ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN INDIA

1. INDIA’S ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY:

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The development and growth of environmental policy in India can be discussed by

classifying it into two phases: pre-independence and post-independence period. The
pre-independence period can be further divided into: ancient period, medieval period
and British period. The post-independence period environmental policy can be
discussed in terms of five year plans till today.

(a) Pre-Independence Period

(i) Ancient Period

The concern regarding the protection of environment by the people in India is not a
recent phenomenon. Since the ancient period, people of India have been involved in
the legislation, execution and operation of the environmental policies. The countries
of the modern age are now involved in the policies for the protection of
environment, but in India, it has been an old phenomenon. In India, the concern for
environment was expressed in ancient period encompassing all the five traditional
elements of natural environment namely, land (ksiti), water (ap), radiation or energy
(tejas), air (marut) and cosmic space (vyoman) and their relation with human
activities. There were many ancient treaties which contain chapters dealing with
sauca (purity and cleanliness) and sadacara (normal ethical behaviour).1 Thus, our
ancestors have been praising and worshipping nature including trees and animals for
many centuries. Writing of the sages, especially Vedas and Upanishads, emphasised
that man and nature should live in harmony and peace; and plants and animals
should be subject to limitless kindness and benevolence as they make no demands
for their sustenance and instead they generously extend their product for the

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sustenance of humankind.2 It was religion that became the source of policy for
environmental protection. The fear of the unknown spirits to punish the culprit of
nature led people to follow the religion, and subsequently the protection of
environment. The religion of Buddhism and Jainism deplored suffering of not only
man and animals, but went to the extent to protect insects. 3

Kautilya‟s Arthashastra written between 321 and 300 B.C. is divided into 14 books
out of which 2 books provide great provisions for environment. 4 The well planned
administration and drainage system, pronounced by Kautilya, testify that the ancient
rulers were keen on maintaining clean and healthy environment. 5 The Arthashastra
also recommended death penalty for the killing of elephant as elephants were
important elements of armies.6 Kautilya discussed the management of water
resources through construction of tanks and wells. 7 The Arthashastra further
discussed the use of water for the development of water works, irrigation, and
transport, specifying that all water belonged to the king and that users have to pay a
water tax to withdraw water for irrigation systems installed by the king. The
Arthashashtra states that in irrigating one‟s own field, no harm is to be caused to
others. It prohibited the release of water from dams without a legitimate reason, the
obstruction of the legitimate use of water by others, the obstruction or diversion of
the watercourse, and the building of water works on the land belonging to someone
else. Where damage was caused to another party as a result of overflowing waters,
compensation was owed to the other party. Furthermore, the Arthashastra provides a
list of damage types and the corresponding compensation or penalty due. 8 The
punishment used to vary according to the gravity of the offence committed. The
Manusmriti observes that:

The violence against trees, etc., would attract appropriate punishment in

different degrees, depending upon the usefulness or importance of different
parts of the plant”9

Apart from Kautilya, there were many other social reformers and thinkers like
Gautama, Vasistha, Apastamba, Paraskara, Visnu etc. who compiled various codes
of conduct of environment significance. Therefore, the people in ancient period
knew the significance of healthy environment and its relationship with the man. For
example, the Rig Veda verse says that

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 “Let the feeling of glorious well-being be upon us. May the whole human
race by happy. Let the plant kingdom flourish upwards in great profusion.
May prosperity be with the bipeds and with the quadruped animals as well” 10

Likewise, there was concern for wildlife in that period in the teachings of
Buddha:

“Let all creatures those who are fearful or benign, short or long, large or
medium sized, small, microscopic or fat, or visible and invisible, or those
living far and near, which have been born or unborn, be happy.” 11

Similarly, the concern for land was found in the hymn of Atharva-Veda-
samhiti:

“O earth, whatever I dig out from you, must that have to be filled up again
and restored as fast as possible. O pure one, I indeed have no intention to
hit you at your heart of hearts.”12

In addition, there were provisions for draining out excess water from the delta to
Bay of Bengal to protect inhabitants from floods during the reign of Cola King
Karikala.13 Saka Rudradaman (c. AD 150) repaired and strengthened the Sudarsana
dam, originally built by Chandragupta Maurya, whose water breached the walls and
reduced the entire area to a desert.14

The most popular ancient king regarding the conservation of environment was the
Mauryan king Ashoka who considered the preservation of living organisms
including trees, animals, and plants as part of the duties of the king. He restricted the
killing and hunting of a number of animals for game and food; and advocated
planting and preservation of plants and trees. The edicts of Ashoka, from the third
century, in Dhauli, notes as following in translation:

