Power Electronics Principles Power Elect

UNIT 1 i
Power electronics principles
Unit 1
TEL 202/05
Power Electronics and Drives
Power Electronics
Principles
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching
Content Writer: Associate Professor Lim Soo King
Instructional Designer: Ms. Jeanne Chow
Academic Member: Mr. Tan Yee Chyan
COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Associate Professor Cheong Kuan Yew, Universiti Sains Malaysia
PRODUCTION
In-house Editor: Ms. Jeanne Chow
Graphic Designer: Ms. Valerie Ooi
Wawasan Open University is Malaysia’s first private not-for-profit tertiary institution dedicated to
adult learners. It is funded by the Wawasan Education Foundation, a tax-exempt entity established
by the Malaysian People’s Movement Party (Gerakan) and supported by the Yeap Chor Ee Charitable
and Endowment Trusts, other charities, corporations, members of the public and occasional grants
from the Government of Malaysia.
The course material development of the university is funded by Yeap Chor Ee Charitable and
Endowment Trusts.
© 2014 Wawasan Open University
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior written permission from WOU.
Wawasan Open University

(KPT/JPT/DFT/US/P01)
Wholly owned by Wawasan Open University Sdn. Bhd. (700364-W)
54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang.
Tel: (604) 2180333 Fax: (604) 2279214
Email: enquiry@wou.edu.my
Website: www.wou.edu.my
UNIT 1 iii
Contents
Unit 1 Power Electronics Principles
Course overview 1
Unit overview 3
Unit objectives 3
1.1 Basic power electronic measurement 5
Objectives 5
Introduction 5
Phasor 5
Phasor transformation 7
Sinusoid 8
Instantaneous value and peak value of a 10
sinusoid
Average value and mean value of a sinusoid 10
RMS value of a sinusoid 11
Form factor and peak factor of a sinusoid 11
Instantaneous and average power 12
Maximum average power transfer 14
Apparent power and power factor 16
Complex power 17
Power factor correction 18
Suggested answers to activities 22
1.2 LRC circuit analysis 25
Objectives 25
Introduction 25
iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
LRC series circuit 26

Over damped condition 26
Critical damped condition 28
Under damped condition 29
Energy stored in oscillator 30
Parallel LRC circuit 30
Step response of LRC series circuit 31
Step response of LRC parallel circuit 32
1.3 Fourier analysis 37
Objectives 37
Introduction 37
Fourier series 37
Trigonometric Fourier series 38
Exponential Fourier series 41
Symmetry considerations 42
Even symmetry 42
Odd symmetry 43
Half-wave symmetry 43
Circuit applications of Fourier series 44
Average power of Period functions 46
Summary of Unit 1 53
Suggested answers to self-tests 55
References 61
Glossary 63
UNIT 1 1
Course Overview
ower electronics encompasses many fields. These include power systems, electrical
P machines, solid-state electronics, analogue/digital control and signal processing,
electromagnetic field calculations, circuit theory, simulation and computing, etc.
Each unit has been designed to spend on average 25 hours of learning time, so to
complete the whole course, you will need to spend 200 hours. Power Electronics is
an enabling technology for almost all electrical applications. The field is growing
rapidly because electrical devices need electronic circuits to process their energy. This
course discusses the subject in a conceptual framework, provides comprehensive
coverage of power electronics at a level suitable for undergraduate student engineers,
and for students interested in advanced degree programs in the field. It aims to
establish a fundamental engineering basis for power electronics analysis, design, and
implementation, offering broad and in-depth coverage of basic material. The text's
unifying framework includes the physical implications of circuit laws, switching
circuit analysis, and the basis for converter operation and control. Models for real
devices and components are developed in depth, including models for real capacitors,
inductors, wire connections, and power semiconductors. Magnetic device design
is introduced and thermal management and drivers for power semiconductors
are addressed. Control system aspects of converters are discussed and explored.
Opportunities are available that show ways to use modern computer tools to aid in
the analysis and design of conversion circuits. Featuring a fundamental approach to
power electronics coupled with extensive discussion of design and implementation
issues, Power Electronics and Drives serves as an ideal course and as a helpful guide
for scholars new to the field.
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Provide a cohesive presentation of power electronics fundamentals and design

in variety of applications.
2. Outline the important mathematical tools that you need in order to analyse
power electronic circuits.
3. Evaluate the impact, power handling capabilities, and synthesis of switching

and control strategy of the power semiconductor devices.
4. Discuss the importance of power conditioning and classification of power

electronics circuits.
5. Implement power circuits with isolation, protection of power devices,

determination of control strategy, and design of logic and gating circuits.
6. Relate theories learned to real applications.

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
UNIT 1 3
Unit Overview
n this unit on power electronic principles, you will learn three main topics which
I are basic power electronic measurement, LRC circuit analysis, and Fourier analysis.
In each topic, you will study and achieve the learning objectives via tutorial, learning
activities, and self-tests.
In section one on power electronic measurement, you will learn to define the basic
parameters used to measure the quantity of direct and alternative voltage and
current; able to calculate the phase and phase difference between sinusoid signals
using phasor diagram and phasor transform technique; describe sinusoid signals;
define and calculate average voltage, root mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage,
maximum power, apparent power complex power etc., when connecting to passive
and active components; determine the power factor of the active circuit, and apply
the studied method to correct power factor.
In section two on LRC circuit analysis, you will learn the ability to analyse the
response of series connected LRC circuit for various damping conditions; determine
the conditions for under damped, critically damped, and under damped conditions
of LRC circuit; analyse the response parallel connected LRC circuit; and analyse
step function response of series and parallel connected LRC circuits.
In section three on Fourier analysis, you will learn and achieve the ability to
interpret the equation of Fourier series; analyse trigonometric Fourier series; analyse
exponential Fourier series; apply Fourier series for circuit analysis; transform the
circuit from time domain to the frequency domain; separate the response of dc and
ac components in the Fourier series; and determine the average power of periodic
function.
Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
1. Define the basic parameters used to measure quantity of direct and alternative
voltage and current.
2. Calculate the phase and phase difference between sinusoid signals using
phasor diagram and phasor transform technique.
3. Describe sinusoid and its associated measurement parameters such as average

voltage, root mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage, maximum power,
apparent power complex power etc., when connecting to passive and active
components.
4. Apply the studied method to correct power factor.
5. Analyse the response of series connected LRC circuit for various damping
conditions.
6. Analyse the response parallel connected LRC circuit.
7. Analyse step function response of series and parallel connected LRC circuits.
8. Interpret the equation of Fourier series.
9. Analyse various types of Fourier series.
10. Apply Fourier series for circuit analysis.

UNIT 1 5
1.1 Basic Power Electronic

Measurement
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Define the basic parameters used to measure the quantity of direct and
alternative voltage and current.
2. Calculate the phase and phase difference between sinusoid signal using
phasor diagram and phasor transform technique.
3. Describe sinusoid signal.
4. Calculate average voltage, root mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage,

maximum power, apparent power complex power etc., when connecting to
passive and active components.
5. Determine the power factor of an active circuit.
6. Apply the studied method to correct power factor.
Introduction
An alternating waveform (ac) is a periodic waveform which alternates between
positive and negative values as illustrated in Figure 1.2 (b). Unlike direct waveform,
it cannot be characterised by one magnitude as its magnitude is continuously varying
from one instant to another. An advantage of the alternating waveform from electric
power is such that its potential can be stepped up or stepped down for transmission
and utilisation.
Differentiation or integration of a sinusoidal waveform produces a sinusoidal

waveform of the same frequency, differing only in magnitude and phase angle. Thus,
when a sinusoidal current is passed through (or a sinusoidal voltage applied across) a
resistor, inductor or a capacitor, a sinusoidal voltage waveform (or current waveform)
of the same frequency, differing only in magnitude and phase angle is produced.
Phasor
Phasor can be used to obtain the information pertaining to the amplitude and
phase of the sinusoidal function. Phasor is a complex number that represents the
magnitude and phase of sinusoid. Before using this method, theory of complex
number is reviewed. The complex number in rectangular form is defined z = x + jy,
where x is real part of z and y is the imaginary part of z.
In polar form, the complex number z is defined as z = r∠φ where r is the magnitude
which is defined as r = √x 2 + y 2 and phase angle φ is defined as φ = tan−1

()
y
x
.
In exponential form, the complex number is represented by z = re jφ. The complex

number representation by phasor is shown in Figure 1.1. The y-axis is the imaginary
axis where the magnitude of the imaginary part is shown as r sinφ. The x-axis
represents the real part of the complex number, where the magnitude is shown as r
cosφ. This shall mean that re jφ is re jφ = r(cosφ + jsinφ), where e jφ = (cosφ + jsinφ) is
defined by Euler’s rule. Similarly, re −jφ is re−jφ = r(cosφ − jsinφ).
Imaginary axis
z V = Vm e j φ = Vm∠φ
Magnitude
2j
r = Vm
y
j
φ Phasor angle
0 Real Axis
x
−j
−2j
Figure 1.1 Phasor representation of a voltage complex function that shows magnitude
and phase
A voltage function v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φ) is represented by Re(Vme j(ωt + φ)). It is also

equal to Re(Ve j(ωt)), where V = Vme jφ. The sinor and projection plot of v(t) = (Ve j(ωt))
is shown in Figure 1.2.
Im v(t) = Re(Ve jwt)
Vm
at t = to
at t = 0
Vm
φ
t
Re 0 to
Rotation at ω at rad/s
(a) Sinor plot (b) Projection plot
Figure 1.2 Sinor and projection plots of function v(t) = (Ve j(ωt))
UNIT 1 7
The phase of the voltage signal with respect to the reference can be either leading or
lagging. It can be observed from the phasor as shown in Figure 1.3. Above the real
axis, the phase is leading, whereas it is lagging if it is below real axis. In Figure 1.3,
it shows that current (I) is lagging behind voltage by a phase angle (φ + θ).
Imaginary axis
V ω
Vm
Leading direction
φ
Real axis
−θ
Lagging direction
Im
I
ω
Figure 1.3 Phasor diagram showing leading and lagging phase
Activity 1.1
Find the addition and subtraction of 2 complex numbers given

