down.

Compression stroke -- The piston moves back up and compresses the air.

Combustion stroke -- As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and
ignited, forcing the piston back down.

Exhaust stroke -- The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the
combustion out of the exhaust valve.

Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it
then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the
compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine. In the next section, we'll examine the diesel
injection process

DIESEL ENGINES VS. GASOLINE ENGINES

In theory, diesel engines and gasoline engines are quite similar. They are both internal
combustion engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders. The pistons are
connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of the pistons, known as linear motion,
creates the rotary motion needed to turn the wheels of a car forward. Both diesel engines and gasoline
engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. The major
difference between diesel and

11
gasoline is the way these explosions happen. In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed
by pistons and ignited by sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed
first, and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites

V-Type Diesel Engine

12
 DISMANTLING OF MULTICYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE
Exp. No: 3
Date :

AIM:
To dismantle the given4-cylinder petrol engine

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Double ended spanner, ring spanner, tubular spanner, socket wrenches, nose pliers, circlip plier,
ball peen hammer, ratchet spanner etc.

PROCEDURE:
The given engine with its accessories and with the oil drained should be removed from the
vehicle and dismantled. Engine dismantling should be carried out in a sequence as explained below
As the components are removed they should be grouped properly and placed conveniently on
a bench or table, prior to cleaning. Before taking of any components from the engine unit make sure
that it is marked identically with mating part.

1. Get the tool set.

2. Remove the water pump.
3. Remove the exhaust manifold.
4. Remove the water outlet.
5. Remove the thermostat.
6. Remove all external accessories like motor, dynamo, injection pump and injector.
7. Remove engine sump. Disconnect oil pump drive and oil pump at the most convenient stage
in the preceding operation. The oil filter and cleaner are removed. Dipstick or level gauge is
taken out.
8. Remove timing gear cover, after removing pulley etc.
9. Remove clutch unit.
10. Take off all valves with their tappets, rocker arms, push rods etc.
11. Remove the cylinder head.
12. Remove connecting rod big end caps, pistons and connecting rods.
13. Take off timing chain and remove sprockets.
14. Remove crankshaft with flywheel by taking off main bearing caps.
13
 15. Remove camshaft.
16. If necessary, drive out valve guides.

Clean the engine components.

All components are to be immersed in a bath on a deep tray containing oil scrub with bristle brush to
remove all dirt.

After cleaning the parts are to be placed on a metal plate or slab and dry them in a warm place

14
RESULT:

Thus the given 6-cylinder diesel engine is dismantled

15
16
 ASSEMBLING OF MULTICYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE

Exp. No: 4
Date :

AIM:
To assemble the given dismantled 6-cylinder diesel engine.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Double ended spanner, ratchet spanner, ring spanner, ball peen hammer, nylon hammer, circlip
plier

PROCEDURE:
After dismantling all the parts they are inspected carefully and the defective parts arte replaced
and the reassembling of the engine is done in following sequence.

1. Get the tool set.

2. Place the oil gallery plugs in their places.

3. Place the valve tappets and push rods in their places

4. Assemble the camshaft

5. Assemble the inlet valves; exhaust valves and rocker arm assembly with cylinder head.

6. Assemble the crankshaft and tighten the main bearings to the required torque level using

torque wrench.

7. Assemble the piston and connecting rod assembly

8. Assemble the piston rings back on piston with the help of piston ring compressor

9. Assemble the clutch

10. Screw back in position the flywheel housing

11. Assemble the oil pan

12. Assemble the cylinder head

17
 13. Assemble all external accessories like motor, dynamo, injection pump and injector

14. Assemble the sprockets and timing chain

15. Assemble the thermostat

16. Assemble the water inlet, outlet hoses, water pump and radiator.

17. Assemble the Inlet and exhaust manifolds.

In all cases the torque wrench is used to tighten the nuts to the required torque level.

18
RESULT:

The given dismantled 6-cylinder diesel engine is assembled

19
20
 STUDY OF PETROL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Exp no: 5

Date :

AIM:
To dismantle, study and assemble the given petrol engine fuel system.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Screw driver, Double ended spanner, combination player, nylon hammer.