“The king with charming appearance, the beloved of the gods, in his
conquered territories and in the neighbouring countries, thus enjoins that:
medical attendance should be made available to both man and animal; the
medicinal herbs, the fruit trees, the roots and tubers, are to be transplanted
in those places where they are not presently available, after being collected
from those places where they usually grow; wells should be dug and
shadowy trees should be planted by the roadside for enjoyment both by man
and animal.” 15

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The Fifth Pillar Edict of Ashoka also tells about his concern for animals, birds and
forests:

“……I forbade the killing of the following species of animals, namely:

parrots, mynahs, red-headed ducks…….and all quadrupeds which are of
no utility and are not eaten.……Chaff which contains living things must
not be set on fire. Forests must not be burned in order to kill living things
or without good reason….”16

(ii) Medieval Period

During the medieval period, where Mughals played a dominant role, the concern and
policy for environmental protection was very limited. However still, there were
rulers involved in the protection of environment, particularly water conservation and
utilisation. King Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-61 AD), during his reign arranged the
distribution of water of the Vitasta at Cakradhara which were causing floods by
using a series of water wheels.17 Also during the period of King Avantivarman,
remarkable steps were taken to reduce floods and utilize water for irrigation. 18

The Mughals were involved more in aesthetic beauty. Their activities include the
developing of gardens and orchards.

However, from 800 AD a gradual pattern of state forest control had emerged. In
1740s, the rulers were involved in plantations but for own sake of ship building and
revenue rather than for nature. The Maratha rulers acquired control over large tracts
of coastal forests for this reason. This trend of monopolistic control was also
followed in Cochin and Travancore. And between 1770 and 1840, the Amirs of Sind
carried out the most extensive programmes for afforestation and forest protection.19
During the fifteenth century, there was an establishment of Hindu sect, Bishnois,
devoted to India-friendliness and wildlife protection, and bond between man and
nature. The Guru of the Bishnois laid down 29 commandments to be practiced by his
followers. In 1730, it is believed that 360 Bishnois died hugging while trying to save
the Khejdi trees from cutting at the order of Jodhpur king. On learning of the
incident, the king apologised for the mistake committed by his officials and issued a
royal decree prohibiting the cutting of trees and killing of wildlife in Bishnoi
villages. The present Bishnois in India are also active in protecting the wildlife. 20

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(iii) British Period

The colonial period not only in India but around the world is considered to be an
ecological watershed. The environment of the whole world was altered by the
western imperialism, as their expansion degraded the nature, first through trade and
later by colonialism.21 However, colonialism on the other side, led to the trend of
formation of more explicit conservation policies. The Government of India Act,
1935, empowered the provinces to take decisions on water supply, irrigation, canals,
drainage and embankments, water storage and hydro-power. The disputes between
provinces and/or princely states were subjected to the jurisdiction of the Governor
General who could appoint a commission to investigate the sufficiently important
conflicts.22

During the British period in India, there were large amounts of deforestation due to
the need for ship-building, iron smelting and farming. Also, the revenue orientation
of colonial land policy and building of railway network around 1853 added to the
cause of deforestation in India.23 In fact, railway requirements were „the first and by
far the most formidable‟ of the forces for thinning the Indian forests.24 After 1800,
the problems related to sanitary and roads developed as result of rapid urbanisation
in the larger towns and especially, the administrative capital of Calcutta which
further led to the steps in environmental field.25 Also the forests were hurdles to the
movement of armies; it could easily become a base of resistance or guerillas and was
also an obstacle in agricultural expansion. 26

As a result of the ecological degradation by colonialism, there was a rise of

distinctive groups of professional naturalists and scientists who disregarded this
trend. In India, the medical surgeons of the East India Company were a popular
group who raised voice for environment in early 19 th century. They were quick to
involve in activities regarding conservation or plantations. For instance, they were
involved to establish conservancies or teak plantations in Malabar, Bengal or Burma
between 1805 and 1822. In early 1820s, some of these surgeons lobbied against the
deforestation taking place during that time and favoured plantation programmes.
They quoted the arguments of Humboldt; linking deforestation, increasing aridity
and temperature. Consequently, because of the increasing pressure on the
government, on 17 December 1846, the Government of India authorised the

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employment of an establishment for the management of the forests under the
Bombay Presidency. And the Bombay Presidency on 2 March 1847, appointed
Gibson as Conservator of Forests, in addition to his duties as Superintendent of the
Dapoorie Botanic Garden.27 In 1855 Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General issued
the “Charter of the Indian Forests,” outlining forest conservancy for the whole of
India.28

In the mid-nineteenth century, there was an appointment of a person named Dietrich