by 10∠30° and 25 ∠48°. 10∠30° = 10(0.866 + j0.5); 25 ∠48° =
25(0.669 + j0.743).
Activity 1.2
Find the multiplication and division of 2 complex numbers given

by 10∠30° and 25 ∠48° and convert them into time domain form.
Phasor transformation
We learnt early that a signal function v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φ) can be expressed as v(t)
= Re{Vme j(ωt + φ)}. If the factor is taken out, what is left is the phasor corresponding
to the sinusoid. Thus, by suppressing the time factor, we can transform the sinusoid
from time domain to phasor domain. i.e., v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φ) ⇔ V = Vm∠φ, which
is from time-domain representation to phasor-domain representation.
Some examples of transformation from the time-domain representation to phasor-

domain representation are Vmcos(ωt + φ) ⇔ Vm∠φ, Vmsin(ωt + φ) ⇔ Vm∠φ − 90°,
Imcos(ωt + φ) ⇔ Im∠φ, and Imsin(ωt + φ) ⇔ Im∠φ − 90°.
dv(t)
If the sinusoid is v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φ), then = −ωVm sin(ωt + φ) = ωVmcos(ωt
dt
+ φ + 90°) = Re(ωVme j(ω + φ + 90°)) = Re(jωVme j(ω + φ)). Thus, the differentiation of sinusoid
transformed to phasor domain is jωVme jφ = ωVme j(φ + π/2). Likewise, the integration
Vme jφ Vme j(φ − π/2)
of sinusoid v(t) is transformed to phasor domain as = . Note that
jω ω
jπ 1 jπ
j = e 2 and = −j = −e 2.
j
Sinusoid
A sinusoidal signal or ac applied to a circuit is shown in Figure 1.4. The signal has
a period T, which is measured from the time taken for the signal to change peak
2π
value to another peak value. The angular frequency (ω) of the signal is ω = .
T
1
The frequency of the signal is f = .
T
The amplitude (Vm) of signal is the peak voltage of the signal. The phase angle
time lapse
φ is defined as φ = × 360°, where time lapse is the time difference between
T
two signals measured at zero amplitude.
ν1(t) = Vmsin(ωt)
Vm
period
φ π 2π ω
Phase angle
(+ve: shifted to left)
ν2 = Vmsin(ωt + φ)
−Vm
Figure 1.4 Sinusoidal signal

UNIT 1 9
Activity 1.3
Given the sinusoid 5sin(4πt − 60°)V, calculate its amplitude, phase,

angular frequency, period and frequency.
A sinusoidal signal or sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When
comparing two sinusoids, it is better to express it either in sine or cosine form with
positive amplitude. In graphical approach, one can be used to relate sine and cosine
functions besides using trigonometric approach as shown in Figure 1.5.
−sin ωt
−cos ωt +cos ωt
−90°
+sin ωt
Figure 1.5 A graphic way to relate sine and cosine
The horizontal axis represents the magnitude of cosine, whilst the vertical axis point
down represents the magnitude of sine. Based on the graph, we can say sinωt = cos
(ωt −90°); sin (ωt +90°) = cos ωt; −sin (ωt ± 180°) = sin ωt; and etc. Relating sine
and cosine can also be achieved from trigonometric function such that sin (A ± B)
= sin A cos B ± cos A sin B or cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ± sin A sin B.
Activity 1.4
Calculate the phase angle between v1 = −10cos(ωt + 50°) and

v2 = 12sin(ωt −10°).
Instantaneous value and peak value of a sinusoid
The instantaneous value of a sinusoid is the value of the sinusoid for a given instant
of time. If the sinusoid is V(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ) and t = t1, then the instantaneous
value of the sinusoid shall be V(t1) = Vm sin(ωt1 + φ).
The peak value of a sinusoid is the maximum instantaneous value for the sinusoid.
If the sinusoid is V(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ) and t = t1, then the instantaneous peak value
shall be Vm.
Average value and mean value of a sinusoid
The average value of a signal irrespectively of direct or sinusoidal nature is the value
measured by a direct current (dc) voltmeter. The mean value is defined as the integral
of the signal function over a period divided by the period of signal function. For
a triangular wave that has wave function y = mt over a period T, where m is the
coefficient of the wave function and t is the time. The integral of the function over
1T mt2
|
T
mT
a period T is equal to yaverage = ∫
T0
mtdt =
2T
=
2
. This is the value that a dc
0
voltmeter will measure.
The average value of a sinusoid is equal to the mean value over a complete cycle of
the sinusoid i.e., one period time T. This also corresponded to the direct component
of the sinusoid. Thus, the average value (Vmean) of sinusoid is
1T
Vmean = ∫ Vm sin(ωt + φ)dt = 0
T0
(1.1)
where Vm is the amplitude. One can see that the average value is equal to zero. The
reason for zero value is because the sinusoid has equal positive and negative half cycle
value. Thus, a dc voltage will measure zero value. If one considers the power delivered
to the load with sinusoid following the way how average voltage is measured, then
V 2mean(t)
the power delivered to a load (R) will be zero since power is defined as .
T
This is definitely not true since we know that power is consumed by the load. We
shall deal with it later pertaining to how its power can be measured for a sinusoid
voltage connected to a load.
The average value (Vavg) of the sinusoid is the mean value of the rectified sinusoid
over one cycle. The illustration is shown in Figure 1.6 for full wave rectifier dc
voltage. The average value (Vavg) shall be
[ ]
T/2 T
1
Vavg =
T
∫ Vm sin(ωt + φ)dt + ∫ Vm sin(ωt + φ)dt
0 T/2
4Vm 2Vm
= = (1.2)
Tω π
UNIT 1 11
Vmsin(ωt + φ)
t
0
T φ×T φ×T
− T−
2 360 360
Figure 1.6 An illustration to show how average of a sinusoid is calculated
RMS value of a sinusoid
A triangular signal function is V(t) = mt. The root mean square (rms) value of this
function is defined as taking the square of this function, integrate over a period,
divide the result by the period, and taking the square root of the overall results.
Thus, the root mean square (rms) for a triangular signal function is
1 T 22 1 m2 T 3
√ √
mT
Vrms = ∫ m t dt = = (1.3)
T 0 T 3 √3
However, from the above description of the measuring parameters, neither the peak
value nor mean value nor the average value is useful value for sinusoid with regard
to the voltage, current, or power measurement. The better value as defined earlier
is the root mean square (rms), which is defined as
1 T 2 2
√
V
Vrms = ∫ Vmsin (ωt + φ)dt = m (1.4)
T 0 √2
Unless other specified, the rms value is the value that is always specified for ac voltage
or current. If one says the ac output is 230V, it means 230 rmsV.
Form factor and peak factor of a sinusoid
There are two other parameters of sinusoid, which are form factor and peak factor.
Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value and average value, which is shown
in equation (1.5).
Vm
rms value √2
Form factor = = = 1.1107 = 1.111 (1.5)
average value
2V m
The peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak value (or amplitude) and rms value,
which is shown in equation (1.6).
Vm
Peak value
Peak factor = = = √2 (1.6)
rms value
Vm
√2
Instantaneous and average power

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.7, whereby a sinusoid ac source is applied
to a load resistor (R).
i(t)
v(t) R
Figure 1.7 ac source applied to a resistor
If the applied voltage v(t) is v(t) = Vm sinωt, then the current i(t) that flows in the
Vm
circuit shall be i(t) = sin ωt. The power P absorbed by the resistor R shall be
R
V 2m
P(t) = v(t)i(t) = sin2 ωt. This power is instantaneous power because it is the
R
power at any instant of time t.
UNIT 1 13
The average power (Pavg) is defined as the average of the instantaneous power over
the time of one period. Mathematically, it is defined as
1 t0 + T V 2 t0 + T V2
Pavg = ∫ P(t)dt = m ∫ (1 − cos 2ωt)dt = m (1.7)
T t0 2TR t0 2R
T
Note that 2sin2ωt = (1 − cos 2ωt) and ∫cos(2ωt)dt = 0. Integration over a period and
0
divided by period should be zero.
As defined earlier, the root mean square (rms) voltage (Vrms) is defined as the square
root of the average of the instantaneous voltage square over a time of one period T.
If the voltage is V(t) = Vmcos ωt, the mathematical expression is shown in equation
(1.8).
T
V 2(t) T
cos2 ωt
√ √
2
Vrms = ∫ T dt = V m ∫ dt (1.8)
0 0 T
V m2 (t) T 1 + cos 2ωt

=
√ T 0
∫
2
dt
V m2 Vm
=
√ 2
=
√2
This equation has the same result as shown in equation (1.4). Note that 2cos2 ωt =
T
(1 + cos 2ωt) and ∫cos(2ωt)dt = 0. Using the same approach of derivation and
0
Im
definition, the root mean square current (Irms) is defined as Irms = , where Im is
√2
the amplitude current.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.7, where the resistor (R) is replaced by a
component, which can be capacitor, inductor or combination of resistor, inductor,
and capacitor. If the applied voltage source is V(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv) and the current
i(t) that flows in the circuit is i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi), the phase φi is caused by the
active component such as capacitor. The instantaneous power P(t) absorbed by the
component shall be
P(t) = VmImcos(ωt + φv)cos(ωt + φi) (1.9)
1
Knowing that from trigonometry cosA cosB = [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)], the
2
instantaneous power, which is equation (1.10) shall be
1 1
P(t) = VmImcos(θv − θi) + VmIm cos(2ωt + θv + θ1) (1.10)
2 2
It shows that instantaneous power has two parts; one is a constant, which is
1
VmIm cos(θv − θi) and one is varying with time (or time dependent), which is
2
1
VmIm cos(2ωt + θv + θi). The term cos(φv − φi) is called power factor. If
2
cos(φv − φi) equals to one, then it is pure resistive power absorption. If cos(φv − φi)
= ±0, it is a purely reactive component, which shall mean no power absorbed.
The average power is the average of instantaneous power over one period T, which
is defined as
1T
[∫ ]
T
1
Pavg = ∫
T0
P(t)dt =
T
VmIm cos(ωt + φi)cos(ωt + φv)dt
0
VmIm T
=
2T 0
∫ [cos(φv − φi) + cos(2ωt + φv + φi)]dt
[ ]
T
VmIm 1
= t cos (φv − φi) + sin(2ωt + φv + φi) (1.11)
2T 2ω0 0
VmIm
= cos(φv − φi)
2
where cos (φv − φi) is the power factor. If (φv − φi) equal to zero, this shall mean that
the current and voltage are in phase, then the power absorbed is purely resistive. If
(φv − φi) is equal to ±90° then there is no power absorbed.
Thus, one can conclude that resistive component absorbs power at all time, whilst,
reactive component absorbs zero average power because the phase difference between
voltage source and current source.
Activity 1.5
Given that v(t) = 120cos(377t + 45°) V and i(t) = 10 cos(377t − 10°)