PROCEDURE:
Rotor type Oil Pump

The dismantling of the oil pump is done in the following sequence. The screw’s which holds

the engine is removed first. Now the gear meshes are separated and then the pump driver which is

connected with the cam shaft is removed. The pump driver is nothing but a gear connected with the

camshaft.

WORKING:

A is the external rotor having the number of lobes one more then on the internal rotor B. The
axes of rotation of the two rotors are different which cause the size of the spaces between them to
vary. Rotor B gets its drive from the engine camshaft and cause rotor A to rotate along with it. The oil
centers the pump through inlet port, as the rotor lobes are moving out of mesh, as the lobes of the
rotors move into mesh at the outlet port. This type of pump is 25% more efficient and compact then
the pump. This is also quieter running since there are comparatively lesser teeth in mesh for each
revolution. Because of these advantages, its use is on increase in the engine.
The assembling of the pump is carried in the reverse manner opposite to that of the
dismantling

A.C. MECHANICAL FUEL PUMP

This dismantling of the A.C.Mechanical fuel pump is done in the following sequence. The
upper and the lower body are separated. The end cap and valve assembly are dismantled. The rocker

21
A.C –ALBERT CHAMPION (FOUNDED A.C.SPARK PLUG COMPANY)

S.U.CARBURETTOR

22
arm is now dismantled. The diaphragm assembly is separated from lower body. Now the one way
valve assembly is dismantled which completes the total dismantling of the A.C.Mechanical fuel
pump.

WORKING

The rocker arm is operated by the eccentric of the cam shaft. By the up and down motion of the
rocker arm the diaphragm is operated, which sucks the fuel in through the in let valve opening. Now
the alternate motion of the diaphragm, this strained fuel is pushed out through the pressure valve into
the outlet valve opening to the carburetor.
The assembly of the A.C.Mechanical fuel pump is done exactly opposite to that of the
dismantling procedure.
S.U.CARBURETTOR:

The dismantling and assembling of the S.U.Carburetor is done in the following sequence. The
suction chamber without loosing the spring which is kept inside the chamber. Now the piston and
taper pin arrangement is removed and thus the main parts of this carburetor are dismantled.

WORKING
There is no separate idling of slow-running device and no acceleration pump. The upper side
of the suction disc is connected to throttle passage through a slot cut in the piston. The lower side is
exposed to atmospheric pressure. The up and down movement of the tapering needle cause the
annular area for fuel flow to increase of decrease. Jet adjusting nut is meant to adjust the mixture
strength. For cold starting and idling is pulled up which brings the fuel jet down and hence more fuel
is supplied.
After a through study of the different parts of the S.U.Carburetor, they are reassembled in the
sequence exactly opposite to like dismantling.
SOLEX CARBURETOR:
Solex carburetor is a down drought type of carburetor with special provision for a progressive
starter, which supplies richer mixture for starting and then gradually weakens if till the engine, has
richen its normal operating temperature.

23
SOLEX CARBURETOR

24
STARTING CIRCUIT
The starting valve is in the form of a flat disc with holes of different sizes. These holes cannot allow
the petrol jet and start the jet sides to the passage, which opens into the air horn just below the throttle
valve. Initially for starting purpose, a rich mixture is required and after the engine starts the richness
decreases.

IDLING CIRCUIT
In the idle port, it controls the idle adjusting screw is provided in the engine side of throttle
valves. As the throttle is almost closed, the engine suction is applied at the pilot petrol jet, which
supplies petrol. The jet itself drops the petrol from the main jet circuit. The air drops in the form of
pilot air jet. The petrol and air mix is the idle passage and the mixture comes out of the idle port
below the throttle valve slow speed openings are provided on venturi side of the throttle valve to
ensure smooth transfer form the idling circuit to main jet circuit without “flow spet”

NORMAL RUNNING CIRCUIT

Now the throttle valve is open and the main jet sucks which supplies the fuel. The air moves
through venturi and mixes with fuel. The air is governed by throttle valve.