Brandis as Inspector-General of Forests of India, whose contribution in the forestry
of India is significant. He toured and established forest management in India,
arranged for the continental training and established Dehra Dun school for
prospective Indian foresters.29 His guidelines for working plans and silvi-cultural
operations were devised and implemented for the whole country. His successors
established regimes for protecting forests from natural and human destruction. 30 In
the same period, in 1862, the Governor-General called out for the creation of a
department for the sustainable availability of large requirements of wood for
different railway companies.31 Consequently, in 1864, the Imperial Forest
Department was created with the help of experts from Germany and in 1865, the
Indian Forest Act was passed.32 But, on the complaint of the foresters that the Act
did not give them and the state adequate amount of control over forest lands, it was
modified in 1878.33 With this Act, hunters were now required to hold permits to hunt
in government forests.34 Also, there was passing of the first British bird protection
legislation and the publication of G. P. Marsh‟s „Man and Nature‟ and the
publication of Dr. Hugh Cleghorn‟s „Forests and Gardens of South India‟.35

Based on these Acts, local rules were made. The forests were classified into three
divisions: reserved, protected and village/communal. 36 All the policies that were
followed in India were borrowed from Germany and France. They were considered
to be experts in this field.

Therefore, it can be said that during the British period, the environmental policies
were taken only in the sector of forests. But these policies were seemingly not for
the concern of ecology in India but for the sake of increase in exports, revenue and
other profitable ventures.

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However, in all, the policies relevant to protection of environment in the British
period, besides the Criminal Code Procedure of 1893 and Indian Penal Code of 1860
are:

1. The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853.

2. The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857.

3. The Serais Act, 1857.

4. The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873.

5. The Obstruction in Fairways Act, 1881.

6. The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.

7. The Indian Ports Act, 1901.

8. The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905.

9. The Explosives Act, 1908.

10. The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912.

11. The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917.

12. The Mysore Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1917.

13. The Poison Act, 1919.

14. The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pest & Diseases Act, 1919.

15. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923.

16. The Workmen‟s Compensation Act, 1923.

17. The Indian Forest Act, 1927.

18. The Motor Vehicles Act, 1939

19. The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation & Improvement) Act, 1946.

20. Forest Act of Madras 1873.

21. Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.

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22. The Madras River Conservancy Act, 1884.

23. Hailey National Park Act, 1936 (Now Called Corbett National Park).

24. The Petroleum Act, 1934.

25. The Easement Act, 1882. 37

(b) Post Independence Period: Period of Five Year Plans

After the independence of India, the five year plans were formulated by the Planning
Commission of India in pursuance of declared objectives of the government to
promote a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation
of the resources of the country, increasing production and offering opportunities to
all for employment in the service of the community.38 The Planning Commission is,
thus, charged with the responsibility of making assessment of all resources of the
country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective
and balanced utilisation of resources, determining priorities, factors which are
retarding economic development and nature of the machinery, make
recommendations and appraisals from time to time. 39 Planning Commission plays an
integrative role in the development of a holistic approach to the policy formulation
in critical areas of human and economic development. The emphasis of the
Commission is on maximising the output by using our limited resources optimally. 40

The first Five-year Plan was launched in 1951 and two subsequent five-year plans
were formulated till 1965, when there was a break because of the Indo-Pakistan
Conflict. Two successive years of drought, devaluation of currency, a general rise in
prices and erosion of resources disrupted the planning process and after three
Annual Plans between 1966 and 1969, the fourth Five-year plan was started in 1969.
41
The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political
situation at the Centre and the years 1990-91 and 1991-92 were treated as Annual
Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally launched in 1992 after the initiation of structural
adjustment policies.42

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In the initial five year plans, the programmes were for the sanitation, public health,
nutrition, water supply and housing. Less priority was given to the natural
environment of the country. It was only in the Fourth Five Year Plan that direct
attention was paid and the following observation was made:

The physical environment is a, dynamic, complex and inter-connected

system in which any action in one part affects others. There is also the
inter-dependence of living things and their relationships with land, air, and
water. Planning for harmonious development recognises this unity of nature
and man. Such planning is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive
appraisal of environmental issues, particularly, economic and ecological.
There are instances in which timely specialised advice on environmental
aspects could have helped in project design and in averting subsequent
adverse effects on the environment, leading to loss of invested resources. It
is necessary, therefore. to introduce the environmental aspect into our
planning and development. 43

As a result, the National Council of Environmental Planning and Co-ordination

(NCEPC) was established at the Department of Science and Technology in 1972.
The National Agriculture Commission was created in 1973 and it was referred
several crucial issues pertaining to forests in India. The recommendations of the
Commission included issues like the set up of Export Promotion Council, to identify
forest areas for development, a selective mechanism in logging should be adopted, a
review of the fertilizer requirements should be undertaken, amendments of the tax
law should be considered, and so on.44

