OVERVIEW

Developmentally appropriate practice, often shortened to DAP, is an approach to

teaching grounded in the research on how young children develop and learn and in
what is known about effective early education. Its framework is designed to promote
young children’s optimal learning and development.

DAP involves teachers meeting young children where they are (by stage of
development), both as individuals and as part of a group; and helping each child meet
challenging and achievable learning goals.

Developmentally appropriate practice is the foundation for all of NAEYC's work

including—publications, training programs, conferences, accreditation of child care
programs, and more.
3 CORE CONSIDERATIONS OF DAP
• Knowing about child development and learning.
Knowing what is typical at each age and stage of early development is crucial. This
knowledge, based on research, helps us decide which experiences are best for
children’s learning and development. (See “12 Principles of Child Development and
Learning” from Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs
Serving Children from Birth through Age 8.)

• Knowing what is individually appropriate.

What we learn about specific children helps us teach and care for each child as an
individual. By continually observing children’s play and interaction with the physical
environment and others, we learn about each child’s interests, abilities, and
developmental progress.

• Knowing what is culturally important.

We must make an effort to get to know the children’s families and learn about the
values, expectations, and factors that shape their lives at home and in their
communities. This background information helps us provide meaningful, relevant, and
respectful learning experiences for each child and family.
3 Core Considerations
12 Principles of Child Development and Learning
5 Guidelines for Effective Teaching
10 Suggested Teaching Strategies

3 Core Considerations of DAP

• Knowing about child development and learning.
Knowing what is typical at each age and stage of early development is crucial. This
knowledge, based on research, helps us decide which experiences are best for
children’s learning and development. (See “12 Principles of Child Development and
Learning” from NAEYC’s DAP Position Statement.) (note: add link to page below)

• Knowing what is individually appropriate.

What we learn about specific children helps us teach and care for each child as an
individual. By continually observing children’s play and interaction with the physical
environment and others, we learn about each child’s interests, abilities, and
developmental progress.

• Knowing what is culturally important.

We must make an effort to get to know the children’s families and learn about the
values, expectations, and factors that shape their lives at home and in their
communities. This background information helps us provide meaningful, relevant, and
respectful learning experiences for each child and family.

12 Principles of Child Development and Learning

1. All areas of development and learning are important.
2. Learning and development follow sequences.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates.
4. Development and learning result from an interaction of
maturation and experience.
5. Early experiences have profound effects on development
and learning.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-
regulation, and symbolic or representational capacities.
7. Children develop best when they have secure
relationships.
8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by
multiple social and cultural contexts.
9. Children learn in a variety of ways.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-
regulation and pro¬moting language, cognition, and
social competence.
11. Development and learning advance when children are
challenged.
12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and
approaches to learning.

5 Guidelines for Effective Teaching

Through the decisions they make, excellent teachers translate the
DAP framework into high-quality experiences for children. Such
teaching is described in NAEYC’s position statement on
Developmentally Appropriate Practice, pages 16-23: "Guidelines
for Developmentally Appropriate Practice." These guidelines
address five key aspects of the teacher's role:

1. Creating a caring community of learners

 2. Teaching to enhance development and learning
3. Planning curriculum to achieve important goals
4. Assessing children's development and learning
5. Establishing reciprocal relationships with families

10 Effective DAP Teaching Strategies

An effective teacher or family child care provider chooses a
strategy to fit a particular situation. It’s important to consider
what the children already know and can do and the learning goals
for the specific situation. By remaining flexible and observant,
we can determine which strategy may be most effective. Often, if
one strategy doesn’t work, another will.

1. Acknowledge what children do or say. Let children know

that we have noticed by giving positive attention,
sometimes through comments, sometimes through just
sitting nearby and observing. (“Thanks for your help,
Kavi.” “You found another way to show 5.”)
2. Encourage persistence and effort rather than just praising
and evaluating what the child has done. (“You’re thinking
of lots of words to describe the dog in the story. Let’s
keep going!”)
3. Give specific feedback rather than general comments.
(“The beanbag didn’t get all the way to the hoop, James,
so you might try throwing it harder.”)
4. Model attitudes, ways of approaching problems, and
behavior toward others, showing children rather than just
telling them (“Hmm, that didn’t work and I need to think
about why.” “I’m sorry, Ben, I missed part of what you
said. Please tell me again.”)
5. Demonstrate the correct way to do something. This
usually involves a procedure that needs to be done in a
certain way (such as using a wire whisk or writing the
letter P).
6. Create or add challenge so that a task goes a bit beyond
what the children can already do. For example, you lay
out a collection of chips, count them together and
then ask a small group of children to tell you how many
are left after they see you removing some of the chips.
The children count the remaining chips to help come up
with the answer. To add a challenge, you could hide the
chips after you remove some, and the children will have
to use a strategy other than counting the remaining chips
to come up with the answer. To reduce challenge, you
could simplify the task by guiding the children to touch
 each chip once as they count the remaining chips.
7. Ask questions that provoke children’s thinking. (“If you
couldn’t talk to your partner, how else could you let him
know what to do?”)
8. Give assistance (such as a cue or hint) to help children
work on the edge of their current competence (“Can you
think of a word that rhymes with your name, Matt? How
about bat . . . Matt/bat? What else rhymes with Matt and
bat?”)
9. Provide information, directly giving children facts,
verbal labels, and other information. (“This one that looks
like a big mouse with a short tail is called a vole.”)
10. Give directions for children’s action or behavior.
(“Touch each block only once as you count them.” “You
want to move that icon over here? Okay, click on it and
hold down, then drag it to wherever you want.”)

Early Childhood Education: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate

Practices into Literacy Instruction

January 22, 2014 by Tisha Shipley

A top priority for early childhood educators is to teach children to read. Using developmentally
appropriate practices (DAP) while incorporating foundational concepts into lessons help teachers
differentiate instruction, engage students in the learning process, and increase achievement of all
children. While students are treated as unique individuals, all practices should be appropriate to
the child's age and developmental stage and build on previously taught concepts. The purpose of
this article is to explore teachers' experiences as they implement DAP into their literacy
instruction. It also examines obstacles they face as they implement their practices.

Early childhood education has become very popular in the last several years and is being highly
acknowledged and recognized by educational institutions and important government figures
(Pelo, 2008). A significant amount of money has been put into early education lately because of
the positive affects the programs are having on students' future success in school (U.S
Department of Education and Health and Human Services, 2011). In early childhood classrooms,
the focus should be on DAP that incorporates the physical, social, emotional, and cultural
development of the whole child with diverse populations in relation to literacy instruction
(Eggen & Kauchak, 2007).

Literacy is the core and foundation level of teaching. This allows children to build on basic skills
which start in early childhood classrooms. Teachers must effectively plan literacy instruction,
reflect on developmental stages of children, the interests of those children, and allow them to
engage in the learning and problem solving process (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Early
childhood professionals that employ a literacy-engaging atmosphere where DAP is used prove to
have thriving and successful students (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). When DAP is employed in
classroom environments, lessons are more successful, highly effective, and all students benefit
throughout each learning domain in relation to literacy instruction (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Implementing developmentally appropriate practices into classroom literacy instruction means

meeting the students at the developmental stage they are currently and enabling them to reach
goals that are set for them. DAP reduces learning gaps, increases achievement for all children,
and allows students to share and engage in the learning process while they solve their own
problems as they learn new information (Compple & Bredekamp, 2009). Developmentally
appropriate practices are proven in research to help children succeed.

A teacher that implements DAP into his teaching employs a busy classroom where students are
self-engaged, interacting physically with objects and people, mentally processing, and
constructing knowledge that builds on previous learning (Beaty, 2009). A DAP classroom has
direct-hands-on interaction, is full of materials, activities, and interactions that lead to different
kinds of knowledge that young children should acquire during the early years (Beaty 2009). As
educators we choose teaching strategies that best fit our students by using our knowledge of
children, child development, and learners and how they learn, how to plan curriculum,
understanding what the goals are, and learning styles.

Purpose of the Study

Current literature in the area of DAP is theory-driven as it gives recommendations for

implementation and theories about what a classroom should look like (Van Tassel-Baska &
Stambaugh, 2005). This study closes that gap and investigates teachers' experiences and
obstacles they face as they implement DAP into their literacy instruction, and gives examples of
developmentally appropriate literacy teaching strategies these teachers use that work in their
classrooms.

Method

The process for collecting the data for this study entailed interviewing six early childhood
teachers, who have at least two years' experience teaching young children, have the ability to use
and knowledge of DAP, and were able to provide a comprehensive description of their
experiences with DAP. All six teachers possess an early childhood degree from an accredited
university and are highly-qualified to teach in an early childhood environment. The face-to-face
interview consisted of nine open-ended questions, but other materials such as logs, journals,
diaries, or lesson plans were also collected. Each teacher brought to the study a different
perspective of what kind of educational preparation and background they had with DAP.

Through the analysis of the data, four overlapping themes surfaced:

1. Teachers perception of DAP is positive,

2. Collaboration is irrelevant,
 3. Relevant professional development is important and pertinent to helping teachers
implement DAP, and
4. All classroom teachers have barriers they face when implementing or using DAP in their
teaching practices.

Perception of DAP was consistent and positive throughout this study, and was seen as pertinent
to each participant. They each feel DAP fosters greater learning and retention of the information
being taught. The teachers each reported that they believed in and have a personal philosophy of
helping children succeed. They each reported that they try their best to incorporate DAP into
their personal teaching practices on a daily and consistent basis.

As the teachers were interviewed, the benefits of implementing DAP were very prominent. Early
childhood teachers realize how young children develop and learn and know what students need
to develop skills on their own time (Morrow, 2009).

Each teacher in the study reported having some sort of professional development and that it is
very important to how well one teaches in the classroom. They were each understanding about
budgets and limitations to what kind and how much professional development they received each
year. All participants when asked said they did want more professional development for their
teaching practices and wants it to be meaningful to what they are doing in their classrooms. As
each teacher voiced what he believed to constitute as relevant professional development, the best
DAP teaching strategies believed to help children in the classroom with literacy development
surfaced.