ACCELERATION
It requires more fuel which fuel which is applied by membrane pump. The pump level is
attached to accelerator when the pedal is depressed the pump level pressures forces the fuel into the
jet, when the pedal is returned to membrane moves back.

RESULT:

Thus the given petrol engine fuel system is dismantled, studied and reassembled.

25
26
 STUDY OF DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Ex.No: 6

Date:

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRONIC INJECTION

Most present day (2008-2009) diesel engines make use of a camshaft, rotating at half crankshaft
speed, lifted mechanical single plunger high pressure fuel pump driven by the engine crankshaft. For
each cylinder, its plunger measures the amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection.
These engines use injectors that are basically very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at
a specific fuel pressure. For each cylinder a plunger pump is connected with an injector with a high
pressure fuel line. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the
plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical
governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The
injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high speed engines the plunger pumps are together in
one unit. Each fuel line should have the same length to obtain the same pressure delay.

A cheaper configuration on high speed engines with less than six cylinders is to use an axial-piston
distributor pump, consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each
cylinder (functionally analogous to points and distributor cap on an Otto engine This contrasts with
the more modern method of having a single fuel pump which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure
with a common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector. Each injector has a solenoid operated
by an electronic control unit, resulting in more accurate control of injector opening times that depend
on other control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine
performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than the combined pump
and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less noisy, than its mechanical counterpart.

Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection
configurations.

27
 COMMON RAIL FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Older diesel engines with mechanical injection pumps could be inadvertently run in reverse, albeit
very inefficiently, as witnessed by massive amounts of soot being ejected from the air intake. This
was often a consequence of push starting a vehicle using the wrong gear. Large ship diesels can run
either way.

INDIRECT INJECTION

An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a
prechamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion
chamber, assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter
running engine, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower,
about 100 bar using a single orifice tapered jet injector. Mechanical injection systems allowed high-
speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around 4,000 rpm). The
prechamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine's cooling system, and
restricting the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5%–10%[Indirect injection engines
were used in small-capacity, high-speed diesel engines in automotive, marine and construction uses

28
from the 1950s, until direct injection technology advanced in the 1980s. Indirect injection engines are
cheaper to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical
system. In road-going vehicles most prefer the greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels
of direct injection.

DIRECT INJECTION

Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustion chamber. The problem with these
vehicles was the harsh noise that they made. Fuel consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than
indirect injection diesels, which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.

This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump, pioneered by the
Volkswagen Group in 1989. The injection pressure was still only around 300 bar (4350 psi), but the
injection timing, fuel quantity, EGR and turbo boost were all electronically controlled. This gave
more precise control of these parameters which made refinement more acceptable and emissions
lower.

UNIT DIRECT INJECTION

Unit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. In this system the
injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder controlled by the
camshaft. Each cylinder has its own unit eliminating the high pressure fuel lines, achieving a more
consistent injection. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by Volkswagen
AG in cars (where it is called a Pumpe-Düse-System—literally "pump-nozzle system") and by
Mercedes Benz ("PLD") and most major diesel engine manufacturers in large commercial engines
(CAT, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, Volvo). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been
raised to 2,400 bar (35261 psi) , allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.

COMMON RAIL DIRECT INJECTION

In common rail systems, the separate pulsing high pressure fuel line to each cylinder injector is also
eliminated. Instead, a high-pressure pump pressurizes fuel at up to 2,000 bar (200 MPa, 30000 psi), in
a "common rail". The common rail is a tube that supplies each computer-controlled injector
containing a precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a solenoid or piezoelectric actuator.

29
30
 STUDY AND MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT VEHICLE CHASSIS FRAME
Exp. No : 7
Date :

AIM:
To study about the various features and measure the various dimensions of the given chassis.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Light vehicle chassis, measuring tape, wheel alignment gauge, toe-in and toe-out gauge etc.