The Fifth Five Year Plan stressed that the NCEPC should be involved in all major
industrial decisions, so that environmental goals would be taken into account. The
Plan also emphasised that the pursuit of developmental goals would be less likely to
cause a reduction in the quality of life if a link and balance between development
planning and environmental management was maintained. In this reference, the
Minimum Needs Programme which was concerning the rural and elementary
education, rural health and sanitation, nutrition, drinking water, provision of housing
and so on, received comparatively a high priority, and was expected to minimise
environmental pollution and degradation in rural areas and reduce poverty levels. 45

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 In the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85), a full chapter under the name „environment‟
was devoted to the discussion of problems of environment degradation. This plan
stated that “Environmental conservation is, in fact, the very basis of all
development.”46 In this Plan, an amount of Rs. 40 crores was provided for the
environment. Out of which, an amount of 15 crores was provided for Environment
Planning & Coordination (R & D programmes, field action/demonstration,
environmental information system, monitoring network and support to State
Environmental Committees) etc., 10 crores for Eco-Development programmes
(Biosphere reserves, eco-development force, eco-development camps) etc., 5 crores
for Ecology & Environment Education/Training Programmes (training schemes,
centres of excellence, environment management institutions) etc., 5 crore for
Botanical Survey of India and the like, and the rest 5 crores for Zoological Survey of
India and the like.47

Under this plan, the environment problems were divided into two categories:

i. Those arising from conditions of poverty and under-development.

ii. Those arising as negative effects of the very process of development.

The first category dealt with the effects on the health and integrity of our natural
resources (land, soil, water, forests, wildlife, etc.) because of poverty and the
inadequate availability, for a large section of our population, of the means to fulfill
basic human needs (food, fuel, shelter, employment, etc.). The second category dealt
with the unintended side effects of efforts to achieve rapid economic growth and
development. In this latter category would fall the distortions imposed on national
resources from poorly planned development projects and programmes, as well as
from lack of attention to long term concerns by commercial and vested interests. 48

The topics discussed in context of environment in the Sixth Five Year Plan were:

i. Natural resources including land and water, soil, forest marine ecosystem
and other natural living resources;

ii. Environment pollution including water pollution, air pollution, land

pollution, noise and human settlements including, rural and urban;

iii. Environmental impact from development projects; and

iv. Administrative and legislative arrangements for environmental protection.49

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In recognition of the administrative and legislative arrangements for environmental
protection, the Government of India constituted a High Power Committee under the
Chairmanship of the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission. The Committee
expressed the need for creating a Department of the Environment (DOE) at the
Centre to provide explicit recognition to the pivotal role that environmental
conservation must play for sustainable national development. The functions of the
Department of the Environment were identified as:

(a) 'Nodal' agency for environmental protection and eco-development in the

country.

(b) Carrying out of environmental appraisal of development projects through

other ministries/agencies as well as directly.

(c) Administrative responsibility for

 Pollution monitoring and regulation.

 Conservation of critical eco-systems designated as Biosphere Reserves.

 Conservation of Marine Eco-systems.50

The Plan further discussed about the programmes to be initiated for environmental
protection. The Plan stated that it “will adopt an integrated approach to find and
implement methods of redressing existing environmental problems and build up the
capability for preventing or mitigating those that could arise in the future.”51 It
acknowledged about the Environmental Research and Development Programme, the
process of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), to make an Inventory of
Ecological Resources, monitoring of environmental quality, setting up of an
Environmental Information System, programmes to increase public awareness about
environmental issues, proposed to set up a number of centres and institutions for
studies and training in environmental science, technology and management and in
particular, the Centre for Himalayan Studies and a Centre for Western Ghats
Studies. Further, it identified about a number of field action programmes to be
sponsored by the Department of Environment. The other programmes identified by
the Department were the setting up of Eco-development Force, Eco-Development
Camp and constitution of Rural Environmental Cells.52

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It provided guidance to administrators and other resource-managers in formulating
and implementing development programmes and lays down an institutional
arrangement for environmental administration at the Central and state levels. 53

The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1900) discussed about the environment issues
under the chapter “Environment and Ecology‟. The basic approach to the Seventh
Plan was to emphasise sustainable development in harmony with the
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environment. Further, it stated that:

“It is now being increasingly recognised that environmental factors and

ecological imperatives must be built in to the total planning process if the
long-term goal of making development sustainable is to be achieved.”