There are many DAP teaching strategies that teachers use to reach children. Teachers often try
several teaching strategies to reach all types of learners in their classroom. Collaboration,
professional development, and continuing education help teachers to learn new ways to
incorporate DAP so that students succeed, want to succeed, and feel that success.

The fourth theme that arose from the data was barriers that teachers face when they try to
implement DAP into their literacy instruction. Interview results indicated that every teacher faces
barriers in the classroom. Barriers can range from administration, government mandates,
education, professional development, and budgeting constraints. Additionally, testing, time, and
supportive staff and administration, along with large class sizes and different learning levels,
make incorporating DAP into literacy instruction a challenge for teachers.

It was found during the collection of the data in this study that a classroom atmosphere must be
inviting, nurturing, and engaging. Children must be evaluated, and the teacher must use a variety
of instructional practices such as modeling, encouraging words, differentiation, small groups,
and demonstration for children to understand and master new skills. Professional development is
important, and barriers must be overcome.

Each participant in this study discussed teaching strategies that best fit their teaching practices.
For young children to develop literacy skills they need time to engage, practice, and participate
in meaningful activities where they can interact and respond with peers on reading and writing
efforts. The next section gives developmentally appropriate teaching strategies teachers can
incorporate into their teaching practices (Rockwell, Hoge, & Searcy, 1999).

Developmentally Appropriate Literacy Instruction

Direct Instruction

A teacher stands in front of 20 four-year olds and explicitly shows them how to hold a book
correctly. She points at the picture on the cover and they brainstorm on what the book may be
about. She shows the title of the book and points to each word as she reads them showing one to
one correspondence. Then she opens the book and proceeds to read it. This model of instruction
is called direct instruction. Direct instruction (sometimes referred to as explicit instruction) can
be used in a small group, large group, or in a one-on-one situation (Beaty, 2009). Direct
instruction is used to teach many lessons in an early childhood classroom, and can be
incorporated into centers, small groups, free play, guided reading, and large group activity where
the teacher is providing the instruction and the students are engaged in their learning.

Centers

In another early childhood classroom a teacher sets the environment up into individual themed
areas children can choose from. When visitors come to the classroom they see small motor skills,
gross motor skills, blocks, computers, arts and crafts, and sand and water areas that are engaging,
differentiated, and meaningful to children. DAP can include thematic instruction as literacy
content is presented (Morrow, 2004). Centers in an early childhood classroom are meaningful
and beneficial in many ways and are most often presented through a theme so that they are
meaningful to the students. Centers are used for self-initiated and self-directed activities that
students can choose and learn at their own pace. Not only do students become deeply involved in
their own learning, centers also allow students to become part of a classroom community where
they can progress at their own rate and choose activities that are purposeful to them individually
(Beaty, 2009). Centers encourage social interaction, stimulate language, and help teachers to
enrich the everyday curriculum (Pate, 2009).

Children are able to explore, work with others, interact, engage in language and literacy
development, and be active in centers. These areas will increase their vocabulary, practice
effective expression, use language to describe, compare, and relate, create stories, resolve
conflict, and begin learning the usefulness of daily experiences of literacy activities (Rockwell et
al., 1999). Centers provide a rich and abundant source of literacy development opportunities.

Free Play

Imagine entering a classroom where children are dressed as doctors, towers are being built, red
and blue paint is being used for the picture of an American flag, children are walking on a
balance beam in the middle of the room, and play dough cookies are being made and baked. The
individual areas children can choose from allow them to converse, pretend, and explore their
physical environment which benefits all areas of literacy instruction (Beaty, 2009). This teaching
strategy is called free play which sparks curiosity, allowing children to practice not only fine and
gross motor skills, but also oral language, and even achieve mastery in many areas. Through this
type of self-exploratory play, objects and materials become real world manipulatives where they
can develop their own sense of the world and their learning styles.

Small Group Instruction

In another classroom a teacher sits on the floor with a small group of children in front of her.
They are discussing a story. The teacher models how to read print from left to right, they discuss
what is happening on each page, and problem solve how the story may or may not end and why.
This is called small group instruction and it allows for open-ended learning opportunities that are
relevant and meaningful to each group (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2007). Small group
instruction is effective because teaching is focused on what each student in the group needs
(Iaquinta, 2006).

Guided Reading

In this last classroom example there is a horseshoe-shaped table with four students and one
teacher sitting around it. They are fluently reading a passage together in unison. They are using
expression and connotation. After they are finished the students engage in a grand conversation
about the story. This practice is called guided reading which increases students' comprehension,
fluency, phonics, phonemic awareness, and provides opportunities for students to engage in
critical and analytical reading patterns (Fisher, 2008). Re-teaching, enrichment, teacher
observations, self-monitoring, and helping children become more confident readers are all goals
in a guided reading group (Morrow, 2009).

Conclusion

All practices in an early childhood classroom should be appropriate to the child's age and
developmental stage. In 2001, approximately 12 million children between birth and age six were
receiving educational services by someone other than their parent (McDonald, 2009). This
statistic shows how powerful early childhood education, and the implementation of DAP in the
early years, is significant.

Research indicates a positive correlation between a highly qualified early childhood classroom
that uses DAP and later school success (Birdwell, 2009) and educators' teaching strategies have a
direct effect on student achievement (Van-Tassel-Baska & Stambaugh, 2005). The focus of this
study was to give teachers a voice and allow them to describe their experiences in implementing
DAP.

Every day, teachers encounter problems, obstacles, and constructs that hinder them from
incorporating teaching strategies into the classroom setting (Goldstein, 2008). Administrative
support and allowing teachers to not only teach mandates, but allow them to teach the way they
know is best for young children through the use of DAP and teaching strategies allows teachers
to teach children and differentiate instruction to best fit each child. It will also allow teachers to
communicate their thoughts and needs about what types of professional development would
benefit their classroom practices and students. Aspiring teacher candidates, administrators, and
teachers will all benefit from this study by administrators better understanding how they can be
supportive, teachers can share, and support one another through obstacles they are facing, and
teacher candidates will better understand what they will face as they enter the teaching
profession.

Using Centers in Your Classroom

If a class is studying fall for example, literacy activities throughout the day are embedded into
centers so that students will gain information about the season. The following is a teacher plan
for literacy instruction using the theme fall.

 Monday Center: Library Center

The teacher would plan on having all types of fall books available for students,
including picture books, informational books, rhyming books, concept books,
fairytales, and fantasy. Students have the opportunity to choose books to read or
to listen to. Some great books for young children for the fall include: Katie
McKy's Pumpkin Town! Or, Nothing Is Better and Worse Than Pumpkins (2008,
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt), Amy and Richard Hutching's Picking Apples and
Pumpkins (1994, Scholastic), and Betsy Maestro's Why Do Leaves Change
Color? (1994, HarperCollins). This center teaches concept of print,
brainstorming, retelling, phonological and phonemic awareness, and prediction
(Dodge, Colker & Heroman, 2002). Children in the library center will explore
different types of stories and books, learn to listen for understanding, recognize
written words are symbols, begin matching words with printed text and then
recognize printed words, sight words, and high frequency words (Dodge et., al
2002).
 Tuesday Center: Writing Center
The teacher brainstorms with students on fall words, putting these words followed
by a picture in the literacy center. There will be fall stickers, stencils, cut outs,
cards, and paper for students to make books with and to practice writing. The fall
words will eventually be added to the large book of other themed words that are
kept in the literacy center. Students can look through the themed book, they can
write letters or stories, and use fall stamps and draw pictures to decorate their
work. This center is teaching concepts of print, brainstorming, and self-initiation.
A writing center provides many different opportunities for children to write in a
variety of ways. A well-stocked center will have many different types of materials
including: construction paper, different size markers, pencils, crayons, blank
paper, staples, and tape (Rockwell et., al 1999).
 Wednesday Center: Block Center
Students build a block tower as high as they can. As they build the tower, they
must draw a card with a word on it and place a high frequency, sight, or fall word
on the block and read them as they build. This center is teaching phonemic
awareness, phonics, sounding out, and blending. In the block center, students can
also make signs about their towers and expand their vocabulary by talking about
their buildings to teachers and peers (Rockwell et al., 1999).
  Thursday Center: Sand and Water Center
Students search in the sand for all objects that are fall related. For example, there
may be leaves, walnuts, small pumpkins, acorns, or pictures of children in
Halloween costumes. Students can take these objects and put them in alphabetical
order, write a story in the order they found the objects, and make lists. Students
will also look for letters that will make words that they previously brainstormed
earlier in the week and make a list of them. As the sand and water table is set up,
the teacher would choose items that will excite children's curiosity and further
their exploration through conversation (Dodge et al., 2002).
 Friday Center: Miscellaneous Center
In a miscellaneous center, objects, subjects, and ideas can be changed frequently.
Many times there will be play dough or silly putty to play with, or children may
make ice cream to go along with a theme. This week students could take
newspapers and magazines and find fall words and pictures, cut them out, write
them down, or use silly putty to copy and transfer the word onto the paper. They
will then find a partner and read the words they found.

REFERENCES

Beaty, J. (2009). Preschool appropriate practices. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Birdwell, J. (2009, July 23). Upcoming summit focuses on economic benefits of early childhood
development. Oklahoma Gazette, para. 6. Retrieved from
http://www.okgazette.com/oklahoma/article-4137-upcoming-summit-focuses-on-economic-
benefits-of-early-childhood-development.html

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs: Serving Children from Birth through Age 8 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Dodge, D., Colker, L., & Heroman, C. (2002) Creative curriculum for preschool. Washington,
DC: Teaching Strategies.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2007). Education psychology: Windows on classrooms. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.

Fisher, A. (2008). Teaching comprehension and critical literacy: Investigating guided reading in
three primary classrooms. Literacy, (42), 52–58.

Goldstein, L. (2008). Teaching the standards is developmentally appropriate practice: Strategies

for incorporating the sociopolitical dimension of DAP in early childhood teaching. Early
Childhood Education Journal, (36), 253–260.

Iaquinta, A. (2006). Guided reading: A research-based response to the challenges of early

reading instruction. Early Childhood Education Journal, (33), 34–39.
Kostelnik, M., Soderman, A., & Whiren, A. (2007). Developmentally appropriate curriculum:
Best practices in early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

McDonald, D. (2009). Elevating the field. NAEYC Public Policy Report. Washington, DC:
NAEYC.