PROCEDURE:
1) Study the layout of the chassis and identify the type of drive employed in the
Vehicle (e.g.) front engine rear wheel drive, front engine front wheel drive, four wheel drive,
rear engine rear wheel drive etc., then suitably draw the transmission layout. If the front axle
is a dead axle, examine the type of the axle.
2) Check whether it is of conventional frame construction or integral type. Draw the frame
construction including the details where the side members have been joined with cross
members, the position of the axles and the location of the suspension attachments. Draw the
cross-section of the members of the frame and measure the dimensions of it.
3) Identify the type of clutch and gearbox used in the vehicle.
4) Identify the suspension type whether it is of rigid axle suspension or independent suspension.
Find out the type of suspension system fitted in the front and rear of the vehicle.
5) Identify the type of rear axle drive whether it is made up of one or two V universal joints, one
or two-piece propeller shaft with or without slip joint etc., the type of rear axle housing and
type of rear axle employed.
6) Identify the details of steering system including the type of steering box used, its linkage
details etc.,
7) Identify the braking system and the type of brake used in the vehicle.
8) Identify the type of wheels and tyres fitted.
9) The steering geometry can be obtained by the procedure as described below. Before
measuring, it is advisable to see that:

31
32
 10) Front wheels are true running and wheel bearings are properly adjusted.
11) Tires are inflated as specified.
12) Front suspension springs are properly seated and ball joints are not excessively loose.
13) The vehicle is in the laden or unladed condition as recommended by the manufacturer.
14) As far as possible, the surface over which the vehicle being checked should be perfectly level.

A) CAMBER:

i. Park the car on a level and hard ground

ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the
hub and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Note down the reading on the camber scale and this will give the camber angle.

B) CASTOR:
i. Park the car on a level and hard ground
ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the hub
and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Adjust the screws and bring the bubble to 00 in the castor angle.
iv. Turn the wheel 200 outside, read the castor angle on the castor scale.

C) KING PIN INCLINATION:

i. Park the car on a level and hard ground

ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the hub
and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Turn the wheel 20O inside; adjust to 00 on the king pin inclination scale.
iv. Turn the wheel 400 on the opposite side. Note down the reading on the king pin inclination
scale and the camber scale.
v. The reading on the king pin inclination scale plus the reading on the camber scale on one
wheel or the reading on the king pin inclination scale minus the reading on the camber scale
on the other wheel will give the value of the king pin inclination angle.

33
D) TOE-IN OR TOE-OUT:

i. Park the car on a level and hard ground.

ii. Mark the horizontal level on the two front wheels using a chalk piece.
iii. Coincide the two pointer of the toe-in or toe-out gauge exactly to the center plane of the two
front wheels.
iv. Note down he reading on the scale. This is marked as X.
v. Move the vehicle so that the wheels are rotated through 1800 and then align the two pointer of
the gauge to the center plane of the two front wheels at the back ends, note down the reading
on the scale. This is marked as Y. If the difference between X and Y is negative, then it is said
to toe-in and if it is positive it is said to be toe-out.

vi. 15. Measure the wheelbase, wheel track, overall length, maximum width, overall height,
ground clearance, front overhang, rear overhang etc., using measuring tape.

CHASSIS DETAILS:
1. Frame :
2. Front axle :
3. Steering :
4. Brakes :
SUSPENSION:
1. Front :
2. Rear :
3. Clutch :
4. Gearbox :
5. Rear axle :
6. Wheels and tires :

CHASSIS DIMENSIONS:
1. Wheelbase :
2. Wheel track :
3. Max. Width :
4. Overall length :
34
 5. Overall height :
6. Ground clearance :
7. Front overhang :
8. Rear overhang :

RESULT:
The various features of the chassis are studied and its dimensions have been measured.

35
36
 STUDY AND MEASUREMENT OF HEAVY VEHICLE CHASSIS FRAME

EX. No: 8
Date :

AIM:
To study about the various features and measure the various dimensions of the given chassis.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Heavy vehicle chassis frame, measuring tape, wheel alignment gauge, toe-in and toe-out
gauge etc.