The Seventh Five Year Plan attempted to remove some of the weaknesses in the
existing environmental planning system. The direct goals relating to the subject of
environment as a whole discussed in the Plan were:

 Institutionalising the process of integrating environmental management and

development.

 Inducing organisations at the Central, State and local levels to incorporate

environmental safeguards in their plans and programmes.

 Securing greater public participation in environmental management.

 Establishing a strong S&T base for environmental research and development,

demonstration and extension activities.

 Strengthening mechanisms for ensuring corrective action with regard to

environmental degradation that has already taken place. 55

Further, the salient programmes undertaken included the following thrust areas:
pollution monitoring and control, environmental impact assessment, natural living
resources conservation, eco-development, environmental research promotion,
environmental education, training and awareness, environmental information,
coordination and liaison with state governments and union territories, environmental
policy and law, international cooperation and strengthening of the organisational
structures.56 For the Seventh Five Year Plan, the outlay was of Rs. 427.91 crores,

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out of which 350 crores were for Centre, 75.71 crores for State and 2.20 crores for
Union Territories.57

Therefore, during this period significant achievements took place in the areas of
environment and ecology such as Ganga Action Plan, forestry and wildlife,
wastelands development and island development subsectors. Important initiatives
were taken place on programmes on waste recycling, prevention of coastal pollution
and schemes concerning pollution. During this period, fourteen river basins of the
country were monitored for water pollution. Two hundred water quality monitoring
stations, 85 air quality monitoring stations and 173 coastal monitoring stations were
established, standards were notified for 26 priority industries, more than 50% of the
major and medium industries installed pollution treatment plants, 58 fifteen mangrove
areas were identified, seven biosphere reserves were set up for preserving the
genetic diversity in representative ecosystems and a multi-departmental National
Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) was set up. 59 Moreover, 319
research and development projects were sanctioned in the Seventh Plan. 294
economic-development camps were conducted and The Gobind Ballabh Pant
Paryavaran Evam Vikas Sansthan to study Himalayan environment and
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development and The Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA) was
established at Dehra Dun for the training of Forest Service probationers.61

The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) came in 1992, instead of 1990 because of
political instability. It acknowledged that the degradation of environment is
continuing. It recognised that the areas need to be classified not only on the basis of
their ecological characteristics, including fragility, but also in terms of the types and
severity of threats they face, the source and cause of these threats and the level of
protection they warrant. Further, it recognised three types of threats to natural
environment: pollution, over-use and destruction. Therefore, the following major
tasks were recommended to meet the challenge of environment degradation:

i. To protect the natural environment;

ii. To regenerate and restore degraded ecosystems and increase their

productivity and to generate employment through these activities;

iii. To decentralise control over nature and natural resources;

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 iv. To develop and share an understanding of nature and natural processes;

v. To formulate a national policy for environment and an appropriate

institutional and legal framework in support of the policy;

vi. To ensure co-ordinated and integrated governmental action aimed at

conserving nature and sustainable use of natural resources;

vii. To make individuals and institutions more accountable to the people for their
actions impinging on environment and ecosystem; and

viii. To monitor the state of environment.62

The major achievements during this period by the Central Pollution Control Board
(Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) were the development and expansion of
laboratory facilities, management and operation of the national air and water quality
network, controlling pollution at sources, river basin studies, assessment and
implementation of national standards, hazardous waste management, including
preparation of an inventory of hazardous waste generating industries in different
States, preparation of Zoning Atlas for siting industries in various districts of the
country, development of criteria for eco-labeling of consumer products, remedial
measures for vehicular pollution especially for vehicles in use in metro cities, noise
pollution survey, training of personnel engaged in preventing and controlling
pollution and organising nation-wide awareness programmes for prevention and
control of pollution.63 The submission of an environmental statement by the
polluting units to the concerned State Pollution Control Boards was made
mandatory.64 Further, World Bank assisted Industrial Pollution Prevention Project in
two phases.65 Moreover, the government policies, besides regulatory mechanisms,
incorporated market-based economic instruments in economic and environmental
planning. In this period, over 190 research projects in multi-disciplinary aspects
were initiated,66 more than 5,000 such Eco-clubs have been set up in various schools
of the country, Environmental Information Systems (ENVIS) was set up by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests and 22 ENVIS centres were set up by the end
of Eighth Plan.67 Further, five Centres of Excellence in the field of environmental
education, ecological research, mining, environment and ornithology were set up
and 37 priority areas were identified for undertaking research projects on the