Morrow, L. (2004). Developmentally appropriate practice in early literacy instruction. The

Reading Teacher, 58(1), 88–89.

Morrow, L. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early literacy instruction.

Distinguished Educator, 89(2), 86–89.

Pate, M. (2009). Language and social development in a multilingual classroom. Young Children,
64(4), 12–19.

Pelo, A. (2008). Rethinking early childhood education. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools.

Rockwell, R., Hoge, D., Searcy, B. (1999). Linking language: Simple language and literacy
activities throughout the curriculum. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.

U.S Department of Education and Health and Human Services (2011). The federal budget:
Fiscal year 2011. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov

Van Tassel-Baska, J., & Stambaugh, T. (2005). Challenges and possibilities for serving gifted
learners in the regular classroom. Theory Into Practice, (44), 211–217.

Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children:

Recommendations for Teaching Practices
By: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), International Reading Association

The following are recommended teaching practices from the International Reading Association (IRA) and
the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

Comment

Related

During the infant and toddler years

Children need relationships with caring adults who engage in many one-on-one, face-to-face
interactions with them to support their oral language development and lay the foundation for
later literacy learning. Important experiences and teaching behaviors include but are not limited
to:

 Talking to babies and toddlers with simple language, frequent eye contact, and responsiveness
to children's cues and language attempts
 Frequently playing with, talking to, singing to, and doing fingerplays with very young children
 Sharing cardboard books with babies and frequently reading to toddlers on the adult's lap or
together with one or two other children
 Providing simple art materials such as crayons, markers, and large paper for toddlers to explore
and manipulate

During the preschool years

Young children need developmentally appropriate experiences and teaching to support literacy
learning. These include but are not limited to:

 Positive, nurturing relationships with adults who engage in responsive conversations with
individual children, model reading and writing behavior, and foster children's interest in and
enjoyment of reading and writing
 Print-rich environments that provide opportunities and tools for children to see and use written
language for a variety of purposes, with teachers drawing children's attention to specific letters
and words
 Adults' daily reading of high-quality books to individual children or small groups, including books
that positively reflect children's identity, home language, and culture
 Opportunities for children to talk about what is read and to focus on the sounds and parts of
language as well as the meaning
 Teaching strategies and experiences that develop phonemic awareness, such as songs,
fingerplays, games, poems, and stories in which phonemic patterns such as rhyme and
alliteration are salient
 Opportunities to engage in play that incorporates literacy tools, such as writing grocery lists in
dramatic play, making signs in block building, and using icons and words in exploring a computer
game
 Firsthand experiences that expand children's vocabulary, such as trips in the community and
exposure to various tools, objects, and materials

In kindergarten and primary grades

Teachers should continue many of these same good practices with the goal of continually
advancing children's learning and development. In addition every child is entitled to excellent
instruction in reading and writing that includes but is not limited to:

 Daily experiences of being read to and independently reading meaningful and engaging stories
and informational texts
 A balanced instructional program that includes systematic code instruction along with
meaningful reading and writing activities
 Daily opportunities and teacher support to write many kinds of texts for different purposes,
including stories, lists, messages to others, poems, reports, and responses to literature
  Writing experiences that allow the flexibility to use nonconventional forms of writing at first
(invented or phonic spelling) and over time move to conventional forms
 Opportunities to work in small groups for focused instruction and collaboration with other
children
 An intellectually engaging and challenging curriculum that expands knowledge of the world and
vocabulary
 Adaptation of instructional strategies or more individualized instruction if the child fails to make
expected progress in reading or when literacy skills are advanced

Although experiences during the earliest years of life can have powerful long-term
consequences, human beings are amazingly resilient and incredibly capable of learning
throughout life. We should strengthen our resolve to ensure that every child has the benefit of
positive early childhood experiences that support literacy development. At the same time,
regardless of children's prior learning, schools have the responsibility to educate every child and
to never give up even if later interventions must be more intensive and costly.

References

Endnotes

Excerpted from: Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children.
(May, 1998) A joint position of the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

Exploring developmentally appropriate practice

"Developmentally appropriate practice requires both meeting children where they are—which means
that teachers must get to know them well —and enabling them to reach goals that are both challenging
and achievable."

As a practitioner caring for children, it is your responsibility to seek out and intentionally plan
the best opportunities for children that support their over-all well being and healthy development.
The practices that you use when working with young children need to embrace the most current,
effective approaches in learning and development. These can be described as best practices,
thoughtful teaching, quality practices, or Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP). DAP
comes from a deep history in early education, research, and what many describe as “good
thinking.”

NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children) states, “Developmentally
Appropriate Practice is informed by what we know from theory and literature about how children
develop and learn.” In its Developmentally Appropriate Practice Key Messages of the Position
Statement, NAEYC shares the following in defining DAP:
  Developmentally appropriate practice requires both meeting children where they are—which
means that teachers must get to know them well— to reach goals that are both challenging and
achievable.
 All teaching practices should be appropriate to children’s age and developmental status,
attuned to them as unique individuals, and responsive to the social and cultural contexts in
which they live.
 Developmentally appropriate practice does not mean making things easier for children. Rather,
it means ensuring that goals and experiences are suited to their learning and development and
challenging enough to promote their progress and interest.
 Best practice is based on knowledge—not on assumptions—of how children learn and develop.
The research base yields major principles in human development and learning. Those principles,
along with evidence about curriculum and teaching effectiveness, form a solid basis for decision
making in early care and education. (This position statement articulates 12 principles - see
below.)

Developmentally appropriate practice is a comprehensive educational perspective that supports

optimal healthy development for every child. Developmentally appropriate practice embraces
both continuity and change; continuity because it guides a tradition of quality early learning and
change as it incorporates new research, knowledge, and science in regard to children’s
development and learning.

Child development principles that inform DAP

1. All the domains of development are important.

2. Many aspects of children’s learning and development follow well documented sequences.

3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child.

4. Development and learning result from a dynamic and continuous interaction of biological
maturation and experience.

5. Early experiences have profound effects on a child’s development and learning, and there are
optimal times for certain learning and development to occur.

6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and representational

abilities.

7. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relationships with responsive
caregivers and peers.

8. Development and learning occur within and are influenced by social and cultural contexts.

9. Children learn in a variety of ways and are actively engaged in learning.

10. Play is a main way that children learn and develop self-regulation.
11. Development and learning occur when children are slightly challenged and through practice.

12. Children’s dispositions and behavior are shaped by experiences and affect children’s learning
and development.

DAP: A decision-making tool

As an early childhood professional working with young children, you are a decision-maker, and
you will make many decisions about the children in your program on a daily basis.
Understanding DAP – its meaning and intentional practices – is essential in guiding the decisions
you will make for young children. Developing the skills to make good decisions for children
relies on building knowledge about individual children and child development principles
combined with knowledge of effective early learning practices. These are the core considerations
in developmentally appropriate practice.

Knowledge of individual children and child development principles

DAP is informed by three areas of knowledge that are critical components in making good
decisions for children.

1. Child development appropriateness

Child development follows general, sequential patterns and is interrelated across domains
(cognitive, physical, social and emotional). Know and understand milestones and sequences of
development in all domains and use child development information for planning and identifying
activities, environments, experiences, and strategies (for large/small groups or individuals) to
best promote growth and learning.

2. Individual appropriateness

Each child is an individual and develops in her own, unique way. Know each child’s strengths,
abilities, needs, challenges, interests, temperament, and approaches to learning. Know their
individual skills, ideas and joys. This can be done through time spent together (conversations,
etc.), observation, assessment, work samples, documentation, and information from families and
past teachers/programs.

3. Social and cultural appropriateness

All children are of culture. Know each child’s cultural and family background – his unique
family, values, language, lifestyles, and beliefs. Ensure that the experiences you provide respect
these and are meaningful for each child/family. What makes sense to children is their own
culture and teachers must consider this, along with overall child development and learning
program.

Knowledge of effective early learning practices

DAP focuses on five key areas of early learning practices:

 Creating a caring community of learners. Build positive and responsive relationships between
children, staff, and families, both among groups and within the program, to create a community
that supports all children as they develop and learn to their capacity in all domains.
 Teaching to enhance development and learning. Provide a balance of teacher-directed and
childinitiated activities and plan experiences that meet individual needs, interests, and learning
goals.
 Planning curriculum to achieve important goals. Develop a written curriculum that reflects
developmental milestones and appropriate early learning goals for children and that supports
individualized learning.
 Assessing children’s development and learning. Link assessment to curriculum and early
learning standards and use authentic assessment methods to measure a child’ s progress.
 Establishing reciprocal relationships with families. Work in partnership with families to learn
about each child, to develop two-way communication, and to establish supportive relationships
with all families.

References:

Copple, Carol and Sue Bredekamp, editors. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early
Childhood Programs: Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, 3rd Edition. Washington, DC:
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2009.

The following are paraphrased examples of DAP and Developmentally Inappropriate Practices.
There are five examples for each of the six areas outlined in the DAP guide for preschoolers.
Similar examples for each of the other ages are found in the DAP guidelines.
 Appropriate Practices
(1) Creating A Caring Community Of Learners

2 Within an early childhood program (the classroom), the teachers should develop friendships,
so that all the children in the class care about each other.

18 When selecting activities for the children, teachers should be aware of, and responsive to,
individual differences in children's ability, developmental level, and approach to learning.

38 Teachers should bring each child's home culture and language into the classroom so
children can learn to respect and appreciate similarities and differences among people.

46 Children with disabilities or special learning needs should be included in the class not only
physically but also intellectually and socially.

58 Teachers should help children learn how to establish positive constructive relationships with
adults and other children.

(2) Teaching To Enhance Development And Learning

5 Children's communication skills should be developed throughout the course of the day by
encouraging individual and group discussions.

12 Teachers should motivate the children using activities that children are naturally curious
about and interested in.

23 Teachers should frequently ask the children for different ways to solve a problem thereby
developing different strategies for problem solving.

41 Teachers should often provide a wide range of learning experiences so that children are
able to select activities they would like to do.

47 Teachers should create an environment where the child can take appropriate physical and
academic risks.

(3) Constructing Appropriate Curriculum

8 Teachers should ensure that activities are well matched to each child's development,
encouraging children in new tasks when the child is ready to learn.