PROCEDURE:

1) Study the layout of the chassis and identify the type of drive employed in the vehicle (e.g.)
front engine rear wheel drive, front engine front wheel drive, four wheel drive, rear engine
rear wheel drive etc., Then suitably draw the transmission layout. If the front axle is a dead
axle, examine the type of the axle.
2) Check whether it is of conventional frame construction or integral type. Draw the frame
construction including the details where the side members have been joined with cross
members, the position of the axles and the location of the suspension attachments. Draw the
cross-section of the members of the frame and measure the dimensions of it.
3) Identify the type of clutch and gearbox used in the vehicle.
4) Identify the suspension type whether it is of rigid axle suspension or independent suspension.
Find out the type of suspension system fitted in the front and rear of the vehicle.
5) Identify the type of rear axle drive whether it is made up of one or two universal joints, one or
two-piece propeller shaft with or without slip joint etc., the type of rear axle housing and the
type of rear axle employed.
6) Identify the details of steering system including the type of steering box used, its linkage
details etc.,
7) Identify the braking system and the type of brake used in the vehicle.
8) Identify the type of wheels and tires fitted.
9) The steering geometry can be obtained by the procedure as described below. Before
measuring, it is advisable to see that:
10) Front wheels are true running and wheel bearings are properly adjusted.

37
38
 11) Tires are inflated as specified.
12) Front suspension springs are properly seated and ball joints are not excessively loose.
13) The vehicle is in the laden or unladed condition as recommended by the manufacturer.
As far as possible, the surface over which the vehicle being checked should be perfectly level
A) CAMBER:

i. Park the vehicle on a level and hard ground

ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the hub
and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Note down the reading on the camber scale and this will give the camber angle.
B) CASTOR:

i. Park the vehicle on a level and hard ground

ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the hub
and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Adjust the screws and bring the bubble to 00 in the castor angle.
iv. Turn the wheel 200 outside, read the castor angle on the castor scale.

C) KING PIN INCLINATION:

i. Park the vehicle on a level and hard ground

ii. Position the two front wheels on a turning table in the straight ahead position, remove the hub
and fit the magnetic type of wheel alignment gauge on it.
iii. Turn the wheel 200 inside; adjust to 00 on the king pin inclination scale.
iv. Turn the wheel 400 on the opposite side. Note down the reading on the king pin inclination
scale and the camber scale.
v. The reading on the king pin inclination scale plus the reading on the camber scale on one
wheel or the reading on the king pin inclination scale minus the reading on the camber scale
on the other wheel will give the value of the king pin inclination angle.
D) TOE-IN OR TOE-OUT:

i. Park the vehicle on a level and hard ground.

ii. Mark the horizontal level on the two front wheels using a chalk piece.
iii. Coincide the two pointer of the toe-in or toe-out gauge exactly to the center plane of the two
front wheels.
iv. Note down he reading on the scale. This is marked as X.
39
40
 v. Move the vehicle so that the wheels are rotated through 1800 and then align the two pointer of
the gauge to the center plane of the two front wheels at the back ends, note down the reading
on the scale. This is marked as Y. If the difference between X and Y is negative, then it is said
to toe-in and if it is positive it is said to be toe-out.
vi. 15. Measure the wheelbase, wheel track, overall length, maximum width, overall height,
ground clearance, front overhang, rear overhang etc., using measuring tape.

CHASSIS DETAILS:
Frame :
Front axle :
Steering :
Brakes :

SUSPENSION:
Front :
Rear :
Clutch :
Gearbox :
Rear axle :
Wheels and tires :
CHASSIS DIMENSIONS:
Wheelbase :
Wheel track :
Max. Width :
Overall length :
Overall height :
Ground clearance :
Front overhang :
Rear overhang :

RESULT:

The various features of the chassis are studied and its dimensions have been measured.
41
42
STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF FRONT AXLES

Ex. No : 9
Date :

AIM:

To dismantle and study about the various types of front axles and their components and
assemble them.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

Spanner set, cutting plier, screw driver, hammer, punch

INTRODUCTION:

Front axles are used in nearly all trucks and in many automobiles for suspending the front-end
load. The majority of front axles have a steel, I-beam for the main member. Tubular members also
have been widely used. Some front axles are driving members of the power train. Generally,
however, the characteristics and mountings of the front drive axle housing are similar to those of the
solid type. A front axle consists of a beam, which extends across the underside of the vehicle for
almost the entire width of the tread. Swiveling device is attached to both the ends of this beam. The
beam is attached to the vehicle frame by means of springs, usually of the leaf type. The swiveling
device is called the steering knuckle. The steering knuckle is attached to the beam by means of
substantial pins known as kingpins or steering knuckle pivot pins. The steering knuckle is a heavy
forging on which the road wheel revolves.