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recommendations of the Standing Committee on Bio-resources and Environment.68
India became a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biological-diversity (CBD), Basel Convention
on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal and Montreal Protocol on Controlling the Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer.69 During the Eighth Five Year Plan, considerable success was
achieved in the first phase of Ganga Action Plan and the second phase of the Ganga
Action Plan was launched.70 In addition, the National River Conservation Plan
(NRCP) was approved in July 1995.71 Under forest protection and regeneration, the
scheme „Association of Scheduled Tribes and Rural Poor in Regeneration of
Degraded Forests‟ was taken up on pilot basis with 37 projects in nine States. The
National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board was created and under the
Board, a number of schemes were carried out. 72 Under point 16 of the 20-Point
Programme for afforestation, 501.07 million seedlings were distributed and 4.56
million hectares of area was afforested.73 For wasteland development, significant
progress was achieved in the Integrated Wastelands Development Projects Scheme
(IWDP), Technology Development, Training & Extension Scheme, Investment
Promotional Scheme, Wastelands Development Task Force and in the awareness
activities.74

For the Eighth Five Year Plan, in context of financial matters, for the Central Sector
an outlay of Rs. 525 crores was provided for Forestry and Wildlife sub-sector. The
corresponding outlay in the State and UT sector was Rs. 3556.87 crores. For
Ecology and Environment sub-sector in the Central Plan, an outlay of Rs. 675.00
crores was provided. In respect of States and UTs the outlay under this sub-sector
has been kept at Rs. 153.11 crores.75 Thus, the total outlay for the Ministry of
Environment and Forests was Rs. 1200 crore but the actual expenditure was Rs.
1631.90 crore.76

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) acknowledged that the Indian Government‟s
policy towards environment is guided by the principles of Agenda 21. The role of
major groups including the NGOs, farmers, mass media and other communities was
being strengthened by directly involving them in the process of identification,
formulation and implementation of environmental programmes. Further, is stated

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that the major environment problems in India are air and water pollution,
degradation of common property resources, threat to biological diversity, solid waste
disposal and sanitation. It also stated that India is an insignificant contributor to the
GHG emission.77

The Ninth Five Year Plan stated that:

One of the objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan is to ensure

environmental sustainability of the development process through social
mobilisation and participation of people at all levels. The Ninth Plan is also
based on the belief that the principal task of planning in a federal structure
is to evolve a shared vision and commitment to the national objectives and
development strategy. The Ninth Plan also lays greater stress on
reorienting the policies than on direct intervention so as to signal and
induce the various economic agents to function in a manner consistent with
the national objectives. 78

The Ninth Plan, thus, envisaged a multi-pronged strategy; based on the belief that
macro-economic stability is fundamental not only for economic growth but also for
sound environmental management. The Plan gave the following important elements
for the strategy:

i. Empowering the people through information generation, dissemination and

access.

ii. Involving the industry in both the private and the public sector.

iii. Integrating environment with decision making through valuation of

environmental impacts; evolving market based economic instruments as an
alternative to the command and control form of environmental regulation;
appropriate pricing of natural resources based on their long-term marginal
cost of supply; appropriate fiscal reforms and natural resource accounting.

iv. Evolving the rights for common property resources.

v. Inter-sectoral coordination and cooperation.

vi. Ensuring scientific and technological inputs.

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vii. Participation of people (particularly women) in the management and sharing
of usufruct through Joint Forest Management.

viii. Involvement of NGOs for awareness building and as an interface between

forest department and the people would be encouraged during the Ninth
Plan.

ix. Integrated development of villages in and around forests.79

Further, the issue-specific programmes discussed in the Ninth Five Year Plan
were people's involvement and role of information, strengthening of the Surveillance
and Monitoring System, State of Environment Report, integrating environmental
concerns with decision making, Natural Resource Accounting. 80 The area-specific
programmes were National River Conservation Programme (NRCP), National Lake
Conservation Programme, Taj Trapezium, Himalayan Region and Islands.81 The
sector specific programmes were strengthening the Central Pollution Control Board,
industrial pollution control and prevention projects, the Common Effluent
Treatment Plants (CETP), Environmental Statistics and Mapping, Environmental
Impact Assessment and Development and Promotion of Clean Technologies,
conservation and survey, biosphere reserves, mangroves, bio-diversity conservation,
assistance to botanical gardens, research and eco-generation, policy and law, the
National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and international cooperation. The Ninth
Five Year Plan also envisaged forestry & wildlife and afforestation and wastelands
development.82

In the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07), the opening line of the chapter on
environment and forest is:

“Sustainability is not an option but imperative.” 83

Thus, by this time, it was realised that sustainability cannot be avoided and has
become crucial for a developing country like India. The forests and wildlife were the
prominent issues discussed in this Plan. Under this plan, besides ongoing schemes,
the new schemes were introduced. The scope of the Common Effluent Treatment
Plants scheme was enhanced.84 New schemes were undertaken for eco-restoration,
watershed management, water and energy sectors, bio-diversity, climate change,
ozone layer protection, land degradation etc. with the financial and technical help