16 The curriculum design (what is to be taught in the program) should be based on the
children's prior experiences and should change based on the children's interests.

40 Children should use strategies including inventing their own spelling, talking informally,
listening to and reading stories and poems to develop language and literacy skills.

52 Teachers should integrate different content areas together (e.g., math / science / art) such
as exploring patterns in math or counting blocks in the block center.

53 Teachers should be patient when there are occasional toileting accidents, spilled food at
lunch, or unfinished jobs such as putting the art supplies away.

(4) Assessing Children’s Learning And Development

7 Teachers should use observation of the children's progress to assess the child's work.

14 Teachers should use their assessments of childrens' classroom behaviors, projects, etc., to
plan and adapt the activities that the children participate in.

26 Examples of the child's work (over a period of time) from multiple activities should be used
to give the teacher a good idea of the child's development.

35 Assessments should provide information concerning how the child solved the problem.

54 The program should accept children regardless of the child's prior knowledge, ability, or
readiness.

(5) Reciprocal Relationships With Parents

6 Cultural and individual differences within the community should be respected by the
teachers.

30 Family members should always be welcome in the program and opportunities for the family
to participate in the program should be arranged to accommodate the family's schedule.

34 Teachers should work with members of the child's family as a partnership to help the child's
learning and development.

49 When problems between teachers and families arise, teachers should be respectful of the
families wishes and both parties should work together to solve the problem.

50 Teachers should always listen to the family members of the children in the program,
respecting the goals that the family members have for their children.

(6) Program Policies

9 Teachers should possess college-level preparation in child development and

developmentally appropriate practices to be qualified to work with young children.

10 The number of children in the class should be limited by professional standards to ensure
that each child receives the individual attention they require from the teacher.

13 Teachers should be expected to engage in ongoing professional development activities

(e.g., university study, attending workshops, etc.) to remain in their teaching positions.

15 The administrators of the programs that serve young children should have professional
knowledge of children's learning and development.

60 Strategies such as multiage grouping (children of lots of different ages in the same
classroom) are used so that children can develop a strong and lasting relationship with the
teacher.

Inappropriate Practices

(1) Creating A Caring Community Of Learners

37 Teachers should maintain order in the classroom by restricting talking and separating
friends who talk all the time.

39 Teachers should move children from one class to another to make sure there aren't too
many children for a single teacher even if it means the children do not settle into a regular class
routine.
48 In the classroom, it is not important to consider cultural and other individual differences.

55 In the classroom, the teacher should attempt to get all the children to learn the same skills at
the same time.

56 Children with disabilities or special learning needs should receive most of their instruction
outside of the regular class with a special education teacher.

(2) Teaching To Enhance Development And Learning

1 Children's play should be limited so that the children can focus on their academic work.

22 Children should learn concepts and skills using repetitive examples (doing the skill over and
over again) where there is only one correct response.

25 Teachers should often use rewards (such as outdoor privileges) for good behavior and
punishments (such as "Time Out") for unacceptable behavior.

28 Children should often work in their seats on teacher chosen activities and talking among
children should be kept to a minimum.

51 Teachers should often use drill and practice in the classroom and the best way for children
to learn skills is to copy the teacher's example as closely as possible.

(3) Constructing Appropriate Curriculum

11 The focus in the classroom should be in teaching academic subjects like reading, writing,
and arithmetic and these should be taught as separate subjects (e.g., math in the morning,
science in the afternoon, etc.).

32 An academic level reflecting what all children should know should be set for the whole class
and should be followed to make sure that all the material for the year is covered.

36 In learning to read, children should first be able to recognize all the letters of the alphabet
and sound out all the letters' sounds before they start to look at books.

43 To teach children toileting skills, teachers should let the children know that they should be
ashamed if there's an accident.

59 The teacher should follow a standard course of study reflecting the average American
(different cultures are not studied).

(4) Assessing Children’s Learning And Development

3 How successful the early childhood program (the classroom) is should be based on how
many of the children are able to perform specific skills (such as recognizing the letters of the
alphabet, being able to count, etc.).

17 How well the child is doing in the program should be measured by how well the children
perform on tests that compare the child to children from around the nation.

20 Prior to entering the program, teachers should test the child using a ‘readiness test' to
determine whether the child is ready for the year's work.

29 Assessments should be used to find out how much the child knows and not with how the
child comes to know the information (the process of learning).

33 Teachers and family members should use workbooks for practice and discovering if a child
knows how to write letters, recognize numbers, etc..

(5) Reciprocal Relationships With Parents

21 Teachers should make sure that the child's culture should not be allowed to interfere with
the goals of the class.

24 The flow of information should be from the teacher to the family member so that the family
knows what to do to help their children learn.

44 Teachers should encourage family members to make sure the child knows that adults are
always in charge and should not be questioned (e.g., children should only speak when spoken
to).

45 Family members should not interfere in the design of the activities in the classroom because
the teachers are the education experts.

57 Family members should be limited in how often they are allowed to visit the children to
minimize the disruption caused by the visit.
 (6) Program Policies

4 If older children can work at desks in large groups, younger children should be expected
(and trained) to work the same way.

19 The administrators job is managerial and therefore administrators should be more like
business people and don't need training in early childhood education.

27 Children of the same ability should be kept together and children who do not keep up with
the other children should not be allowed to slow the pace of the class down.

31 It should be acceptable for qualified teachers of older children to work with younger children.

42 Teachers should not have to possess formal college-level preparation to be qualified to work
with young children. As long as adults care for the children this should qualify them as suitable
for the job.

DAP with Preschoolers

DAP with Preschoolers, Ages 3-55

Preschool children learn best when they have positive and caring
relationships with adults and other children; when they receive
carefully planned, intentional guidance and assistance; and when
they can safely encounter and explore many interesting things in
their environment.

Children enter preschool with different strengths. One child

might love picture books and already know lots of letters but
have trouble with social interaction. A classmate may find it easy
to initiate play and share toys yet have almost no experience with
books and reading.
Preschoolers

 thrive when they can experience new materials, roles,

ideas, and activities—especially in pretend play;
 take great interest in feelings and become better able to
express their emotions and identify those of others;
 make important cognitive gains that invite them to
represent their world in pretend play, symbols, objects,
drawings, and words; and
 show astonishing gains in language skills.

Teaching Preschoolers

Good preschool teachers maintain appropriate expectations,

providing each child with the right mix of challenge, support,
sensitivity, and stimulation. With their knowledge, skill, and
training, teachers—in collaboration with families—can ensure
that programs promote and enhance every child’s learning.

Let’s see what DAP in preschool looks like:

In the dramatic play center, two 4-year-old girls are pretending

to read menus. Maria, noticing that neither girl has taken on the
role of waiter, takes notepad and pencil in hand and asks them,
“May I take your order?” Over the next few days, more children
join the restaurant play. Waiters set tables, take orders, give
orders to the cook, and prepare checks for diners.

Maria is an observant, inventive, and intentional teacher. Her

intervention sparks fresh play, tempting children to take on
different roles, enrich their social and language interactions, and
use writing and math for new purposes.
The classroom example on this page is adapted from Learning to
Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for
Young Children.

EARLY CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT RATING SCALE - REVISED (ECERS-R)

Statements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Space and Furnishings

1. Indoor space
Children need sufficient space that is well lit and has a comfortable temperature for learning and
playing. Indoor space that is well maintained and in good repair sends a message to the young
child that is welcoming and inviting.

2. Furniture for routine care, play and learning

Children need appropriate furnishings to meet the demands of their daily schedules. Basic
furniture such as cots, tables and chairs should be sturdy and appropriate to the size of the
children in the group in order for children to be comfortable, have proper body support, and
focus on learning, playing, and routine activities rather than their own discomfort. Caregivers
need easy access to routine care furnishings, such as cots, in order to maintain proper supervision
and provide smooth transitions between activities.

3. Furnishings for relaxation and comfort

Children need space and opportunity to relax and rest. Soft furnishings and toys allow children
opportunities for relaxation and comfort. Cozy areas provide a space for quiet activities to occur
and should be protected from active play so children can snuggle, daydream and lounge.

4. Room arrangement

Creative room arrangement promotes a child's positive self-image and encourages a wide variety
of age appropriate activities. Well-defined interest centers where materials are accessible help
children to understand about organization and returning materials to their proper place.

5. Space for privacy

Some children experience unacceptably high levels of stress when exposed to constant activity
and interaction. Places where children can escape from the pressures of group care promote
positive self-esteem. Providing a child with opportunities, space, and time to be alone can
contribute to positive classroom behavior.

6. Child related display

Every child needs to know that others value his/her play or work. Artwork or other individual
work that is created by the children should be displayed in the classroom at the child's eye-level.
This promotes feelings of positive self-esteem and sends the message to the child that his/her
work is valued and appreciated.

7. Gross motor play

Children need daily opportunities to exercise large muscles, run in open spaces, and practice
gross motor skills. (Safety is always a number one priority.) Space to develop children's large
muscles through a variety of play experiences should be made safe by providing adequate
cushioning for fall zones. All play equipment should be safe and effective monitoring should be
implemented to teach children safe play behavior and to safeguard against accidents.
8. Gross motor equipment

Children need age appropriate stationary and portable equipment to promote a wide variety of
skills that exercise large muscles while developing confidence and abilities. Equipment should
be sound, sturdy, safe and accessible to children daily.

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Personal Care Routines

9. Greeting/Departing

Parents and children need a warm, welcoming, and pleasant atmosphere to make the daily
greeting and departing routine a happy one. Positive greetings help to promote the children's self-
esteem and create a welcoming environment for parents.

10. Meals/Snacks

Meals and snacks that follow USDA guidelines contribute to the health of children and provide a
model for good nutritional habits for life-long practice. Proper hand washing along with careful
food preparation teach children proper hygiene and promotes sanitary conditions.

11. Nap/Rest

Nap and/or rest time should be appropriately scheduled and supervised for the children in the
group. Adequate separation of cots helps to prevent the spread of germs. Soft music or a soothing
story helps to facilitate a peaceful rest time that is important in helping children to balance the
day and renew their energy.