TYPES OF AXLE CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENT PARTS:

Front axles are built according to either of two basis designs for attaching the steering knuckle
to the beam. These are known as the Elliot type and the Reverse Elliot type axle.
THE ELLIOT AXLE:

In the Elliot axle, each end of the main beam is open to form a C shaped yoke. The steering
knuckle fits between the upper arms of this yoke. The kingpin extends through the upper arm of this
yoke, through the knuckle and into the lower arm of the yoke. Usually, the kingpin is secured in the
steering knuckle so that when the knuckle swivels, the kingpin turns in the yoke. The holes in the
yoke, which receive the ends of the kingpin, are fitted with bushings called kingpin bushings, so that
43
the kingpin can enter easier. In some vehicles, roller bearings are used instead of bushings. A thrust
bearing is installed on the kingpin between the steering knuckle and the upper arm of the Elliot type.
In most cases, this is a sealed ball bearing or roller bearing. This steering knuckle thrust bearing
actually supports the weight of the vehicle.

REVERSE ELLIOT AXLE:

As the name suggests, the construction is reversed in the reverse elliot axle. The yoke is a part
of the steering knuckle and fits over the end of the axle. The kingpin is secured in a vertical hole
through the end of the axle beam and the knuckle swivels on it. The kingpin bushings or bearings are
mounted in the steering knuckle. The steering knuckle thrust bearing is located between the axle and
the lower ear of the knuckle. There are no appreciable differences i merit of performance between the
two types of axle construction.

STEERING KNUCKLES:

The steering knuckle consists of a spindle for the wheel, devices for attaching the unit to the
main beam or axle, and an arm for holding the knuckle in any desired position in its swing or travel.
In some designs, the knuckle, spindle and steering knuckle are are forged in one piece, while in other
designs, the steering knuckle arm is a separate forging attached to bolts or by securing a tapered end
into a corresponding hole in the knuckle by means of a nut and cotter pin.
Steering knuckles are Elliot or reverse Elliot, depending of course, on the style of axle to
which they are attached.
STEERING KNUCKLE ARM:

The steering knuckle arm is a lever for swiveling the knuckle. One end of the arm is secured
to the knuckle. The free end of the arm is made with either a ball or a hole for attaching the tie rod,
which connects the right and left steering knuckle arms. One of the steering knuckles must also be
connected to the linkage from the steering gear. Therefore, one steering knuckle arm must be so
constructed as to provide either an additional hole on the ball for attachment of the linkage from the
steering gear or one of the steering knuckles must be made to provide for attachment of a second arm
which is connected to the steering gear linkage. On a left-hand drive vehicle, the left knuckle or arm
would have to be so arranged. On a right-handed drive vehicle, the right knuckle or arm would follow
the chosen arrangement.

44
TIE RODS:

In Solid axle types of suspensions, the spindles are held in proper alignment by means of a
connection or linkage between the two steering knuckle arms. This connecting mechanism is known
as the steering tie rod or simply as the tie rod.

RESULT:
Thus the given front axle are dismantled, studied and assembled.

45
46
 STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF REAR AXLE
Ex.No: 10
Date:

AIM:

To dismantle and study about the various types of rear axles and assembling them.
TOOLS REQUIRED:

Spanner set, cutting pliers, screw driver, punch

INTRODUCTION:

SEMI-FLOATING AXLE:

The wheel hub is directly connected to the axle shaft or is an extension of the same. The inner
end of the axle shaft is splined and is supported by the final drive unit, whereas a single bearing
inside the axle casing supports the outer end. In this the axle shaft takes all the loads. The vehicle load
is transmitted to each of the half shafts through the casing and the bearing. This causes a bending load
and a tendency to shear at the point marked ‘A’. Besides, the side forces also cause end thrust and
bending moment in the axle shafts, which have to take driving torque also. The semi-floating axle is
the simplest and the cheapest of all types, because of which it is widely used on cars. However, since
the axle shafts have to support all loads, they have to be of larger diameter for the same torque
transmitted compared to the other types of axle supporting.