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from India-Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), Global Environment Facility
(GEF), Indo-German Technical Cooperation etc. which are having schemes since
Ninth Plan.85 Schemes under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) were taken
including The State of Environment Scheme. 86 In reference to Zoological Survey of
India, it was proposed to explore survey of state fauna (district wise), studies to be
conducted on selected eco-systems of the Indian region, survey of conservation
areas including tiger reserves, taxonomic studies of faunal components, status
survey of endangered species, chromosome mapping and DNA fingerprinting.87
Further, it was proposed to cover thirty identified mangrove and four coral reef areas
for intensive conservation and management. Besides these plans, it was intended to
clear all polluted rivers by 2007, in particular, the Ganga and its tributaries. Further,
a decentralised approach was emphasised for sewage interception, diversion and
treatment would be adopted, demonstration models were to be developed for total
treatment and disposal of sewage in small colonies or housing societies, root zone
treatment/constructing wetland technologies would be promoted, universities and
colleges would also be involved in monitoring the water quality in rivers and lakes
and so on.88 In addition, the Plan devoted a separate chapter to disaster management
and made a number of important recommendations to mainstream disaster risk
reduction into the process of development. Some of the significant initiatives during
the Tenth Five Year Plan include the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2005,
setting up of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster
Response Force and National Institute of Disaster Management. Further, a web-
enabled centralised inventory of resources has been developed to minimise response
time in emergencies. State governments are in the process of setting up State and
District Disaster Management Authorities and so on.89

In context of forest and wildlife, a number of proposals were discussed. In the Tenth
Five Year Plan, the strategy was to bring 25 per cent area under forest/tree cover by
the end of the tenth plan period and 33 per cent by the end of the eleventh plan
period.90 It was acknowledged that watershed approach should be adopted for the
maintenance and development of forests; the future management strategy should
take into account the needs of the forest based community to meet their
requirements; a special programme should be drawn up for development of villages

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dependent on forest and to provide alternative source of income; agro-forestry
should be encouraged by promoting technology, extension and training, credit
support, marketing infrastructure, etc; greening programmes under the „food for
work‟ scheme should be extensively implemented to ensure productive employment
and food security; to sustain the livelihood of a large number of people, the fragile
eco-systems such as coastal areas, hills and mountains, wet lands, deserts, shifting
cultivation areas need to be protected, promotion of bio-diesel was also encouraged
to enhance the livelihood opportunities and income generation of rural masses. It has
also been proposed to merge all afforestation programmes of National Afforestation
and Eco-development Board (NAEB) into a single scheme called „National
Afforestation Programme‟.91 Moreover, suggestions were made for forest-based
industries, forest plantations, forestry training, forestry research, education, training
and Joint Forest Management (JFM).92 Suggestions were also proposed for Indian
Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE); Indian Plywood Industries
Research and Institute (IPIRI); Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM); and
Forest Survey of India.93

In reference to wildlife, initiatives were taken for strengthening and enhancing the
protected area network, for effective management of protected areas, conservation of
wild and endangered species and their habitat, restoration of degraded habitats
outside protected areas, control of poaching and illegal trade in wild animals and
plant species. Further, suggestions were made for Project Tiger, Project Elephant,
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and Central Zoo Authority.94

This Plan was a period of extensive review of environmental processes and law. The
first National Environment Policy was put into place in May 2006. In addition, the
re-engineering of the environmental clearance process and Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Notification and review of the Coastal Regulation Zone
Notification were undertaken to improve the quality of environmental governance. 95
An outlay of Rs 5945 crore was fixed for Ministry of Environment & Forests in the
Tenth Plan96 and the actual expenditure was Rs. 5119.14 crore. 97

In the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012), the environment issues are discussed
under the chapter of „Environment and Climate Change‟, thus the environment
problem of climate change is given emphasis. In this Plan, a number of initiatives