12. Toileting/Diapering

Young children need appropriate supervision of the toileting process in order to care for basic
needs and to teach the importance of good health habits. The schedule should be individualized.
Provisions, such as soap and steps near the sink, should be convenient and accessible so that
children can wash hands after toileting; this promotes self-help skills and good personal hygiene.
Diapering should always be managed in a manner that promotes safety and good health
practices.

13. Health practices

Practicing preventive measures, such as washing hands after handling pets or wiping noses, help
to educate children to achieve life-long health practices. Taking appropriate action when children
are sick will minimize the spread of germs.

14. Safety practices

Protecting children is critical in providing quality care, whether through adequate supervision or
minimizing hazards both inside and outside. Caregivers should anticipate potential safety
problems and demonstrate, model, and teach children safe practices.

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Language-Reasoning

15. Books and pictures

The use of books and pictures is an important means of learning for children as they make sense
of the world around them. Books, pictures, and language materials should be available in
sufficient number both for independent use in a reading center and for use by a teacher with
children in formal and informal settings.

16. Encouraging children to communicate

Activities and materials that promote language development should be available for use
throughout the classroom and the daily schedule. Teachers should establish an environment
where language exploration and usage is encouraged.

17. Using language to develop reasoning skills

Logical relationships and concepts should be presented in appropriate ways. Children learn
through interaction with materials and people, both peers and adults, in the context of play and
daily routines. Language provides the key tool for success and problem solving, as children are
encouraged to talk through their thought processes.

18. Informal use of language

Language is a way for children to expand understanding. Caregivers should engage children in
give and take conversations for enjoyment and learning. They should support child-to-child
conversations as well.

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Activities

19. Fine motor

Children need a variety of age-appropriate and developmentally-appropriate toys and materials

that they can manipulate with their hands and play with at will. These activities strengthen fine
motor control while encouraging skill development that contributes to academic readiness.

20. Art
Children benefit from exposure to child-initiated art activities that are open-ended and process
oriented. Children's art should be respected and appreciated as individual, creative expression.
Materials and opportunities to create art projects at a beginning and more advanced level should
be available as children are developmentally ready for them.

21. Music/movement

Music and movement are valuable means of learning. Children need a supportive environment
that includes a teacher and a variety of tools to encourage their self-expression through music
and related activities.

22. Blocks

Block play, with a variety of blocks and accessories, allows children the opportunity to explore
spatial, mathematical, and role-play possibilities. Powerful block play requires sufficient space in
a protected area and time to expand on concepts and ideas.

23. Sand/water

Sand and water play gives children the opportunity to learn concepts through active exploration
with their senses. The addition of interesting props extends the learning potential offered through
sensory play.

24. Dramatic play

Dramatic play gives children the opportunity to discover an array of roles and responsibilities. It
provides a vehicle through which they make sense of their world. Dramatic play is enhanced by
space, time, props, materials, and supportive teachers.

25. Nature/science

Science and nature activities and materials foster curiosity and experimentation benefiting the
young learner through direct experience and application to other areas of learning. Concept and
observation skills are strengthened through science procedures.

26. Math/number

Math skills, when introduced through appropriate hands-on methods, form a foundation for
school readiness and later academic success. Math skills can be taught effectively through
routines, schedule, and play activities.

27. Use of TV, video, and/or computer

TV/video viewing and computer use tend to be passive in comparison to active involvement with
materials and people. The use of each should be confined to subject material that is age-
appropriate and mentally stimulating. Time limits encourage more active learning. Participation
should not be required.

28. Promoting acceptance of diversity

Children need to be exposed to the similarities and differences of people in positive ways
through books, pictures, toys, materials, and interaction. This exposure encourages respect for
others and lessens misunderstandings.

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Interactions

29. Supervision of gross motor activities

Caregivers should use gross motor activities as learning opportunities to promote positive social
interactions and to encourage the development of skills and new experiences Diligent
supervision of gross motor activities, whether indoors or outdoors, is critical to preventing
accidents and insuring safe, active play.

30. General supervision of children (other than gross motor)

During activities, caregivers must balance the level of supervision and control based upon the
ages, abilities, and individual needs of the children. Adequate supervision and awareness of the
whole group is required for children's health and safety and in the recognition of
accomplishments, which is necessary for children's emotional well-being.

31. Discipline

The set-up of the environment, teacher expectations, available materials and opportunities, and
daily schedule significantly impacts children's behavior in childcare. A classroom and
curriculum geared toward developmentally appropriate practice will lead to generally good
behavior that is the product of self-motivation rather than the result of punishment and control.

32. Staff-child interactions

Caregivers, who are nurturing and responsive, promote the development of mutual respect
between children and adults. Children, who trust adults to provide for their physical,
psychological, and emotional needs, develop their own sense of self-worth and self-esteem.

33. Interactions among children

Because self-regulation, proper emotional expression, and positive social relationships are such
essential skills for later schooling and life, teachers must encourage children to develop
acceptable behaviors by providing a setting that encourages real opportunities for initiative
taking and competence building. Providing opportunities for children to work and play together,
to solve conflicts in productive ways, and to participate in group activities are ways teachers
promote positive social relationships.

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Program Structure

34. Schedule

Children thrive on having a consistent routine that provides a balance of activities designed to
meet individual needs and foster physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Best practice
promotes a daily schedule with large amounts of time for play, smooth transitions between
activities, and a balance between child-initiated and teacher-directed activities.

35. Free Play

When children are permitted to select materials and companions, and, as far as possible, manage
play independently, they practice making decisions and having control of their world. Caregiver
intervention should be in response to children's needs, an invitation, or an opportunity to expand
play activities.

36. Group Time

In group-care situations, the focus needs to be on meeting individual needs and guiding children
as they interact in small groups. Whole group activities should be kept to a minimum and limited
to gatherings that follow the interests and involvement of the children.

37. Provisions for children with disabilities

Meeting the needs of children with disabilities requires knowledge of routine care needs,
developmental levels, individual assessments, and the integration of the children in ongoing
classroom activities. It also requires the involvement and establishment of a partnership between
the parents and staff in setting attainable goals that will assist the child in reaching his/her full
potential.

May not be copied, shared, sold, or distributed in any manner. Unauthorized duplication is not
permitted. Items and indicators reprinted from Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale –
Revised Edition - Updated by Thelma Harms, Richard M. Clifford, and Debby Cryer. (New
York: Teachers College Press, © 2005 by Thelma Harms, Richard M. Clifford, and Debby
Cryer.) Used with the permission of the publisher and the authors. This project is funded under
an agreement with the Tennessee Department of Human Services and the University of
Tennessee, Social Work Office of Research and Public Service.
Theories of Child Development: Building Blocks of Developmentally
Appropriate Practices
By Terri Jo Swim, Ph.D.

“The best teacher is not the one who fills the student’s mind with the largest amount of factual data in a minimum
of time, or who develops some manual skill almost to the point of uncanniness, but rather the one who kindles an
inner fire, arouses moral enthusiasm, inspires the student with a vision of what she may become, and reveals
the worth and permanency of moral and spiritual and cultural values."
– Harold Garnet Black

Many individuals enter the field of early childhood education because they love children. You may be one of
them. How could a person not love children or, at least like them a great deal, in order to spend so much time
with them on a daily, weekly, and yearly basis? For many years, practitioners in early childhood education have
assumed that this love of children was a primary component in the “quality equation.” In other words, if you love
young children enough, then you would provide high-quality care and education for them. Jane Weichel (2003),
President of the National Association for the Education of Young Children says is this no longer the formula.
Scholarly research on the relationship between teacher qualifications and child outcomes now supports the
notion that, first and foremost, teachers must have knowledge, skills, and dispositions about child development
and learning; after those components are in place, love of children can be added to the “quality equation.”

This change in teacher qualifications for the “quality equation” is simultaneously a reflection and a driving force
of the current context for early childhood education. Our field is changing significantly at all levels – national,
state, and local, and it is our professional responsibility to know the current landscape and respond in
appropriate ways. The No Child Left Behind Act, for example, is driven by performance standards, calls for
quality teachers and teaching, guarantees that all children have access to learning opportunities and can learn at
high levels, and requires frequent assessment to demonstrate accountability (Weichel, 2003; see also the U.S.
Department of Education website:www.nochildleftbehind.gov). Each day, teachers are faced with the decision to
assume their professional and ethical responsibility of making a meaningful difference in the lives of children or
to continue doing business as usual.

In order to make an informed decision about how to make meaningful differences while providing high-quality
care and education, teachers need knowledge of child development, learning, and best practices as well as tools
for making sense of this vast array of information. The primary focus of this article is to assist early childhood
teachers in gaining knowledge of how developmental theories inform our understanding of developmentally
appropriate practice. To do so, two sets of questions will be addressed: 1) What is a developmental theory, what
purposes do child development theories serve, and how are they useful to understanding and implementing
developmentally appropriate practices? and 2) How can a teacher use reflection as a tool for solving problems
when confronted with inconsistent or even contradictory information about child development and learning?

Linking Developmentally Appropriate Practice to Developmental Theories

In the NAEYC Position Statement describing developmentally appropriate practices, 12 principles of child
development and learning were compiled to inform professionals’ work with young children (Bredekamp &
Copple, 1997). This article will highlight the principles as a refresher, yet the entire description of each principle
can be accessed online atwww.naeyc.org or in Bredekamp & Copple’s (1997) publication.

1. Domains of children’s development – physical, social, emotional, and cognitive – are closely related.
Development in one domain influences and is influenced by development in other domains.

2. Development occurs in a relative orderly sequence, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building on
those already acquired.

3. Development proceeds at varying rates from child to child as well as unevenly within different areas of
each child’s functioning.

4. Early experiences have both cumulative and delayed effects on individual children’s development;
 optimal periods exist for certain types of development and learning.

5. Development proceeds in predictable directions toward greater complexity, organization, and

internalization.

6. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.

7. Children are active learners, drawing on direct physical and social experience as well as culturally
transmitted knowledge to construct their own understanding of the world around them.

8. Development and learning result from interaction of biological maturation and the environment, which
includes both the physical and social worlds that children live in.

9. Play is an important vehicle for children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development, as well as
reflection of their development.