A, find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed
by the passive linear network.
Maximum average power transfer

The maximum power theorem states that maximum power transfer occurs when
Thévenin’s resistance (RTH) is equal to the load resistance (RL). Let’s consider the
circuit shown in Figure 1.8, where ZTH = RTH + jXTH and ZL = RL + j XL, where XTH
and XL are complex impedances.
UNIT 1 15
Z TH I
V TH ZL
Figure 1.8 Maximum average power transfer
The current (I) that flows in the circuit is

VTH VTH
I= = (1.12)
ZTH + ZL RTH + RL + j (XTH + XL)
The average power (Pavg) delivered to the load shall be
[ ]
2
1 2 1 VTH
Pavg = |I| RL = RL
2 2 RTH + RL + j (XTH + XL)
[ ]
2
1 VTH
= RL (1.13)
2 √(R TH + R L)2 + (X TH + X L)2
∂P
To obtain maximum average power transfer, it is done by setting = 0 and
∂RL
∂P
= 0. Thus, from equation (1.13), the partial derivatives are set to zero, which
∂XL
2
∂P V TH [(R TH + R L ) 2 + (X TH + X L ) 2 − 2R L (R TH + R L )]
are = = 0 and
∂RL 2[(RTH + RL)2 + (XTH + XL)2]2
2
∂P VTH RL(XTH + XL)
= = 0 respectively. This shall mean that X L = −X TH
∂XL [(RTH + RL)2 + (XTH + XL)2]2
and load is R L = √R TH
2
+ (X TH + X L)2. Combining the results, for maximum average
power transfer, it yields
Z L = R L + jXL = R TH - jXTH = Z TH
*
(1.14)
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance (Z L) must be equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thévenin’s impedance (Z TH).
Substituting R L = R TH and X L = −X TH into equation (1.13), the maximum average

power P(t) is
2
VTH
P(t) = (1.15)
8RTH
It shows pure resistive load and reactive load is zero. In this situation, equation
RL = √R TH
2
+ (XTH + XL)2 becomes RL = √R TH
2
+ X TH
2
, which is the Thévenin’s impedance.
This implies that maximum average power transfer occurs when the load resistance
(RL) is equal to Thévenin’s impedance (ZTH).
Activity 1.6
Determine the load impedance (ZL) that maximises the average

power drawn from the circuit and the maximum average power
drawn.
4Ω j5Ω
8Ω
+
10∠0°
− ZL
−j6Ω
Figure 1.9 Circuit for determining maximum average power transfer
Apparent power and power factor

Equation (1.11) states that the average power transfer is equal to
VmIm
P(t) = cos(φv − θi) for a given voltage V(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φv) and current
2
V
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + φi). Knowing that the root mean square voltage is Vrms = m and
√2
Im
the root mean square current is Irms = , the average power transfer shall become
√2
P(t) = VrmsIrms cos(φv − φi), where VrmsIrms is defined as apparent power (Papp) that
carries the unit VA to distinguish it from resistive power which has unit Watt. The
term cos(φv − φi) is defined as power factor (pf ). Thus, one can see that the average
power transfer P(t) is
P(t) = Papp. pf (1.16)

UNIT 1 17
The angle (φv − φi) is termed as power factor angle. Power factor angle is the cosine
of the phase difference between voltage and current.
V V m ∠ φ V Vm
The impedance (Z) of the circuit is equal to Z = = = ∠(φV − φi) =
I Im∠φi Im
Vrms
∠(φV − φi). Thus, power factor is also the cosine of angle of the load resistance.
Irms
For resistive load, the power factor pf is equal to one, whilst for reactive load, the
power factor is 0, which can be leading or lagging depending on the type of reactive
load.
Complex power
Complex power (Pcomp) is a term used by power engineer to find the total effect of
parallel load. It contains all the information pertaining to the power absorbed by a
given load. Mathematically, complex power (Pcomp) is given by
1 *
Pcomp = VI = VrmsI*rms (1.17)
2
It is half the product of voltage and the complex conjugate of the current. Complex
power can also be written as Pcomp = VrmsIrms∠(φV − φi), since I = Irms∠φi and
I* = Irms∠ − φi. Complex power Pcomp = VrmsIrms∠ (φV − φi) can also be written as
Pcomp = VrmIrms cos(φv − φi) + jVrmIrms sin(φv − φi). The complex power Pcomp can also be
2
Vrms
shown as equal to Pcomp = = I2rms Z. Since Z = R + jX, the complex power is
Z*
also equal to
Pcomp = I rms
2
(R + j X) = P + j Q (1.18)
where P = Re(Pcomp) = I rms

2
R and Q = Im(Pcomp) = I rms
2
X. Comparing Papp = VrmsIrms
with equation (1.18), the apparent power (Papp) is also equal to the magnitude of
complex power, which is Papp = √P2 + Q2. This shall mean that apparent power is the
vector sum of real power and reactive power.
Comparing equation (1.18) with equation Pcomp = VrmIrms cos(φv − φi) + jVrmIrms
sin(φv − φi), P = VrmIrms cos(φv − φi) and Q = VrmIrms sin(φv − φi), where P is the real
power, which indeed is the average power P(t) and Q is the reactive power, which is
the measure of energy exchange between source and reactive component of the load
and it has unit volt-ampere reactive (VAR). When Q = 0, it shall mean resistive load
with power factor equals to 1. Q < 0 means capacitive load with lead power factor.
Q > 0 means inductive load with lagging power factor.
Activity 1.7
The voltage across a load is V(t) = 60 cos(ωt – 10°) V and the

current through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is
i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt + 50°) A.
1. Find the complex power and apparent power.
2. Find the real and reactive powers, and
3. Find the power factor and the load impedance.
Power factor correction

The process of increasing power factor without altering the voltage or current to the
original load is known as power factor correction. Most of domestic loads such as
washing machine are inductive in nature as shown in Figure 1.9. The power factor
(pf ) can be deliberately improved or corrected by installing a capacitor in parallel
with the load. The effective of adding the capacitor can be illustrated by the power
triangle or phasor diagram as shown in Figure 1.10.
I IL IC
+
R Compensation
capacitor
V
C
Figure 1.10 An inductive load with added compensation capacitor

UNIT 1 19
IC
V
θ1 θ2
I
IC
IL
Figure 1.11 Phasor diagram showing the effect of adding a parallel compensation
capacitor
It is evidently shown that the power factor has improved from cosθ1 to cosθ2 after
adding the parallel compensation capacitor. From the figure, it is also evident to
see the same voltage level draws less current after adding parallel capacitor. The
magnitude of current reduces from IL to I. By choosing suitable size capacitor,
current can be made completely in phase with voltage implying obtaining power
factor of one.
Power factor correction can also be dealt with different perspective by looking at
the power triangle shown in Figure 1.12 showing real power, reactive power, and
apparent power.
QC
S1
Q1
S2
Q2
θ1 θ2
P
Figure 1.12 Power triangle illustrating power factor correction
If the original apparent power is (S1) then the real power (P) and reactive power
(Q1) are respectively defined by equations (1.19) and (1.20).
P = S1 cosθ1 (1.19)
and
Q1 = S1 sinθ2 = P tanθ1 (1.20)

If one wishes to keep real power constant and correcting power factor from cosθ1
to cosθ2, then real power (P) and reactive power (Q 2) are respectively as shown in
equations (1.21) and (1.22).
P = S2 cosθ2 (1.21)
and
Q2 = P tanθ2 (1.22)
Adding a shunting capacitor reduces the reactive power from Q1 to Q2, which the
reactive power due to capacitor is
QC = Q1 − Q2 = P(tanθ1 − tanθ2) (1.23)
2
V rms
Complex power (Pcomp) of capacitor is S = . Since there is no real power for
χC
V2
the capacitor, the complex power is equal to reactive power Q C = rms = ωCV rms 2
.
χC
The value of shunt capacitor shall be
QC P(tanθ 1 − tanθ 2)
C= 2
= 2
(1.24)
ωV rms ωV rms
In the case where the load is capacitive type instead of inductive type, in order to
correct the power factor, a shunt inductance (L) is required. The value of shunt
inductance (L) is equal to
QL QL P(tanθ 1 − tanθ 2)
L= = 2
= 2
(1.25)
χL ωV rms ωV rms
Summary
You have learnt basic power electronic measurement and achieved

the learning outcomes for this section. You have learnt how to
define the basic parameters used to measure the quantity of direct
and alternative voltage and current; how to calculate the phase and
phase difference between sinusoid signal using phasor diagram and
phasor transform technique; describe a sinusoid signal, calculate
average voltage, root mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage,
maximum power, apparent power complex power etc., when
connecting to passive and active components; determine the power
factor of an active circuit; and applied the studied method to correct
power factor.
UNIT 1 21
Self-test 1.1
Calculate the power absorbed by the passive network if the voltage

v(t) is v(t) = 80cos(10t + 20°) V and current i(t) is i(t) = 15 sin(10t
+ 60°) A.
Self-test 1.2
Determine the power generated by each source and the average

power absorbed by each passive element in the circuit shown in
Figure 1.13.
R C
I1 20Ω I2 −j5Ω
+
Mesh 1 Mesh 2
+
I V
v1 L j10Ω −
4∠0°A 60∠30°V
−
Figure 1.13 An ac network
Self-test 1.3
A series-connected load in a current is i(t) = 4 cos(100πt + 10°)

A when the applied voltage is V(t) = 120 cos(100πt − 20°)V. Find
the apparent power, power factor, the element to form the series-
connected load.
Self-test 1.4
When connected to a 120V rms, 60Hz power line, a load absorbs

4kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance
necessary to raise the power factor to 0.95.
Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 1.1
Addition: 10∠30° + 25 ∠48° = 10(0.866 + j0.5) + 25(0.669 +

j0.743) = 25.39 + j23.58 = 34.65 ∠42.9°.
Subtraction: 10∠30° − 25 ∠48° = 10(0.866 + j0.5) − 25(0.669 +

j0.743) = −8.07 − j13.58 = −15.79 ∠59.3° = 15.79
∠239.3°.
Activity 1.2
Multiplication: (10∠30°)(25∠48°) = 250 ∠78° = 250 cos(ωt + 78°)

(10∠ 30°)
Division: = 0.4 ∠−18° = 0.4 cos(ωt − 18°).
(25∠48°)
Activity 1.3
The amplitude is 5. The phase is −60°. The angular frequency is

4π = 12.57rad/s. The period is 0.5 s and the frequency is 2Hz.
Activity 1.4
We can convert the negative cosine to positive cosine and sine to

cosine, which will produce v1 = 10cos(ωt + 50° − 180°) = 10cos(ωt
− 130°) and v2 = 12sin(ωt − 10°) = 12cos(ωt − 10° − 90°) =
12cos(ωt − 100°). The phase difference is clearly shown as 30° and
v2 leads v1.
UNIT 1 23
Activity 1.5
The instantaneous power is P(t) is 1200 cos(377t + 45°)cos(377t

− 10°).
1
Knowing the trigonometric function cos A cos B = [cos(A + B)
2
+ cos(A − B)], therefore, the P(t) = 600[cos550+cos(754t + 35°)] =
344.2 + 600 cos(754t + 35°)].
VmIm 1200
The average power Pavg = cos(φv − φi) = cos(45° +
2 2
10°) = 344.2 W.
Activity 1.6
The Thévenin’s impedance (ZTH) is ZTH = j 5 + 4|| (8 − j 6) =

4(8 − j 6)
j5 + = 2.933 + j4.467Ω.
4 + 8 − j6
The load impedance is RL = √R TH

2
+ X TH
2
= RL = √2.9332 + 4.4672
= 5.43Ω.
8 − j6
The Thévenin’s voltage VTH is VTH = 10∠0°= 7.454
4 + 8 − j6
∠−10.3°V.
2
VTH 7.4542
The maximum average power transfer is = = 2.368W.
8RTH 8 × 2.933
Activity 1.7
60 1.5
The rms voltage and current are Vrms = ∠−10° and Irm =
√2 √2
∠50°
1 1 60
1. The complex power Pcomp = VrmsI* rms = · ∠−10°
2 2 √2
1.5
. ∠−50° = 45 ∠−60°VA.
√2
The apparent power is 45VA.

2. Complex power P comp = 45 ∠−60° VA = 45cos(−60°) +

j45sin(−60°) = 22.5 − j38.97. Thus, the real power P is 22.5
W and the reactive power is – 38.97VAR.
3. The power factor pf is cos(−60°) = 0.5, which is leading because

the reactive power is negative.
V 60 ∠ −10°
The load impedance Z is = = 40 ∠−60°Ω, which
I 1.5∠50°
is the capacitive load.
UNIT 1 25
1.2 LRC Circuit Analysis

Objectives
1. Analyse the response of series connected LRC circuit for various damping
conditions.
2. Determine the conditions for under damped, critically damped, and under
damped conditions of LRC circuit.
3. Analyse the response parallel connected LRC circuit.
4. Analyse step function response of series and parallel connected LRC circuits.
Introduction
In this section, the analysis of second-order circuit, which comprises of two storage
element types and passive element type, will be studied. We shall also review the
mathematical methods for solving the second order differential equation as we go
through the course.
The typical configurations of second order circuit are shown in Figure 1.14. The
elements of the circuit can be either connected in series or parallel.
R L
νs C is R C L
(a) Series LRC circuit (b) Parallel LRC circuit
R1 R2 R
νs L1 L2 is C1 C2
(c) RL circuit (d) RC circuit
Figure 1.14 Typical configurations of second order circuit

The LRC circuit has three modes of operation during free running mode which
depends on the right combination values of resistor (R), capacitor (C), and inductor
(L). They are under damped, critical damped and over damped modes. We shall
deal with each mode in detail.
LRC series circuit

Let’s begin the analysis of LRC circuit for various operation modes using the LRC
series circuit shown in Figure 1.15. The operation modes are over damped, critical
damped, and under damped modes.
Over damped condition
A LRC circuit is shown in Figure 1.15 that was initially connected to a voltage
(V0) for a long time and later the source is disconnected to form a source free
circuit. Using Kirchhoff ’s voltage law (KVL), iR + VL + VC = 0. This implies that
t
di 1
iR + L
dt
+ VC = 0. Knowing that VC is also equal to VC =
C
∫ idt, the equation
−∞
shall be a second order differential equation. Thus,

d2 i R di i
2
+ · + =0 (1.26)
dt L dt LC
L
R
t=0
i νc
V0 − C
Figure 1.15 LRC series circuit
If we assume the solution of the second order differential equation to be i = Aest,

then substituting this solution into equation (1.26) yields
(
Aest s2 +
R
L
s+
1
LC
=0 ) (1.27)
UNIT 1 27
Since the equation (1.27) is a polynomial equation, it has two roots s1 and s2, which
are
√( )
2
R R 4
− + −
L L LC
s1 = (1.28)
and
√( )
2
R R 4
− − −
L L LC
s2 = (1.29)
The mathematical solution for the equation (1.27) is
i = A1eS1t + A2eS2t (1.30)
Differentiating equation (1.30) with respect to time t, it yields equation (1.31),

which is
di 2
= A1S1eS1t + A2S2eS t (1.31)
dt
To know the value of A1 and A2, one needs to know the initial condition of the circuit.
At time t = 0, the capacitor is fully charged to voltage V0. The initial current value
i(0) at time t = 0 is equal to zero. The voltage drops across the resistor shall be zero.
Thus, the voltage V0 shall be equal to the voltage drop across the inductor, which
di (0)
is V0 = −L , negative sign being that it is the discharge of capacitor. Thus, it is
dt
di (0) V
= 0.
dt L
Substituting the condition i(0) = 0 into equation (1.30), it yields A1 + A2 = 0.

di (0) V
Substituting the condition = − 0 into equation (1.31), it yields
dt L
V0
− = A1S1 + A2S2.
L
Solving these equations, the values of A1 and A2 are found to be

V0
A1 = (1.32)
L(S2 − S1)
and
V0
A2 = (1.33)
L(S1 − S2)
The above analysis indicates the case of over damped response if the roots s1 and s2
of the differential equation has the condition ()

R 2 1
2L
>
LC
(see equations (1.28) and
(1.29)).
Activity 1.8
Referring to Figure 1.15, if the value of V0 = 1.0V, R = 4.0Ω,

L = 1.0H, and C = 1.0F, find the current i(t) in the circuit.
Critical damped condition
( )
2
R 1
The condition for critical damped response is = for the roots shown in
2L LC
equations (1.38) and (1.39). The solution of current i(t) is
i(t) = (A1t + A2)e−αt (1.34)

R
where α = .
2L
Activity 1.9
Referring to Figure 1.15, if the value of V0 = 1.0V, R = 2.0Ω,

L = 1.0H, and C = 1.0F, find the current i(t).
UNIT 1 29
Under damped condition
Let’s consider another case whereby the condition ( )R 2

2L
>
1
LC
is satisfied. This is
the under damped case, whereby the root of the differential equation is a complex
√()
2
R 4 R
− +j −
L LC L
type. Thus, it oscillates. The roots shall be S1 = and
√ ()
2
R 4 R
− −j −
L LC L
R 1
S2 = . Let α be α = and ω0 = . The roots S1 and S2
2 2L √LC
shall be S1 = −α + j√ω20 − α2 and S2 = −α − j√ω20 − α2. If one lets √ω20 − α2 = ωd, then
S1 = −α + jωd and S2 = −α − jωd.
After substitution of the known constant values, the current solution shall be
i(t) = e−αt(A1e jωdt + A2e −jωdt). If the value of α is equal to one, then the oscillation is
pure oscillation because the angular frequency of oscillation ωd is equal to ω0, which is
1
the natural angular frequency of the circuit equal to . This condition is also
√LC
the most stable condition.
Figure 1.16 shows the plot of the oscillation that contains an exponential function
and a sine oscillation function,
i(t)
e−αt
0 t
2π
ωd
Figure 1.16 Under damped oscillation of the LRC circuit

Energy stored in oscillator
The energy stored in the LRC circuit as shown in Figure 1.15 before the voltage
1
supply is disconnected are ER = 0, EC = CV 20 and EL = 0. The reason being, there
2
is no current flows in the circuit.
If the resistor (R) is equal to zero, then after the voltage is disconnected from
the circuit, the energy stored in the circuit is equal to the sum of energy
stored in capacitor, and inductor i.e., Etotal = EC + EL. This shall mean that
Etotal =
1
2
C
C( )
it 2
−
1 2
2
Li . We shall use the under damped case as the illustration
derived the formulae for the energy store in the LRC circuit. The current solution
shall be i(t) = (B1cosωdt + B2sinωdt)e−αt, since R = 0 then α = 0 and ω0 = ωd. Knowing
di(0) V V
i(0) = 0 and = − 0 , B1 = 0 and B2 = − 0 ωd, thus, the solution for the
dt L L
V0 √LC V0
current shall be i(t) = − sin ω0t = i(t) = − sin ω0t. The energy stored in
ω0L L
1 2 1
inductor is EL = Li = CV 20 sin2ω0t. The voltage cross capacitor and inductor
2 2
are the same except the direction. Therefore VC = −VL = V0 cosω0t. The energy stored
1
in the capacitor shall be EC = CV 20 cos2ω0t. Therefore, the total energy stored in
2
1 1 1
the circuit is CV 20 cos2ω0t + CV 20 sin2ω0t = CV 20, which is equal to the
2 2 2
initial energy.
Parallel LRC circuit