FULL FLOATING AXLE:

This type is very robust one and is used for heavy vehicles. As is seen in the fig. the axle
shafts have flanges at the outer ends, which are connected to the flanged sleeve by means of bolts.
There are two taper roller bearings supporting the axle casing in the hub, which take up any side load.
Thus in this the axle shafts carry only the driving torque. They do not carry the weight of the vehicle
and the end thrust, the weight being completely supported by the wheels and the axle casing. As the
axle shafts carry only the driving torque, their failure or removal does not affect the wheels.
Thus the axle shafts can be taken out or replaced without jacking up the vehicle. For the same
reason the vehicle can be towed even with a broken half-shaft. However, it is the costliest type.

RESULT:
Thus the given rear axle are dismantled, studied and assembled.

47
48
 STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF DIFFERENTIAL

Ex.No : 11
Date :

AIM :
To dismantle and find the permanent reductions of final drives and assemble it.

NECESSITY :

Differential gears permit the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds while the vehicle is
taking a turn. The differential also be used to reduce the power from propeller shaft and get changed
it carefully to both the wheels when the vehicle is running in a plain roads.

OPERATION OF DIFFERENTIAL:

When the car is on straight road, the ring gear, differential case, differential pinion gears and
two differential side gears all turn as a unit. The two differential pinion gears do not rotate on the
pinion shaft. This is because they exert equal force on the two differential side gears. As a result, the
side gears turn at the same speed as the ring gear, which causes both drive wheels to turn at the same
speed also.

However, the car begins to round a curve, the differential pinion gears rotate on the pinion
shaft. This permits the outer wheel to run faster than the inner wheel.
Suppose one wheel turns slower than the other does as the car rounds a curve. As the
differential case rotates, the pinion gear rotates on their shaft. This occurs because the pinion gear
must walk around the slower-turning differential side gear. Therefore, the pinion gears carry
additional rotary motion to the faster turning outer wheel on the turn. The differential case speed is
considered to be 100 percent.

The rotating action of the pinion gears carries 90 percent of this speed to the slower rotating
inner wheel. It sends 110 percent of the speed to the faster rotation outer wheel.

49
50
RESULT :

Thus the given differential was dismantled, the permanent reduction is calculated and the unit
was assembled.

51
52
 STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF CLUTCH

Ex.No : 12
Date :

AIM:
To dismantle and study the various features and assemble the given clutch.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
Doublle head spanner, box type spanner, arbor press, cutting plier.

INTRODUCTION:

The power developed in the engine is transmitted to the gear box through the clutch only.
When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted. Clutch will always be in engaged
position unless the clutch pedal is depressed. The clutch permits the gradual taking up of the load.
When the pressure on the friction plate is decreased it automatically decreases the load on the engine.
Clutch is a frictional plat, by the frictional contact between the flywheel and pressure plate it
transmits the torque from the engine to gear box.
PROCEDURE:

The clutch is dismantled by placeing in the Arbor press, by removing the nuts of the clutch
assembly. It is inspected for worn out parts and again assembled.
WORKING:

The single plate clutch works as follows. Clutch plate is placed between flywheel and pressure
plate. Pressure plate rigidly forces the clutch plate towards the flywheel by the spring force. When the
clutch pedal is in ordinary position it fully engages with the flywheel. Therefore, the power is
transmitted from the flywheel to gearbox. When the pedal is pressed, pressure plate is forced against
the spring force, a gap is created between the pressure plate and flywheel, therefore no power is
transmitted. When the clutch is half pressed due to slight friction contact only part load is supplied to
the engine. Thus the clutch is functioning.
53
54
RESULT:
Thus the clutch is dismantled, studied and assembled.

55
56
 STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF GEAR BOX

Ex.No : 13
Date :

AIM:
To dismantle the gearbox, inspect and find the gear ratio and to reassemble the gearbox.