10. Development advances when children have opportunities to practice newly acquired skills as well as
when they experience a challenge just beyond their level of their present mastery.

11. Children demonstrate different modes of knowing and learning and different ways of representing what
they know.

12. Children develop and learn best in the context of a community where they are safe and valued, their
physical needs are met, and they feel psychologically secure.

As you might guess, the above principles were generalized from a number of developmental theories. In order to
best understand them, we should focus our attention on defining developmental theories and explaining how
they help teachers make decisions. A developmental theory is an organized system of principles and
explanations of certain aspects of child development (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004). Developmental theories assist
teachers in a number of ways. First, they help to describe, explain, and predict behaviors (Berk, 2003). In
addition, developmental theories “guide and give meaning to what we see” – they help teachers to interpret
behavioral observations (Berk, 2003, p. 6). Third, theories help teachers to distinguish typical patterns of
development from unique patterns of development, which in turn assists them in providing additional instructional
assistance or services to young children. Lastly, developmental theories guide teachers’ formal and informal
instructional decision-making.

Developmental Theories Defined

Key theories or theorists that you may be familiar with, include but are not limited to Alfred Bandura’s social
learning theory, biological-maturational theory (e.g, Arnold Gesell), Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, Erik
Erikson’s psychosocial theory, Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, behaviorist theory (e.g., B.F.
Skinner and John Watson), and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Each theory or theorist examines and
explains development from a slightly different angle when considering four primary controversies:

1. Is development primarily the result of nature (biological and/or genetic forces) or nurture (environmental
forces);

2. Is development characterized by universality (common experiences that lead to predictable patterns of

outcomes) or diversity (disparate experiences that lead to diverse outcomes);

3. Is the child an active agent (influences her own course of development) or passive agent (responds to
forces) in the developmental progression; and4.Is development the result of qualitative changes (sudden
periods of rapid growth and reorganization where the outcomes are significantly different from the
previous stage) or quantitative changes (gradual adding on of new skills to previous skills)?

The way each theory or theorist addresses each of the controversies leads to a multiplicity of perspectives or
approaches for explaining child development. Table 1 was created to assist you in connecting each theory to the
theory’s position on the four controversies. In addition, a few of these theories are described in more detail.
  Biological-maturational Theory: This theory believes that genetic and physiological changes (i.e.,
nature) contribute to developing structures of the body. Brain development and motor capabilities, for
example, occur almost automatically, without learning or instruction. Changes in abilities can be either
gradual or sudden depending on the type of development being considered. To illustrate, learning to
walk is the result of gradual changes in physiological capabilities and brain structure. Sudden
development, on the other hand, occurs during puberty due to altered hormonal levels in the body.

 Behaviorist Theory: Development and learning from this perspective are attributed almost exclusively
to environmental influences (nurture). B.F. Skinner built on other behaviorist theorists by noting that
children’s (and adults, for that matter) behavior and learning can be shaped by providing rewards and
punishment. He believed that there is a great deal of diversity in behavior and learning because all
children experience different rewards and punishment from the adults in their lives.

 Cognitive-developmental Theory: This theory emphasizes how children’s thinking and reasoning
change, qualitatively, over time. Children actively contribute to their own cognitive development by
constructing their own understanding of the world. This understanding is constructed during experiences
with materials and working to resolve discrepancies between prior knowledge and new information. This
process is significantly impacted by the child’s biological development. At times, children will have not
reached a requisite level of biological maturation and, therefore, cannot make use of information in the
environment or acquire new thinking capabilities.

 Sociocultural Theory: This theory focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation through
tools such as language and social interaction. Working with adults and more skilled peers is essential for
children to acquire the ways of thinking, knowing, and behaving that make up a community’s culture.
From this perspective, knowledge is actively and socially constructed through interactions with others.
However, the role of biology is not ignored; it is perceived as playing less of a direct role in cognitive
development. A child’s inherited traits influence the ways in which she approaches the environment and
thus impacts the types of experiences she has.

Are all Developmental Theories Valid?

Not all developmental theories are viewed today as equally valid. “All contemporary theories view children as
active, purposeful beings who make sense of their world and contribute substantially to their own development”
(Berk, 2003, p. 12). The seventh principle of child development and learning (above) states that “Children are
active learners ….” Thus, the biological-maturational and the behaviorist theories are viewed as less able to
inform our understanding of developmentally appropriate practices because they view the child as passive.
When discussing the behaviorist perspective, Berk and Winsler (1995) stated this even stronger when they say,
“Since it denies the existence of the child’s spontaneous development, it is antithetical to current conceptions of
developmentally appropriate practices…” (p. 104).

How Developmental Theories Impact Our Work as Teachers

The next question this article will explore is: How does knowing developmental theories guide our work as
teachers? Let’s use an example to help clarify the connections. Imagine that you observed the following scene:

Steffano is sitting at the art table using markers. Georgia joins him at the table and begins to cut with scissors.
She picks up a paper that Steffano has discarded into the center of the table and begins to cut it into 2 equal
pieces. Steffano looks over at Georgia working, jumps up so quickly that he knocks his chair over and cries out
“No! That is Mom’s!” while ripping the paper from her hands. Before his teacher can reach the area, he hits
Georgia on the arm with a closed fist.

There are multiple perspectives that can be used to interpret Steffano’s behavior. Each theory used to interpret
his behavior will lead us to a different way to address or begin to resolve this situation. For example:

1. A teacher informed by psychosocial theory might conclude that Steffano is struggling with the
conflict of initiative versus guilt. He is demonstrating his independence in planning and
undertaking activities but he is experiencing conflict about how to communicate these plans to
 others. This teacher might decide to help Steffano learn strategies for conveying and carrying
out his ideas when working with others.

2. A teacher working from social learning theory may suggest that Steffano has learned this
response from observing models in his environment. He is imitating a behavior he observed
another doing. This teacher will most likely decide to actively model non-aggressive strategies
for solving problems.

3. A teacher informed by ecological theory might conclude that Steffano is being raised in a culture
(e.g., greater society and/or home) that is accepting of violent conflict resolution. This teacher
may reflect on her classroom environment to examine if this message is being sent. This
teacher may also continue her partnership with his family by engaging in dialog about this topic.

4. A teacher knowledgeable of cognitive-developmental theory may think that Steffano has

constructed from past experiences a mental schema that involves solving problems with force.
This teacher might provide concrete experiences in which non-aggressive solutions are
highlighted and discussed so that he will begin to accommodate his schema for solving
problems.

The Importance of Being Consciously Competent

These inconsistencies or even contradictions between child developmental theories highlight how knowledge is
a necessary, but not sufficient component of the “quality equation.” Teachers must be willing to use careful
reflection as one habit of mind to be comfortable with examining their beliefs and practices (Freeman, Swim,
Norton-Smith, and White, 2003). Reflective practitioners know the importance of devoting time to examining
professional beliefs and practices so that they can be made visible to both themselves and those they work with
(e.g., family members, children, and colleagues; Rinaldi, 2001). Using the phrase of NAEYC, teachers must be
consciously-competent – or able to make professional decisions for young children and families that reflect
current relevant knowledge bases (e.g., child development, developmentally appropriate practices) while
articulating why this is the optimal course of action (NAEYC, 2000; see Figure 1). To become consciously-
competent, you must be willing to ask yourself “tough questions” about your practices in relation to theories of
child development. For example, “Did my response to Aleksandr’s crying help him gain emotional regulation
skills?” “Did I model enough physical activity in the classroom this week?” “Did my response to Cami’s mother
reflect my knowledge of child development or just my personal opinion?” “Am I helping children to construct their
own knowledge or am I expecting them to memorize information?”

The Eclectic Teacher

As a practitioner, you have undoubtedly created your own personal theory about how children learn and develop.
Take a moment to consider how your theory relates to the explicit theories previously described in this paper
(see also Table 1). If you find that you utilize aspects of several different theories, you have taken what is called
an eclectic approach. Being eclectic, however, does not mean “going with the flow” or “doing whatever works”
(Marion, 2003). Rather, it means that you understand the different theories, can explain your beliefs, and can
utilize them to make effective educational decisions. Taking an eclectic approach is believed to be the most
practical method for using theories of child development to inform classroom practices because no one theory is
comprehensive enough to adequately explain all aspects of development (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004). Our
current understanding of developmentally appropriate practices is built on such an eclectic approach. See if you
can identify the various developmental theories that were used to generate the 12 principles of child
development and learning presented earlier. Recall that these principles directly formed the foundation for
constructing the five guidelines for developmentally appropriate practices.

Becoming Consciously Competent

If you were unable to express your personal theory, you may be working from a more implicit theory. This could
mean that you need to devote time to reflecting on your beliefs. Ask yourself, “What do I believe about how
children learn and develop?” After answering that question, here are some additional steps to take in becoming
consciously-competent about theories of child development.

1. Critically analyze the different theoretical approaches described in this article. Which theories “speak to
 you” because they relate most closely to your implicit beliefs?

2. If you need additional information about the developmental theories, seek it out so you can make
informed decisions (a list of resources is included at the end of this article).

3. Consider how various aspects of the theories that “speak to you” might support and conflict with one
another. Recall that becoming consciously-competent involves being able to articulate not only about
your personal beliefs but also how these ideas connect to accepted and valued theories in the field.

Conclusion
As highlighted in this article, your understanding of child development is a vital ingredient for implementing
developmentally appropriate practices. We cannot make appropriate educational decisions for young children
without this knowledge base. Even though this information is not always straight forward nor consistent, it is our
professional responsibility to make personal sense of it and use it to inform our practices. Take heart, you are
not alone in this process. Many resources are available to provide guidance and support while implementing
these new knowledge and skills. You can capitalize on resources in your place of employment (e.g., knowledge
base of colleagues) or look beyond those walls for additional support. Professional organizations, such as the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) or Zero to Three, scholarly resources, and
research can be sources of knowledge and guidance.

Terri Jo Swim, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of early childhood education and child development at Indiana
University Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW) in Fort Wayne, IN. She teaches in undergraduate and graduate
programs. Her research interests include infant-toddler and preschool curriculum, Reggio Emilia, and teacher
education.