The parallel LRC circuit is shown in Figure 1.17. According to Kirchhoff ’s current
v dv d2v 1 dv v
law (KCL), I + +C = 0, which can be re-written as 2 + · + = 0.
R dt dt RC dt LC
The solution for differential equation is v = A1eS1t + A2eS2t.
UNIT 1 31
t=0
i
+
R L ν
I0
C −
Figure 1.17 Parallel LRC circuit
The characteristics equation shall be S2 + 2αS + ω20 = 0. The roots S1 and S2 shall be
1 1
S1 = −α + √α2 − ω20 and S2 = −α − √α2 − ω20, where α = and ω0 = .
2RC √LC
The initial condition of the circuit at time t = 0 is vc(0) = 0 because the voltage across
dvc i
capacitor can be changed instantaneously and = . However, at t = 0, current
dt C
dv (0) I
I = I0, which is the maximum current inside the inductor. Thus, c =− 0.
dt C
1
The energy stored in capacitor CV 20 is zero and the energy stored in inductor
dt
1
is LI 20.
2
Step response of LRC series circuit

The step response of the RLC series circuit is shown in Figure 1.18.
R i
VS L
νS = VSu(t) +
C ν
0 −
t=0
Figure 1.18 Step response of RLC series circuit

At time t < 0, the capacitor is open and the inductor is shorted. At time t > 0, the
dvc
voltage across capacitor is zero, the rate of change of capacitor voltage = 0, and the
dt
inductor current iL = 0.
d2v R dv v v
The second order differential equation is + · + = s . Thus, the solution
dt2 L dt LC LC
is a non homogenous type and its solution is v(t) = vn(t) + vf (t). The solution vn(t)
corresponds to the natural response i.e., when vs = 0, vf (t) corresponds to vs ≠ 0.
dvc(∞ ) i (∞ )
Let’s evaluate the solution for vf (t). For time t = ∞, vc(∞) = Vs, = = 0,
dt C
d2vc(∞ ) 1 di (∞ ) dvL(∞ )
and = . = = 0. Substitute the condition into the differential
dt2 C dt LC
equation, it yields vf (t) = vs. Thus, the general solution for the differential equation
for the over damped case is
v(t) = A1eSqt + A2eS2t + VS (1.35)
Activity 1.10
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.18, if R = 2.5Ω, L = 0.25H, C =

0.25F, and VS = 1.0V, find the voltage solution and sketch the plot.
Step response of LRC parallel circuit

The step response of the RLC series circuit is shown in Figure 1.19. At time t < 0,
the capacitor is open and the inductor is shorted. This implies Vc = 0 = VL = 0 and
the inductor current iL = 0. At time t > 0, the current in inductor is zero and the
diL(0) v (0) v (0)
rate of current in capacitor and inductor is zero i.e., = L = c =0
dt dt dt
i
IS
+
iS = ISu(t) R L C ν
0 −
t=0
Figure 1.19 Step response of a RLC parallel circuit

UNIT 1 33
d2i 1 di
The non-homogeneous differential equation for the circuit is 2
+ . +
dt RC dt
i I
= s . The general current solution is i(t) = in(t) + if (t). The in(t) has the natural
LC LC
response solution and if (t) is the final solution, which can determine the condition
di L(∞ ) v(∞ ) d2i L(∞ ) 1
at time t = ∞. At time t = ∞, iL(∞) = Is, = = 0, and 2
= .
dt L dt L
dv (∞ ) i (∞ )
= C = 0. Substituting the conditions into the differential equation,
dt LC
it yields if (t) = IS. The general current solution of the circuit response for the over
damped case is i(t) = A1eS1t + A2eS2t + IS.
Summary
In this section on LRC circuit analysis, you have learnt how to

analyse the response of series connected LRC circuit for various
damping conditions; determine the conditions for under damped,
critically damped, and under damped conditions of LRC circuit;
analyse the response of parallel connected LRC circuit; and analyse
the step function response of series and parallel connected LRC
circuits.
Self-test 1.5
With reference to Figure 1.15, if the value of V0 = 1.0V, R = 1.6Ω,

L = 0.2H, and C = 0.2F, find the current i(t) and the frequency of
the oscillation.
Self-test 1.6
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.19, if R = 4.0Ω, L = 1.0H,

C = 1.0F, and IS = 1.0A, find the voltage solution and sketch the
plot.
Feedback
Activity 1.8
The value of
√( ) √( )
2 2
R R 4 4 4 4
− + − − + −
L L LC 1 1 1
S1 = = = −2 + √3
2 2
and the value of
√( )
2
R R 4
− − −
L L LC
S2 = = −2 − √3.
V0 −1 V0 −1
The value of A1 = = and = A2 = = .
L(S2 − S1) 2√3 L(S1 − S2) 2√3
1 (−2 − √3)t (−2 + √3)t

Thus, the current i(t) is i(t) = (e −e ).
2√3
Activity 1.9
The root of S is a double root since S2 + 2S +1 = 0 yields S1 =

R
S2 = −1. Knowing that α = = 1, the solution of the second order
2L
differential equation is critical damped type, which is (A1t + A2)e−t.
The initial conditions are the same, which are i(t) = 0 at t = 0 and
di (0)
= −1 at t = 0. The values of A1 and A2 are found to be −1 and
dt
0 respectively. Thus, the solution is i(t) = −te−t, which is basically,
the discharging equation.
UNIT 1 35
Activity 1.10
R 2.5 1 1
α = = = 5, ω0 = = = 4, and
2L 2 × 0.25 √LC √0.25 × 0.25
β = √α2 − ω 20 = √52 − 42 = 3.
S1 = −α + β = −2 and S2 = −α − β = −8.
The solution of the differential equation has an over damped

condition. Thus, it takes the form v(t) = A1e−2t + A2e−8t + 1.
dv(0)
The initial conditions are at t = 0, v(0) = 0 , and i(0) = C = 0.
dt
Substitute these conditions into the solution, it yields A1 + A2 + 1 = 0
−4Vs −4
and A1 + 4A2 = 0. Solving for A1 and A2 it yields A1 = =
3 3
Vs 1
and A2 = = . Substitute the known value into v(t) = A1e−2t + A2e−8t + 1,
3 3
3 −2t 1 −8t
the solution is v(t) = − e + e + 1. In general form, the
4 3
(
voltage solution is v(t) = −
4 −2t 1 −8t
3 )
e + e + 1 VS. The sketch of the
3
solution is shown below.
νC(t)
VS = 1.0V
1 −2t −8t
ν(t) = 1 + 3 (−4e + e )
t
UNIT 1 37
1.3 Fourier Analysis

Objectives
1. Interpret the equation of Fourier series.
2. Analyse trigonometric Fourier series.
3. Analyse exponential Fourier series.
4. Apply Fourier series for circuit analysis.
5. Transform the circuit from time domain to frequency domain.
6. Separate the response of dc and ac components in the Fourier series.
7. Determine the average power of periodic function.
Introduction
Many electrical waveforms are period but not sinusoidal. For analysis purposes,
such waveform can be represented in series form based on the original work of Jean
Baptise Joseph Fourier.
The application of Fourier-series method includes signal generators, power supplies,

and communication circuits. Fourier series decomposes non-sinusoidal waveform
into series of sinusoidal components of various frequencies. With this property,
frequency-domain representation or spectrum for periodic waveform is developed.
The spectral concept ties the relationship between time-domain and frequency-
domain properties of waveform. In this section, you shall learn the various methods
to generate Fourier series and the application of Fourier series in ac steady-state
circuit analysis.
Fourier series
The period waveform of function f(t) is repetition over time such that
f (t − mT) = f(t) m = 1, 2, 3, ... (1.36)
where T is the period. When m = 1, mT becomes T, which is the smallest T and it

is termed as fundamental period.
Theoretically equation (1.36) is true for value of t ranges from −∞ to ∞. But in

practice, the waveform lasts only for a finite amount time. The assumption can
be true if the period T is small as compared with duration of repeating waveform.
The net area under a periodic waveform f(t) over any period is independent of where
the period begins. Thus, the integration of the f(t) over at any begin point is equal.
t1 + T t2 + T
∫ f(t)dt = ∫f(t)dt (1.37)

t1 t2
Trigonometric Fourier series

Fourier series state that almost any periodic waveform [ f (t)] with fundamental
frequency (ω) can be expanded as an infinite series in the form
∞
f (t) = a0 + Σ (an cos nωt + bn sin nωt) (1.38)
n=1
Equation (1.38) is called the trigonometric Fourier series and the constant C0, an,
and bn are dependent on f(t). All the oscillatory components are integer multiple of
fundamental angular frequency ω or harmonics. Fourier series can also be expressed
in exponential form, which will be covered later.
By including an infinite number of harmonics, Fourier series can represent any

“well-behaved” period function. This well-behaved periodic function is defined by
Dirichlet’s condition, which states the function must be single-valued, must have a
finite number of maxima, minima, and discontinuities per period and the integral
∫ | f (t)|dt must be finite. In other words, when Dirichlet’s condition holds, the infinite
T
series summation converges to the value of f(t), wherever the waveform is continuous.
The infinite series has orthogonal property meaning that the integral over one period
of the product of any two different terms vanishes. Thus, ∫cos(nωt)dt = ∫sin(nωt)dt
T T
= 0, ∫cos(nωt)·sin(mωt)dt = 0, ∫cos(nωt)·cos(mωt)dt = 0 for n ≠ m, ∫sin(nωt)·sin(mωt)

T T T
T
dt = 0 for n ≠ m. However, for n = m, ∫cos (nωt)dt = ∫sin (nωt)dt =
2 2
.
T T 2
Referring to equation (1.38), the integration of the f(t) over a period T shall be
∞
∫ f(t)dt = ∫a0dt + nΣ(a
=1
n ∫cos nωtdt + bn ∫sin nωtdt) (1.39)
T T T T
UNIT 1 39
Equation (1.39) is equal to ∫ f(t)dt = a0T. Thus, the constant a0 is