INTRODUCTION :
Gearbox is a main part of the transmission system. The torque produced by the engine vary
only by narrow limits. Therefore, there is necessary to change the torque produced by the engine. The
change of torque in the gearboxes is helpful in take off the vehcle from the rest or when full loaded
during normal speed. During high speed there is no need of high torques therefore you can change the
torque to the lowest or directly couple the engine to differential.

Types of Gear Box:

Different types of gearbox used in practice are
1. Constant mesh gearbox
2. Sliding mesh gearbox
3. Synchromesh gearbox

Out of these we dismantled the constant mesh gear box.

57
WORKING:
The working of constant mesh gearbox is, all the gears are in constant mesh with the
corresponding gears on the lay shaft. The gears on the main shaft, which is splined, are fixed. When
the left dog clutch slide to the left by means of selector mechanism its teeth are engaged with those on
the clutch gear and we get direct gear. The same dog clutch however when slide to right makes
contact with second gear. Similarly the movement of right dog clutch to left results in low gear and
towards right in reverse gear.

I-Gear:
While shifting the selector mechanism to gearbox first gear is engaged. The gear ratio of the
first gear is around 6.9

II-Gear:
While shifting the gear to second gear the second gear is selected. The gear ratio for the
second gear will be around 4.5.

III-Gear:

While the third gear is engaged the torque is less than the second gear and more than the
fourth gear. Normally third gear will be 3.0.

IV Gear

While the fourth gear is engaged the torque is less than the third gear and more than the fourth gear.
Normally third gear will be 1.7.

V-Gear :

While the fourth gear is engaged the torque is very less, actually the engine is directly coupled
to the rear wheel without any reduction. Normally gear ratio is 1.

58
Reverse Gear:

When the reverse is engaged, the propeller shaft will rotate in the opposite direction and the
vehicle will move in the reverse direction. Normally gear ratio for reverse gear is around 6.5.

RESULT :

Thus the given gearbox is dismantled, the gear ratios are calculated and the gearbox is
assembled.

59
60
 STUDY OF STEERING SYSTEM
Ex.No : 14
Date :

AIM :
To dismantle, study about the various features and assemble the parts of the steering system.

INTRODUCTION :
Steering linkage depends upon the type of the vehicle, whether it is a car which has
independent front suspension or a commercial vehicle having generally a rigid axle type front
suspension, two types of steering linkages are used. They are:

i. Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle front suspension

ii. Steering linkage for vehicle with independent front suspension

i. Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle front suspension:

The drop arm is rigidly connected to the cross-shaft of steering gear at its upper end, while its
lower end is connected to link rod through a ball joint. To the other end of link rod is connected to
link rod arm thorugh ball joint. Attached rigidly to other end of the link rod arm is the stub axle on
which road wheel is mounted. Each stub axle has a forged track rod arm rigidly bolted to the wheel
axle. The other end of the track rod is connected by means of ball joints. An adjuster is provided in
the track rod to change its length for adjusting wheel alignment.

The steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required. It
provides velocity ratio so that larger movement of steering wheel obtains smaller movement of stub
axle. When the steering wheel is turned, drop arm gives a linear motion to the link rod. This
movement is transmitted through link rod arm to stub axle so as to turn the later. Thus only one wheel
is positively turned.

61
62
ii. Steering linkage for vehicle with independent front suspension:
In the case of conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beam ensures the movement
of stub axle in the horizontal plane only. In this therefore, there is no vertical deflection of the
suspension and hence there is no change in effective track-rod length. However, in the case of
independent suspension, the two stub axles can move up or down independent of each other due to
which distance between ball-joint ends of the two track rod arms is continuously varying. On account
of this a single track rod as in conventional system described above, cannot be used. depicts one
linkage for independent suspension where the above difficulty is avoided. Here three-piece track rod
is used, the center portion being called the relay rod, which is connected at one end to an idler arm
supported on body structure and to drop arm of the steering gear at the other end through ball joints.
The relay rod is restricted to move in horizontal plane only. Movement in vertical plane is provided
by the outer portions, viz., the tie rods about the end ball joints.

RESULT :

Thus the steering system along with the linkages is dismantled, assembled and studied.

63