References
Berk, L. E. (2003).Child development (6thed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Berk, L.E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning” Vygotsky and early childhood education. , DC:
National Association for the Education of Young Children.Washington

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, S. (1997).Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Freeman, R., Swim, T.J., Norton-Smith, L., & White, B. (2003). Study Groups as Tools for Reflective Practice
and Professional Development. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Marion, M. (2003).Guidance of young children(6thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

McDevitt, T.M., & Ormrod, J.E. (2004).Child development: Educating and working with children and adolescents
(2nded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2000).Guiding behavior videoconference.

Rinaldi, C. (2001). Infant-toddler centers and preschools as places of culture. In Project Zero and Reggio
Children. Making learning visible: Children as individual and group learners. : Reggio Children.Italy

Weichel, J. (2003, October). Keynote Address at the Akron Area Association for the Education of Young
Children Annual Conference, Akron, OH.

Figure 1. Matrix for Decision-Making by Educators

(Note: Due to web content restrictions, Figure 1 is incomplete. A

left sidebar which reads "Incompetent Decision Making" and a
right sidebar which reads "Competent Decision Making" exist,
completing the matrix.
 Conscious Decision Making
Consciously – Incompetent Consciously – Competent
Unconsciously – Incompetent Unconsciously –
Competent
Unconscious Decision Making

Table 1. Seven Developmental Theories and Their Stance on Each of the Four Controversies(Berk, 2003;
McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004)

Theory Nature vs. Nurture Universality Active vs. Qualitative vs.

vs. Diversity Passive Quantitative
Social Interaction of nature Diversity Active Quantitative
Learning and nurture
Biological – Nature Universality Passive Quantitative
Maturational and
qualitative
Ecological Interaction of nature Diversity Active Quantitative
and nurture
Psychosocial Interaction of nature Universality Active Qualitative
and nurture
Cognitive – Interaction of nature Universality Active Qualitative
Developmental and nurture and diversity
Behaviorist Nurture Diversity Passive Quantitative
Sociocultural Interaction of nature Diversity Active Quantitative
and nurture, with
more emphasis on
nurture

Additional Resources about Theories of Child Development

Honig, A. S. (2002).Secure relationships: Nurturing infant/toddler attachment in early care settings. , DC:
National Association for the Education of Young Children.Washington

Hyson, M. (2004).The emotional development of young children: Building an emotion-centered curriculum

(2nded.). NY: Teachers College Press.

Kostelnik, M.J., Soderman, A.K., & Whiren, A.P. (2004).Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices
in early childhood education.(3rded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Mooney, C.G. (2000).Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget, & Vygotsky.
, MN: Redleaf Press.St. Paul

Perry, G., & Duru, M.S. (Eds.). (2000).Resources for developmentally appropriate practice: Recommendations
from the profession. , DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Washington

Wink, J., & Putney, L. (2002). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Websites
National Association for the Education of Young Children www.naeyc.org
National for Early Development and Learning www.fpg.unc.edu/~ncedl/ Center
No Child Left Behind www.nochildleftbehind.gov
United States Department of Education www.ed.gov
Early Childhood Development
By Jennifer Grisham-Brown

Updated on Dec 23, 2009

INFLUENCES ON EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

PRACTICES

Early childhood development is defined as “a set of concepts, principles, and facts that explain,
describe and account for the processes involved in change from immature to mature status and
functioning” (Katz, 1996, p. 137). Development is generally divided into three broad categories:
physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development (Berk, 2000).
Physical development addresses any change in the body, including how children grow, how they
move, and how they perceive their environment. Cognitive development pertains to the mental
processes (e.g., language, memory, problem solving) that children use to acquire and use
knowledge. Emotional and social development addresses how children handle relationships with
others, as well as understand of their own feelings.

Early childhood development is generally divided into three age categories (Bredekamp &
Copple, 1997). The first age category includes infants and toddlers who are between the ages of
birth and 3 years of age. According to Lally and colleagues (1997), the most important factor for
young infants (birth to 8 months) is security with primary caregivers. Between the ages of 9 to 18
months, mobile infants are mostly concerned with exploration and between 18 and 36 months,
the central focus of development is identity, and children become more independent. The second
age category of early childhood development includes preschoolers who are 3 to 5 years of age.
According to Bredecamp and Copple (1997), this period of development is characterized by
rapid gross motor development (e.g., jumping, hopping, skipping), refined movement of small
muscles for object manipulation, major increases in vocabulary and use of language, abstract
representation of mental constructs, and the development of relationships with other young
children. The final category of early childhood development includes those children in the
primary grades who are between 6 and 8 years of age. Bredekamp and Copple (1997) describe
highlights in primary-aged children's development during this time: Gross and fine motor
development is characterized by children's ability to perform controlled movements and
sequence motor skills. Greater reasoning, problem solving, and assimilation also characterize
children's cognitive development at this stage. During the primary years, children's vocabulary
increases at a rapid pace. In addition, their written communication skills develop. Socially,
primary-aged children begin to understand others' perspectives, are concerned with fairness, and
monitor their own behavior.

INFLUENCES ON EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

Practices for enhancing children's development are influenced most by child development
theories. Berk defines a theory as “an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes,
explains, and predicts behavior” (2000, p. 6). Generally speaking there are four broad theoretical
perspectives that guide practice in early childhood development: behaviorism and social learning
theory, cognitive-developmental theory, sociocultural theory, and ecological systems theory.

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) is most noted for his theory of behaviorism or more specifically
operant conditioning theory, which is based on the premise that children's behavior can be
increased based on the presentation of reinforcers and decreased through punishment (Berk,
2000). Social learning theory, created by Albert Bandura (b. 1925), expands on operant
conditioning by adding the idea that imitation or observational learning increases the chances
that children will learn new behaviors. Generally speaking, behaviorists believe that children's
development is outside of their own influence, that it is shaped by environmental stimuli
(Daniels & Shumow, 2003).

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is credited with the cognitive-developmental theory that “views the
child as actively constructing knowledge and cognitive development as taking place in stages”
(Berk, 2000, p. 21). According to his con-structivist theory, Piaget asserted that children pass
through four distinct stages of development, including the sensor-imotor stage (birth to 2 years),
preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), concrete operational stage (7 to 11), and formal operational
stage (11 and beyond). Piaget believed that reasoning deepens in children as they grow,
engagement in the physical and social world enhances development, and “conceptual change
occurs through assimilation and accommodation” (Daniels & Shumow, 2003, p. 497).

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) saw child development as a kind of social constructivism, in which
development is determined by culture. According to Berk and Winsler (1995) there are a number
of tenets that are unique to social constructivism. First, because children's culture influences the
activities, language, and education to which children are exposed, these variables affect
children's development. Second, while some development is innate or influenced by biology,
higher level development is affected by culture. Finally, the theory incorporates the zone of
proximal development, that is, the range in children's development between their ability to
perform a task independently and their ability to perform a skill with the assistance of a more
competent member of the their culture (adult or older child).

The ecological systems theory was originated by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) who
believed that children developed “within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple
levels of the environment” (Berk, 2000, p. 26). Bronfenbrenner described four systems that
influence child development. The microsystem involves those that are part of children's most
immediate environment, including the child's parents and other primary caregivers. Interactions
between the child and those adults impact children's development. The second system is the
mesosystem and involves systems that interact with the people in the microsystem, including
child care programs and schools. Exosystems are places in which children do not spend time but
which still impact children's development, including the parents' workplace policies. Finally, the
macrosystem consists of “the values, laws, customs, and resources of a particular culture” (Berk,
2000, page 29). For example a culture's beliefs about the importance of high quality childcare
impact children's development.

Child development theories generally guide teaching practices of children from birth to 8 years
of age. Daniels and Shumow (2003) describe differences in instructional practices based on
theoretical orientation. Teachers who espouse behaviorist theory generally follow more teacher-
directed instructional practices, including didactic instruction with emphasis on acquisition of
basic skills. Other child development theories emphasize child-centered practices. Teachers who
support the constructivist theory provide child-choice, guided discovery, and cooperative
learning. They emphasize critical thinking, problem solving, and intrinsic motivation. Social
constructivists build their practices around a community of learners, instructional conversation,
and authentic tasks, and emphasize cultural literacy, collaboration, and metacognition. Teachers
emphasizing the ecological systems theory in their classrooms stress parent and community
involvement, out-of-school activities, and cultural instruction. They teach social cognition,
cultural awareness, and adaptive habits of coping.

PRACTICES

Many early childhood development experts believe that knowledge of child development theory
should guide educational practices of children from birth to 8 years of age (Katz, 1996). Katz
questions “if we do not know enough about the relationship between early experience and the
ultimate competencies necessary for effective participation in democratic processes, how can we
design effective educational practice?” (1996, p. 141). Theories are useful in helping researchers
and teachers guide their observations (Stott & Bowman, 1996). It is from this point of view that
practices for supporting the development of children from birth to 8 years of age originate.
Developmentally appropriate practices are a set of standards for providing high quality early care
and education experiences (Goldstein, 1997) to children, birth to 8, which are based on
knowledge about “how children develop and learn” (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, p. 9).

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) describes specific
educational practices to which those working with young children should adhere (Bredekamp &
Copple, 1997). These include: a) creating a caring community of learners; b) teaching to enhance
development and learning; c) creating appropriate curriculum; d) assessing children's learning
and development; and e) establishing relationships with families. Detailed information about the
application of these practices to specific age groups can be found in Bredekamp and Copple
(1997). The following section provides an overview of each of these practices, empirical support
for the practice, and some challenges educators face in implementing the practice in the current
educational context.

Creating a Caring Community of Learners. The community in which children spend time
involves both the physical and social environment and their influence impact children's
development. Specific variables in early care and education settings that influence how children
grow and learn include low staff/child ratios, positive social interactions between children and
between children and adults, appropriate classroom arrangements, and safe and healthy practices.
According to Kontos and colleagues (2002), there is evidence that the presence of these specific
variables in early care and education settings are “those where children are more likely to thrive,
as determined by their attachment to the teacher, their peer relations, and their verbal ability” (p.
240).