T
1
a0 =
TT
∫ f(t)dt (1.40)
Note that a0 is also the average value of function f (t).
The coefficient an is determined by multiplying equation (1.38) with cosmωt and

integrating the equation for a period T. This equation used is
∫ cos(mωt)f(t)dt
T
∞
= ∫C0dt + Σ(an ∫ cos mωt·cos nωtdt + bn ∫ cos mωt·sin nωtdt) (1.41)
n=1
T T T
∞
Knowing Σ
n=1
∫ cos mωt·sin nωtdt = 0 and ∫ cos mωt·cos nωtdt = 0 for all n ≠ m,
T T
∞ T
the Σ
n=1
∫ cos mωt·cos nωtdt = 2 for n = m. Thus, equation (1.41) shall be ∫ cos(mωt)
T T
T
f(t)dt = an . The coefficient am shall follow equation (1.42).
2
2 2
an =
TT
∫ cos(mωt)f (t)dt =
TT
∫ cos(nωt)f(t)dt for n = m (1.42)
The coefficient bn is determined by multiplying equation (1.38) with sinmωt and

integrating the equation for a period T. The equation used is
∞
∫ sin(mωt)f (t)dt = ∫ a0dt + nΣ(a
=1
n ∫ sin mωt·cos nωtdt
T T T
+ bn ∫ sin nωt)·cos mωtdt) (1.43)

T
∞
Knowing that Σ
n=1
∫ sin mωt·sin nωtdt = 0 and ∫ sin mωt·cos nωtdt = 0 for all n ≠ m,
T T
∞ T
the Σ = ∫ sin mωt·sin nωtdt = for n = m. Thus, equation (1.41) shall be ∫ sin(mωt)
n=1
T 2 T
T
f(t)dt = bn . The coefficient bn shall follow equation (1.43).
2
2 2
bn =
TT
∫ sin(mωt)f(t)dt = T ∫ sin(nωt)f (t)dt for n = m (1.44)
T
The alternative form of equation (1.38) is the amplitude-phase form, which is

∞
f(t) = a0 + Σ (An cos nωt + φn) (1.45)
n=1
Knowing that cos(α + β) = cosαcosβ − sinαsinβ, equation (1.45) shall become

∞ ∞
f (t) = a0 + Σ (An cosφn cos nωt) − Σ (An sinφn sin nωt) (1.46)
n=1 n=1
Equating the coefficient of equation (1.38) and (1.46), it gives rise to an = An cosφn
and bn = −An sinφn. This shall also mean that An = √a 2n + b 2n and φn = −tan−1
( )
bn
an
.
The relationship between amplitude and phase can also be expressed in phasor form,
which is An∠φn = an − j bn.
Based on the above discussion, a function
f (t) = A cosnt − Bsinnt = √A2 + B2 cos nt + tan−1 ( B

A ) (1.47)
The plot of amplitude An of harmonic versus nω is called amplitude spectrum of f(t)

and the plot of phase φn versus nω is called phase spectrum of f(t). Both the amplitude
and phase spectra form the frequency spectrum of f (t).
Activity 1.11
A rectified half sine wave is defined over one period f (t) = Asinωt
T T
for 0 < t < and f(t) = 0 for < t < T as shown in the figure
2 2
below. Find the Fourier series of this wave form.
A
Voltage (V)
0 Time (S)
UNIT 1 41
Exponential Fourier series

Another way of expressing Fourier series is in exponential form. It is done by applying
Euler’s rule to equation (1.38). The equation shall be
1 ∞ 1 ∞
f (t) = a0 + Σ (an − j bn)e jnωt + Σ (an − jbn)e−jnωt (1.48)
2 n=1 2 n=1
Letting a0 = c0e jφt and summing over both positive and negative values of n, the
compact expression shall be
n=∞
f (t) =n =Σ−∞ cn e jnωt (1.49)
Equation (1.49) has an advantage of the trigonometric expansion because cn

represents all series coefficients. Thus, exponential series is preferred over the
trigonometric series for analytical investigation.
Like the trigonometric series, the exponential series are orthogonal in the sense that
T T
∫ e jnωte−jmωtdt = 0 for n ≠ m and ∫ e jnωte−jmωtdt = T for n = m.

0 0
Multiplying equation (1.49) by e−jmωt yields

T n=∞ T
∫ f(t)e −jmωt
dt = Σ cn ∫ e jnωte−jmωtdt
n = −∞
(1.50)
0 0
Knowing all terms with n ≠ m vanish and remaining term with n = m reduces to
cmT, thus,
T
∫ f(t)e−jmωt dt = cmT (1.51)

0
Hence the coefficient cn shall be

T
1
cn =
T0
∫ f (t)e−jnωt dt (1.52)
Equation (1.52) holds for all values of n including n = 0. When n = 0, the equation
reduces to equation (1.49).
For n ≠ 0, insert e−jnωt = cosnωt − j sinnωt to equation (1.52), and it becomes
T T
1 1
cn =
T0
∫ f (t)cos nωtdt −
T0
∫ f(t) jsin nωtdt (1.53)
Exchanging the sign of n, it gives rise to c−n = c n*.
Comparing equation (1.54) with equation (1.43) and (1.45), it concludes that
an = 2Re[cn] and bn = −2 Im[cn] for n ≥ 1.
Based on the above analysis, a new set of coefficients shall be defined, which are
an − j bn a + j bn
c0 = a0, cn = , and c−n = c*n = n .
2 2
Activity 1.12
Determine the complex Fourier series for the waveform shown in

the figure below.
f(t)
A
T t
T 0 T
− − −
2 4 2
−A
Symmetry considerations
The analysis done so far pointed out that the Fourier series mostly consists of either
sine terms or cosine terms. One may ask if there is a method that can be used in
advance to avoid tedious mathematical process. Such method does exist based on
recognising the existence of symmetry, which are even symmetry, odd symmetry,
and half-wave symmetry.
Even symmetry
A function f(t) is even if its plot is symmetrical about the vertical axis; that is
f (t) = f(−t) (1.54)
Examples of the even function are t 2, t 4, and cos t. Figure 1.20 shows an example
of even periodic function.
UNIT 1 43
f(t)
A
t
T 0 T T
− 4
2 −A 2
Figure 1.20 An even periodic function
T/2 T/2
A main property of an even function f(t) is that ∫ f(t)dt = 2 ∫ f(t)dt. The coefficient
−T/2 −T/2
of Fourier series for even function shall be

T/2
2
a0 =
T
∫ f(t)dt
0
T/2
4
an =
T
∫ f (t)cos(nωt)dt
0
bn = 0 (1.55)
Odd symmetry
A function f(t) is said to be odd if the plot is anti-symmetrical about the vertical
axis; that is
f (−t) = −f(t) (1.56)
T/2
The main characteristic of an odd function is ∫ f (t)dt = 0. The coefficients of the

−T/2
Fourier series are

T
1
a0 =
T0
∫ f(t)dt
an = 0
T/2
4
bn =
T0
∫ f(t)sin(nωt)dt (1.57)
Half-wave symmetry
A function is half-wave (odd) symmetric if

T
f (t − ) = −f(t) (1.58)
2
This shall mean that each half-cycle is the mirror image of the next half-cycle. An
example of half-wave symmetrical function is shown in Figure 1.21.
f (t)
A
T
t
0 T
2
−A
Figure 1.21 Half-wave symmetrical function
The coefficient of the Fourier series shall be
{
a0 = 0
4 T/2
∫ f (t)cos(nωt)dt for n odd

0
an = T
0 for n even
{
4 T/2
∫ f (t)sin(nωt)dt for n odd

0
bn = T
0 for n even (1.59)
Circuit applications of Fourier series

In practice, many circuits are driven by non-sinusoidal periodic function. To obtain
the steady state response of the circuit to a non-sinusoidal periodic function requires
the application of Fourier series, ac phasor analysis, and superposition principle.
The procedure usually involves three steps, which are
1. Express the excitation as Fourier series.
2. Transform the circuit from time domain to the frequency domain.
3. Find the response of dc and ac components in the Fourier series.

UNIT 1 45
Let’s use two examples to illustrate the procedures.
The circuit shown in Figure 1.22 has a non-sinusoidal νS(t) source that has Fourier
1 2 ∞ 1
series νS(t) = + Σ sin(nπt) for n = 2k − 1. Find the voltage νo(t) at inductor
2 π k=1 n
and the corresponding amplitude spectrum.
5 Ohm
VS(t) V0(t) 2H
Figure 1.22 An ac circuit
j ω nL
The output voltage νo(t) is v0(t) = vs(t). From the input νs(t), that ωn = nπ,
R + j ωnL
j 2nπ
νo(t) shall be νo(t) vst. The dc component shall be zero after substituting
5 + j 2n π
ωn = 0 into νo(t).
2
The phasor of sine component of the ac portion is ∠ −90°. Thus, the output
nπ
2 n π ∠ 90°
2
[νo(t)] shall be νo(t) = · ∠ −90°
( )
nπ
2n π
√25 + 4n π ∠tan
2 2 −1
=
4
√25 + 4n π
2 2
∠−tan−1
2n π
5
·
( )
In time-domain, the output voltage shall be νo(t) =
4
√25 + 4n π
2 2 [
cos nπt − ∠tan−1
( )]
2n π
5
. The overall output νo(t) = Σ
∞
n=1
n = odd
4
√25 + 4n π
2 2 [
cos nπt − ∠tan−1
2n π
5 ( )] V.
The first four harmonics of the output voltage are νo(t) = 0.50 cos(π − 51.49°) +
0.21 cos(3π − 75.14°) + 0.13 cos(5π − 80.96°) + 0.10 cos(7π − 83.1°) + ... V.
The amplitude spectrum of the output voltage is shown in Figure 1.23.
v0
0.5
0.2
0.13 0.1
ω
0 π 3π 5π 7π
Figure 1.23 Amplitude spectrum of the output voltage
Average power of Period functions

As shown in equation (1.36) for the amplitude-phase Fourier series of a periodic
function, the voltage and current functions at the terminal of the network are
∞
ν(t) = Vdc + Σ Vn cos(nωt − θvn) (1.60)
n=1
∞
i(t) = Idc + Σ In cos(nωt − θin) (1.61)
n=1
The average power is

T
1
Pavg =
T0
∫ P(t)dt (1.62)
Thus, the average power expressed in amplitude-phase Fourier series shall be

T T
1 ∞
1
Pavg =
T0
∫ VdcIdc dt + Σ ∫ VnIn cos(nωt − θvn) cos(nωt − θin)dt
n=1 T 0
(1.63)
Equation (1.63) which is the average power, shall finally become

1 ∞
Pavg = VdcIdc + Σ VnIn cos(θv − θi) (1.64)
2 n=1
UNIT 1 47
Activity 1.13
Determine the average power supplied to the circuit shown in the

figure below if i(t) = 2 + cos(t + 10°) + 6 cos(3t + 35°)A.
i(t) v(t) 10 Ohm 2F
Summary
In this section, you have learnt Fourier series analysis and achieved
the learning outcomes as stipulated by this course. The learning
outcomes achieved are how to interpret the equation of Fourier
series, analyse trigonometric Fourier series, analyse exponential
Fourier series, apply Fourier series for circuit analysis, transform the
circuit from time domain to frequency domain, separate the response
of dc and ac components in the Fourier series, and determine the
average power of periodic function.
Self-test 1.7
Find the response io(t) in the circuit shown in the figure below
if the input voltage v(t) has the Fourier series expansion
∞
2(−1)n
ν(t) = 1 + Σ (cos nt − nsinnt).
n=1 1 + n2
4 Ohm 2 Ohm
iO(t)
2 Ohm
v(t) 2H
Feedback
Activity 1.11
T/2 T
1 1 −A
The dc voltage shall be a 0 = ∫
T 0
A sin ωtdt + ∫
T T/2
0dt =
ωT
( )
T/2
ωT A 1
cos −1 = . The cosine coefficient an = ∫ A sin ωt cos nωtdt
2 π T0
π
A
=
π
∫ sinα cos nαdα, after letting α = ωt. The coefficient
0
an = −
2π [
A 1 − cos(n − 1)π 1 − cos(n + 1)π
n −1
−
n +1 ]
for n ≠ 1. Knowing
that cos(n ± 1)π = −1 when n is even and cos(n ± 1)π = 1 when

2A
n is odd. Thus, an = − for n = 2, 4, 6, ... and an = 0 for
π(n 2 − 1)
π
A
n = 3, 5, 7, ... a1 is found to be ∫ sinα sin nαsα = 0.
π 0
UNIT 1 49
π
A A
The sine coefficient bn is = ∫
π 0
sin α sin nαdα =
2
for n = 1 and
bn = 0 for n = 2, 3, 4, 5 ... Knowing the coefficient values, the

rectified half-wave Fourier series shall be
A A 2A 2A 2A
f(t) = + sin ωt − cos 2ωt − cos 4ωt − cos 6ωt − ...
π 2 3π 15π 35π
A A ∞
2A
= + sinωt − Σ 2
cos 2nωt.
π 2 n = 1 π(4n − 1)
Activity 1.12
[∫ ]
T −T/4 T/4 T/2
1 1
The coefficient c0 = ∫ f(t) = T
T 0
−Adt + ∫ Adt − ∫ Adt = 0
−T/2 −T/4 T/4
[ ]
−T/4 T/4 T/2
1
The coefficient cn =
T
∫ −Ae jnωt dt + ∫ Ae jnωt dt − ∫ Ae jnωt dt
−T/2 −T/4 T/4
[ | | ]
−T/4 T/4 T/2
=
A e jnωt
−
T j nω −T/2
+
e jnωt
j nω | −
e jnωt
−T/4 j nω T/4
A
= [−e −jnπ/2 + e−jnπ + e jnπ/2 − e−jnπ/2 − e jnπ + e jnπ/2]
j nωT
A
= [−2 e −jnπ/2 + e −jnπ − e jnπ + 2 e jnπ/2]
j n ωT
=
A
j 2n π[ ( )
4j sin
nπ
2
− 2 j sin(nπ)
]
=
A
nπ [ ( ) ]
2sin
nπ
2
− sin(nπ)
{
0 for n even
( )
Thus, the coefficient for cn is cn = 2A nπ
sin for n odd
nπ 2
2A 2A
Let n = 1, c1 = . This implies that c−1 is also equal to .
π π
2A 2A
Let n = 3, c3 = − . This implies that c−3 is also equal to − .
3π 3π
2A 2A
Let n = 5, c5 = . This implies that c−5 is also equal to .
5π 5π
2A 2A
Let n = 7, c7 = − . This implies that c−7 is also equal to − .
7π 7π
n=∞
Expansion of function f(t) according to equation (1.48) Σ cne jnωt for n = −7 to
n = −∞
n = 7 yields
2A −j 7ωt 2A −j 5ωt 2A −j 3ωt 2A −j ωt 2A j 3ωt 2A j ωt
f (t) = ... − e + e − e + e − e + e
7π 5π 3π π 3π π
2A j 5ωt 2A j 7ωt
+ e − e + ...
5π 7π
4A 4A 4A 4A
= cos ωt − cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt − cos 7ωt + ...
π 3π 5π 7π
4A ∞ (−1)(n − 1)/2
= Σ cos nωt.
π nn == odd
1 n
The plot of the square wave function based on Fourier series is shown in the figure
below for n = 1, 3, 5, 7.
Voltage (V)
Time (S)
UNIT 1 51
Activity 1.13
1 10
The impedance of the circuit Z is Z = 10|| = .
j 2ω 1 + j 20ω
Hence the voltage ν(t) is ν(t) = Z × I
10I
=
1 + j 20ω
10I
=
√1 + 400ω2∠tan–1(20ω)
For dc component, I = 2 A and ω = 0, ν(t) = 20V.

10 × 10∠ 10°
For I = 10 cos(t + 10°) and ω = 1, ν(t) =
√1 + 400∠tan–1(20)
= 5∠−77.14°
= 5cos(t − 77.14°).
For I = 6cos(3t + 35°) A and ω = 3,

10 × 6∠ 35°
ν(t) = = 1∠−54.04° = cos(3t − 54.04°).
√1 + 400 × 9∠tan–1(20 × 3)
The overall voltage ν(t) = 20 + 5 cos(t − 77.14°) + cos(3t − 54.04°).
The average power supplied to the circuit follows the equation

1 ∞
Pavg = VdcIdc + Σ VnIn cos(θvn − θin)
2 n=1
1 1
= 20(2) + (5)(10)cos[77.14° −(−10°)] + (1)(6)
2 2
cos[54.04° − (−35°)]
= 40 + 1.247 + 0.05 = 41.5 W.
The supply voltage is ν(t) = 20 + 5 cos(t − 77.14°) + cos(3t − 54.04°).
The supply current is i(t) = 2 + cos(t + 10°) + 6 cos(3t + 35°) A.

1
The supply power is 20(2) + (5)(10)cos[77.14° − (−10°)]
2
1
+ (1)(6)cos[54.04° − (−35°)] = 40 + 1.247 + 0.05 = 41.5W.
2
This average power (Pavg) is the same as the supply power since
capacitor absorbed no power.
UNIT 1 53
Summary of Unit 1
Summary
In this unit on power electronic principles, you have learnt three

main topics which are basic power electronic measurement, LRC
circuit analysis, and Fourier analysis. In each section, you have
studied and achieved what have been specified in the learning
objectives via tutorials, learning activities and self-tests.
In section one on power electronic measurement, you have learnt

and achieved the ability to define the basic parameters used to
measure the quantity of direct and alternative voltage and current;
able to calculate the phase and phase difference between sinusoid
signal using phasor diagram and phasor transform technique;
describe sinusoid signal; define and calculate average voltage, root
mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage, maximum power,
apparent power complex power etc., when connecting to passive
and active components; determine the power factor of the active
circuit, and apply the studied method to correct power factor.
In section two on LRC circuit analysis, you have studied and

achieved the ability to analyse the response of series connected LRC
circuit for various damping conditions; determine the conditions for
under damped, critically damped, and under damped conditions of
LRC circuit; analyse the response parallel connected LRC circuit;
and analyse step function response of series and parallel connected
LRC circuits.
In section three on Fourier analysis, you have learnt and achieved

the ability to interpret the equation of Fourier series; analyse
trigonometric Fourier series; analyse exponential Fourier series;
apply Fourier series for circuit analysis; transform the circuit from
time domain to the frequency domain; separate the response of dc
and ac components in the Fourier series; and determine the average
power of periodic function.
UNIT 1 55
Suggested Answers to Self-tests
Feedback
Self-test 1.1
T T
1 1200
The average power is Pavg =
T0
∫ P(t)dt = T ∫ cos(10t + 20°)
0
cos(10t − 30°)dt
T
1200
The average power is Pavg =
2T 0
∫ [cos(20t − 10°) + cos50°)]dt
1200
= [t cos(50°)]T0 = 385.7 W.
2T
Self-test 1.2
Mesh 1: 4 A = I1
Mesh 2: (I2 − I1)j10 + I2(−j5) + 60 ∠ 30° = 0
j10I2 − j10I1 − j 5I2 + 60 ∠ 30° = 0
j5I2 = j40 − 60 ∠ 30°.
12
I2 = 8 − ∠ 30° = 8 − 12 ∠ 30° − 90° = 10.58 ∠ 79.1°.
j
1
The average power provided by voltage source V is (60)(10.59)
2
cos(30° − 79.1°) = 207.8W. By the signal convention of current,
the power is absorbed by the voltage source V.
Voltage across the current source I is V1 = 20I1 + j10(I1 − I2) = 80 +

j[10(4 − 2 − j10.39)] = 183.9 + j20 = 184.98 ∠ 6.21° V.
1
The average power provided by current source I is (184.98)(4)
2
cos(6.21° − 0°)= −367.8W.
This shall mean the current source is providing power to the circuit.
Voltage across resistor R is I1R = 4 × 20 = 80V.

1
The average power dissipated by resistor R is (80)(4) = 160W.
2
Voltage across capacitor is 10.58 ∠ 79.1°(−j5) = 10.58 ∠ 79.1°

5∠ −90° = 52.9 ∠−10.9°.
1
The average power dissipated by capacitor C is (52.9)(10.580)
2
cos(−90°) = 0 W.
Current flows through inductor is I1 − I2 = 4 ∠0° − 10.58 ∠79.1°

= 10.58 ∠−79.1°A.
Voltage across inductor is 10.58 ∠−79.1°( j10) = (10.58 ∠−79.1°)

(10∠90°) = 105.8 ∠10.9°V.
1
The average power dissipated by inductor L is (10.58)(10.58)
2
cos(90°) = 0W.
Self-test 1.3
120
The apparent power Papp = 4 × = 240VA.
2
The power factor is cos(−20° − 10°) = 0.866, which is leading.
Vm 120
The load impedance is Z = ∠φV − φi = ∠−20° − 10° =
Im 4
30∠−30° = 25.98 – j15Ω.
The element to form the series-connected load is capacitor since

the reactive load is − 90° phase.
1
−j15 = , knowing that ω is 100π, the capacitor value shall be
j ωC
212.2µF.
Self-test 1.4
Power factor = 0.8 then cosθ1 = 36.87°.