Measures are available that evaluate the physical and social environments in which children to
birth to 8 spend time (i.e., Infant/Toddler Environmental Rating Scale -Revised–Birth to 3; Early
Childhood Environmental Rating Scale - Revised–preschool; and Assessment of Practices in
Early Elementary Classrooms–primary). Evidence of studies that have examined the community
of learners has found disturbing results in some cases. In a study of Kentucky's early care and
education system, Grisham-Brown and colleagues (2005) found that young children from low
social-economic backgrounds and those of minority status were more likely to participate in low
quality early care and education programs than their counterparts. Similarly, a study of primary
classrooms by Buchanan and colleagues (1998) found that those classrooms most likely to use
developmentally inappropriate practices were those serving the largest number of children who
receive free lunch. Incidentally, these same classrooms had larger class sizes than their
counterparts who were engaged in developmentally appropriate practices.

Teaching to Enhance Development and Learning. Teaching practices for young children
include opportunities for choice, hands-on learning, promotion of collaboration between
children, use of a variety of teaching strategies, individualization, and self-regulation (Brede-
kamp & Copple, 1997; Buchanan et al., 1998). There is evidence that these practices support the
development of young children. Kontos and colleagues (2002) found that preschool aged
children experience more complex interactions with peers when engaged in creative activities
than other types of activities (e.g., language arts or gross motor). In Kontos, et al., the creative
activities were those that were open ended without a finished product expected. McCormick and
colleagues (2003) evaluated the 25 top-performing primary programs in Kentucky and found that
one variable that differentiated those classrooms from the lowest performing classrooms was the
provision of choice in selection of materials and activities. This study supports that the use of
developmentally appropriate practices in primary classrooms positively impacts child outcomes.

A challenge in defining developmentally appropriate teaching strategies has been the emphasis
on child-centered approaches. Whereas child-centered approaches originate from constructivist
theory, didactic or teacher-directed instruction originates from a behaviorist perspective (Stipek,
2004). Because of the theoretical orientation from which child-centered practices derive, some
have viewed them as synonymous with developmentally appropriate practices. However,
Bredekamp and Rosegrant (1995) indicate that developmentally appropriate teaching strategies,
in fact, fall along a continuum from those that are non-directive (acknowledgement) to those that
are directive (direct instruction). Stipek (2004) found that teachers serving large numbers of low
achieving children were more likely to use direct instruction than child-centered instructional
techniques. Grisham-Brown, Hemmeter, and Pretti-Frontczak (2005) argue that in blended
programs where teachers encounter groups of children with wide ability levels, it is appropriate
for teachers to employ the full continuum of teaching behaviors. This view is certainly in
keeping with the ideas of response to intervention, as set forth by Pretti-Frontczak and colleagues
(2008) whereby children's needs are addressed using more intentional, direct instruction. By
using the full continuum of optional teaching strategies, those working with young children are,
in fact, addressing the individualization ideas associated with developmentally appropriate
practice.

Constructing Appropriate Curriculum. According to Pretti-Frontczak and colleagues (2007)

there are four parts to a curriculum framework: 1) assessment for gathering information about
children; 2) scope and sequence or the developmental/content areas that will be addressed; 3)
activities and instruction or the contexts and strategies for teaching; and 4) progress monitoring
or methods for determining success of the instruction. Bre-dekamp and Copple (1997) indicate
that developmen-tally appropriate curricula should address all areas of the children's
development and all content areas, bearing in mind the child's age and considering children's
cultural, linguistic, and ability differences. Grisham-Brown and colleagues (2005) indicate that
collaboration between educators, families, and other support personnel is essential for
implementing a high quality curriculum for children in blended classrooms.

One key issue shaping curriculum design is the development of learning standards. Although
states have had learning standards for K-12 programs since the early 1990s, early learning
standards for children five and under were only developed in the mid-2000s (Scott-Little, Kagan,
& Frelow, 2006). As of 2008, over 40 states and the District of Columbia have developed pre-
kindergarten standards, many across all areas of development (Neuman & Roskos, 2005). The
arrival of standards into programs serving children from birth to 8 years of age has challenged
those who want to ensure the implementation of devel-opmentally appropriate practices during a
standards-based climate that emphasizes accountability. In the late 2000s, leading researchers in
early childhood education were beginning to provide guidance for ensuring that the needs of
young children are appropriately addressed within this context. Goldstein found in a qualitative
study that kindergarten teachers could address content standards in a developmentally
appropriate manner by “recognizing and building on the curricular stability in kindergarten,
employing instructional approaches that accommodate the children's developmental needs,
setting limits, acquiescing to demands for developmentally inappropriate practices and materials,
engaging in proactive education and outreach, accepting additional responsibilities, and making
concessions” (2007, p. 51). Grisham-Brown (2008) and Gronlund (2006) have proposed that
curricula driven by early learning standards can be appropriate, if standards are addressed at
different levels, depending on the needs of the children.

Assessing Children's Learning and Development. Specific guidelines are available regarding
children's development. The National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) and the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) advocate the use of authentic assessment
practices as the primary approach for assessing young children (Division for Early Childhood,
2007; National Association for the Education of Young Children and National Association of
Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education, 2003). Authentic assessment
strategies involve documenting learning and development of children during real-life activities
and routines by familiar adults (Losardo & Notari-Syverson, 2001; Neisworth & Bagnato, 2004).
Research has shown that many teachers prefer authentic assessment approaches over more
traditional assessment methods (Gao, 2007; McNair et al., 2003), and there are positive
relationships between the use of authentic assessment practices, other classroom practices, and
child outcomes (Bagnato, 2005; Meisels et al., 2003).

Appropriate assessment practices for young children have been compromised by the
accountability climate in education in the early 2000s. Early childhood leaders have advocated
the use of authentic assessment approaches for accountability purposes, indicating that these
methods are more appropriate for young children (Meisels et al., 2003; Neisworth & Bagnato,
2004; Grisham-Brown, 2008). Emerging research shows that authentic assessment approaches,
used for accountability purposes, can yield technically adequate assessment data (Grisham-
Brown, Pretti-Frontczak, & Hallam, in press), thereby not compromising the results of high-
stakes assessment.

Establishing Reciprocal Relationships with Families. Indicators of active family involvement

in programs serving young children should involve collaboration and communication.
Bredekamp and Copple (1997) indicate that programs should collaborate with families as they
design early experiences for their children using two-way communication strategies. Unlike
other practices in early childhood education, family involvement has been an enduring value that
few have challenged (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995) primarily because of the positive
benefits on children's development. For example, family literacy practices have been positively
linked to children's ability to read successfully (Gambrell & Mazzoni, 1999). Grisham-Brown
and colleagues (2005) provide specific examples of how to involve families in child assessment,
selection of children's priorities, and curriculum development.

The period of development between birth and 8 is unique in a child's life. Some have argued that
there are critical periods of time by which children should learn specific skills, if they are to learn
them (Shore, 1997). In one compelling article, Bailey argues that there should be a shift from
emphasis on critical periods to critical experiences. Bailey questions: “What are the experiences
that are absolutely necessary for all children to maximize school success, mental health, and
social development?” (2002, p. 290). Clearly the practices that early childhood educators
implement with children from birth to 8 have the greatest impact on child outcomes. Knowledge
of those practices and the underlying theoretical orientation that supports them is essential in
order for young children to receive “critical experiences.”

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Copyright 2003-2009 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction to Developmentally
Appropriate Practice

Many factors influence the quality of an early

childhood program, including, but not limited to,
the extent to which knowledge about how
children develop and learn is applied in program
practices. Developmentally appropriate practices are based on what is known about how children
develop and learn. Such programs promote the development and enhance the learning of each
individual child served. The National Association for the Education of Young Children states
that developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs results from the process of
professionals making decisions about the well-being and education of children based on at least
three important kinds of information or knowledge:

 Knowlege about child development and learning—age-related human characteristics that

permits general predictions within an age range about what activities, materials, interactions, or
experiences will be safe, healthy, interesting, achievable, and also challenging to children;
 Knowledge about the strengths, interests, and needs of each individual child in the group, in
order to adapt for and be responsive to inevitable individual variation; and
 Knowledge of the social and cultural contexts in which children live, to ensure that learning
experiences are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for the participating children and their
families.

When combined, this kind of information can uniquely describe each child; each child needs to
be considered on her or his own unique merits. Further supporting this perspective is that each
dimension of knowledge-human development and learning, individual characteristics and
experiences, and social and cultural contexts-dynamically affects the others, and each changes
over time. The differences between children and the ongoing changes in these dimensions of
knowledge for each child requires that early childhood teachers and paraprofessionals be
prepared to continuously change their tactics as needed and that they remain learners throughout
their careers.

Based on theories about early childhood development and learning, the NAEYC has developed
guidelines that support effective early childhood teaching practices. Developmentally appropriate
practice requires that teachers and paraprofessionals-in their support role-integrate the many
dimensions of what they know about a child, the child's family and social/cultural context, and
child development theory. Teachers can use this knowledge of a child's strengths, needs, and
interests for instruction, curriculum selection, assessment of a child's progress, or other work
with the child. Paraprofessionals can use this understanding to increase their ability to support
the teacher and more effectively work with a child. Lessons 2 through 6 in this unit will cover
NAEYC guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. The
guidelines address five interrelated dimensions of developmentally appropriate practice in early
childhood settings:

1. Creating a caring community of learners;

2. Teaching to enhance development and learning;
3. Constructing appropriate curriculum;
4. Assessing children’s development and learning; and
5. Establishing reciprocal relationships with families.

Teachers and other child-service professionals (such as social workers, therapist, counselors,
psychologists, etc.) are responsible for managing the five dimensions of developmentally
appropriate practice, while paraprofessionals generally support these education professionals on
one or more of the dimensions. Each dimension influences the others; a general understanding of
all dimensions is required to adequately understand them separately. As a paraprofessional, it is
important for you to become familiar with the guidelines for each dimension of developmentally
appropriate practice as this will broaden your understanding of what is involved in effective
teaching at the early childhood level. This broader understanding will enable you to collaborate
more effectively with your supervising teacher. In addition to explaining the guidelines for each
of the five dimensions of developmentally appropriate practice, this unit will provide specific
examples of developmentally appropriate and inappropriate practice within each dimension.

Both the NAEYC guidelines and the examples in the following lessons will help you better
understand how developmentally appropriate practices should be implemented in early childhood
settings.