1 4000
The apparent power S1 is S1 = = = 5000VA.
cosθ1 cos36.87°
The reactive power Q 1 is S1sinθ1 = 500° sin 36.37° = 3000VAR
New power factor is 0.95. This implies that θ2 is 18.19°.

UNIT 1 57
P 4000
The new apparent power S 2 shall be S 2 = =
cosθ2 cos18.19°
= 4210.15VA.
The new reactive power Q 2 is Q 2 = S2sinθ2 = 1314.4VAR.
The change in reactive power QC is 3000 − 1314.3 = 1685.5VAR

QC 1685.6
The value of shunt capacitor shall be C = 2
=
ωVrms 2π60 × 1202
= 310.5µF
Alternatively, the value of shunt capacitor shall be

P(tanθ 1 − tanθ 1) 1685.6
C= 2
= = 310.5µF
ωVrms 2π60 × 1202
Self-test 1.5
The initial condition of the differential equation are i(t) = 0 and

di (0) V 1
=− 0 =− = −5.
dt L 0.2
The roots of the differential equation are
√( ) √( )
2 2
R R 4 1.6 1.6 4
− + − − + −
L L LC 0.2 0.2 0.2 × 0.2
S1 = =
2 2
= −4 + √−9 = −4 + 3j
and
√( ) √( )
2 2
R R 4 1.6 1.6 4
− − − − − −
L L LC 0.2 0.2 0.2 × 0.2
S2 = =
2 2
= − 4 − √−9 = −4 − 3j.
Applying the initial condition, the value of A1 and A2 are found

5j 5j
to be = and − respectively. Thus, the current value is
6 6
5j (−4 + 3j)t (−4 − 3j)t 5j −4t 3jt

i(t) = (e −e )= e (e − e −3jt). Applying Euler’s
6 6
rule, which states e ± j φ = cosφ ± jsinφ, the equation becomes
5j −4t 5
e 2j sin3t, which is − e−4t sin3t.
6 3
Alternatively, the damped solution is i(t) = (B1cosωdt + B2sinωdt)

e−αt, where α = 4 and ωd = 3. Applying the initial condition i(0) = 0
di V
and = − 0 , the values of B1 and B2 are found to be 0 and
dt L
5
− respectively. Substituting the known values, the value of the
2
5
solution of the differential equation is i(t) = − e−4t sin 3t.
3
Since the angular frequency (ω) is 3 i.e, 2πf = 3, the frequency ( f )
3
of the oscillation shall be Hz.
2π
Self-test 1.6
1 1 1 1
α= = , ω0 = = = 1, and
2RC 8 √LC √1 × 1
√63
β = √α2 − ω 20 = jωd = j .
8
This is an over damped case whereby the current solution is
(
i(t) = B1 cos
√63
8
t + B2 sin
√63
8 )
t e−1/8t + IS.
di (0)
From the circuit i(0) = 0 and v(0) = L = 0. Substitute the
dt
di (0)
conditions, it yields i(0) = B1 + IS = 0 and = ωdB2 − αB1 = 0.
dt
α B1
This implies that B2 = .
ωd
UNIT 1 59
Solving for the value of B1 and B2, it yields B1 = −Is = −1 and

IS 1
B2 = − =− .
√63 √63
The current solution for the circuit shall be
(
i(t) = −cos
√63
8
t+−
1
√63
sin
√63 −1/8t
8 )
t e + I. In general form, the
[(
solution is i(t) = −cos
√63
8
t+−
1
√63
sin
√63
8 )
t e−1/8t + 1 IS. ]
The sketch of the solution is shown in the figure below.
iL(t)
IS
= 1.0A
2π
ωd
[ (
i(t) = 1 − cos
√63
8
t+
1
√63
sin
√63 −t/8
8
te
) ]
t
Self-test 1.7
∞
2(−1)n
Rewrite the input voltage function ν(t) = 1 + ∑ 2
cos nt −
n=1 1 + n
∞
2(−1)n
∑ 2
n sin nt and convert the input voltage function to
n=1 1 + n
2(−1)n 2(−1)nn
amplitude-phase form. Thus, A = 2
and B = − .
1+n 1 + n2
The phase φn = −tan−1

A ( ) B
= tan−1 n. An = √A2 + B2 =
2(−1)n
√1 + n 2
.
∞
2(−1)n
The input voltage ν(t) shall then be equal to ν(t) = 1 + ∑
n=1 √1 + n 2
∞
2(−1)n
(cos nt + tan−1 n). The phasor form is 1 + ∑ ∠tan−1 n.
n=1 √1 + n 2
From the equation ω = 1 rad/s and ωn = n rad/s.
The total impedance of the circuit Z = 4 + jωn2||4

j ω n8 8 + jωn 8
=4+ =
4 + j ωn 8 2 + j ωn
The current flows in the circuit shall be
[ ]
2(−1)n ∠tan−1 n 2 + j ω n
∞
I= 1+∑ ·
n=1 √1 + n 2 8 + j ωn 8
The output current shall be io(t)

4
[
2(−1)n ∠tan−1 n 2 + jωn
]
∞
= ·1+∑ ·
4 + j ωn 2 n=1 √1 + n 2
8 + j ωn 8
[ 2(−1)n ∠tan−1 n
] 1
∞
= 1+∑ ·
n=1 √1 + n 2
4 + j ωn 4
1 1 1
Setting ωn = 0, the dc current shall be = = .
4 + j ωn 4 4 + j 0 × 4 4
∞
2(−1)n ∠tan−1 n 1
The ac component shall be ∑ ·
n=1 √1 + n 2
4 + jn4
∞
2(−1)n ∠tan−1 n ∞
(−1)n
= ∑ = ∑ .
n=1 √1 + n 2 · 4∠tan−1 n n = 1 2√1 + n 2
∞
(−1)n
In time-domain format, ac component is ∑ cos nt.
n=1 2√1 + n 2
1 ∞ (−1)n
Thus, the current io(t) shall be io(t) = +∑ cos nt A.
4 n = 1 2√1 + n 2
UNIT 1 61
References
Alexander, C K and Sadiku, M N O (2004) Electric Circuits, 2nd edn, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Carlson, A B (2000) Circuits, New York: Brooks/Cole.
Nilsson, J W and Riedel, S A (2001) Electric Circuits, 6th edn, New York: Prentice
Hall.
UNIT 1 63
Glossary
C Capacitance
f(t) Wave function
I Current
Im Current amplitude
L Inductance
pf Power factor
Papp Apparent power
Pcomp Complex power
P(t) Instantaneous power
QC Charge in capacitor
R Resistance
rms Root mean square
RTH Thévenin’s resistance
T Period
Vm Voltage amplitude
Vmean/Vavg Average voltage
z Complex number
ZL Load resistance
ZTH Thévenin’s impedance
ω Angular frequency
φ Phase angle

Power Electronics Principles Power Elect

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Electronics Principles Power Elect

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT 1 i

Power electronics principles

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

© 2014 Wawasan Open University

Wawasan Open University

1.1 Basic power electronic measurement 5

Instantaneous and average power 12

Maximum average power transfer 14

Apparent power and power factor 16

Power factor correction 18

Suggested answers to activities 22

1.2 LRC circuit analysis 25

LRC series circuit 26

Parallel LRC circuit 30

Step response of LRC series circuit 31

Step response of LRC parallel circuit 32

Suggested answers to activities 34

1.3 Fourier analysis 37

Trigonometric Fourier series 38

Exponential Fourier series 41

Circuit applications of Fourier series 44

Average power of Period functions 46

Suggested answers to activities 48

Suggested answers to self-tests 55

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

1. Provide a cohesive presentation of power electronics fundamentals and design

3. Evaluate the impact, power handling capabilities, and synthesis of switching

4. Discuss the importance of power conditioning and classification of power

5. Implement power circuits with isolation, protection of power devices,

6. Relate theories learned to real applications.

3. Describe sinusoid and its associated measurement parameters such as average

4. Apply the studied method to correct power factor.

6. Analyse the response parallel connected LRC circuit.

8. Interpret the equation of Fourier series.

9. Analyse various types of Fourier series.

10. Apply Fourier series for circuit analysis.

1.1 Basic Power Electronic

3. Describe sinusoid signal.

4. Calculate average voltage, root mean square voltage, instantaneous voltage,

5. Determine the power factor of an active circuit.

6. Apply the studied method to correct power factor.

Differentiation or integration of a sinusoidal waveform produces a sinusoidal

which is defined as r = √x 2 + y 2 and phase angle φ is defined as φ = tan−1

In exponential form, the complex number is represented by z = re jφ. The complex

A voltage function v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φ) is represented by Re(Vme j(ωt + φ)). It is also

Im v(t) = Re(Ve jwt)

(a) Sinor plot (b) Projection plot

Figure 1.3 Phasor diagram showing leading and lagging phase

Find the addition and subtraction of 2 complex numbers given

Find the multiplication and division of 2 complex numbers given

Some examples of transformation from the time-domain representation to phasor-

Figure 1.4 Sinusoidal signal

Given the sinusoid 5sin(4πt − 60°)V, calculate its amplitude, phase,

Figure 1.5 A graphic way to relate sine and cosine

Calculate the phase angle between v1 = −10cos(ωt + 50°) and

Instantaneous value and peak value of a sinusoid

Average value and mean value of a sinusoid

voltmeter will measure.

Figure 1.6 An illustration to show how average of a sinusoid is calculated

RMS value of a sinusoid

Form factor and peak factor of a sinusoid

Instantaneous and average power

Figure 1.7 ac source applied to a resistor

divided by period should be zero.