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are proposed to integrate environmental concerns into planning and developmental
activities across all the sectors.98 It is proposed to include the subject of environment
in the Concurrent List, so that the government at all the levels could deal with this
problem. The State Pollution Control Boards should be restructured into statutory
environment protection authorities with the mandate of developing regulations,
standards and upgraded facilities for enforcing compliance. At the district level, it is
proposed that the scheme of Paryavaran Vahinis, or committees of concerned
citizens, should be revived so that they can serve as environmental watchdogs and
undertake selective first hand monitoring of the environmental situation in the
districts.99 Moreover, it is targeted to increase the forest cover by 5% of the total
geographical area. Pertaining to air pollution, it is proposed that all Central
programmes on outdoor pollution should be reorganized under a National Air
Quality Plan, which will cover City based Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs) and
Pollution Control and Prevention in Industrial Areas programmes. 100 The entire Air
Quality Monitoring network should be expanded from the current 308 stations to
1000 stations.101 The monitorable target in air quality should be to achieve WHO
standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011–12.102 Under the National River
Conservation Plan (NRCP), it is recommended to strengthen the enforcement of the
scheme of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs); the water quality of the
rivers should be improved to bathing standards and to expand the sewage treatment
capacity in the country. Moreover, for drinking water, the quality standards should
be made mandatory.103 Besides these, the subject of disaster management was also
given prominence in the Eleventh Five Year Plan. 104 In this Plan, the forest sector is
dealt separately under the heading of agriculture. 105 The total projected GBS in the
Eleventh Plan for the Ministry of Environment and Forests is Rs 8842 crore (at
2006–07 price) and Rs 10000 crore (at current price). 106

2. PEOPLE’S RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENT

The role of public in environment policy is no less than the government or any other
organisation. In fact, the basis for any effective policy on the environment is the
level of awareness about environmental concerns and the mobilising of public
opinion. India saw the emergence of mass environmental awareness and opinion in
1970s. However, the people‟s response to save the environment from degradation

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can be found even in the ancient period, although the agenda in that period differed
from the present period. They were not concern about the environment pollution, but
were involved in dealing with the management and conservation of resources. The
religious teachings, cultural ethos and traditions were the source of guidance for the
people in environmental protection. As noted by environmental activist Vandana
Shiva, the nature and forests have always been treated as teachers; and the message
of the forest has been the message of inter-connectedness and diversity, renewability
and sustainability, integrity and pluralism. 107

(a) Environmental Movements:

The contemporary environment movements in India i.e. the movements in the post
independence period, were led by dalits, tribes, forest and hill-dwellers, peasants,
fishermen, and women. These people of lower strata of the society trickled up the
concept of „environmentalism‟ to the middle class people and informed urban
citizens and finally taking the form of NGOs and voluntary organisations. The most
popular environmental movements in India are the Chipko Movement and Narmada
Bachao Andolan.108

(i) Chipko Movement:

It is the most powerful ecological movement in the post-independence period of

India. The word „Chipko‟ means „hugging‟ the trees, and was popularized through
the folk songs of Chipko activist Ghanshyam Sailani. It was inspired from the
Gandhian satyagraha. The Chipko Movement is a series of events in which people
protested against the indiscriminate logging and felling of trees that spelt the
destruction of their environment.

The first battle for the protection of environment took place on 24 April 1973 in
Chamoli district when the villagers of Mandal, led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt and the
Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM), prevented the Allahabad- based sports
goods company „Symonds‟ from felling ash trees. In December of the same year, the
villagers again stopped Symond‟s agent from felling trees in the Phata-Rampur
forest, about 60 km from Gopeshwar.109 In March 1974, under the leadership of
Goura Devi, twenty-seven women saved a number of trees from a contractor's axe in

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Reni. Following this, the government was forced to abolish the private contract
system of felling of trees and in 1975, the Uttar Pradesh Forest Corporation was set
up to perform this function. This was the first major achievement of the movement
and marks the end of a phase in itself. And, in the next five years, the protection of
forest spread to the various parts of the Garhwal Himalayas and other important
conservation issues were raised. In June 1977, Sarala Behn organised a meeting of
all the activists in the hill areas of Uttar Pradesh, further strengthening the
movement and consolidated the resistance to commercial fellings as well as
excessive tapping of resin from the Chir pine trees. 110

There are number of successful stories of Chipko Movement found in Adwani,

Amarsar and Badiyargar and many other places. In September 1977, as a
consequence, an auction of Adwani forests took place in Narendranagar and
Bahuguna, another notable activist of the Movement, tried to stop the auction by
undertaking a fast but could not stop the exercise. In the first week of December
1977, as a consequence, the Adwani forests were scheduled to be felled. As a result,
under the leadersip of Bachhni Devi, large groups of women came forward to save
the forests. Chipko activist, Dhoom Singh Negi, supported the struggle of these
women by undertaking a fast in the forest itself. Women tied sacred threads to the
trees as a symbol of a vow of protection. Between 13 and 20 December a large
number of women from fifteen villages guarded the forests, fearing a backlash, the
axemen left. However they returned back on 1 February 1978 with two truckloads of
armed police. The plan was to encircle the forests with the help of the police in order
to keep the people away during the felling operation. But, by the time the contractors
arrived with the police, each tree was being guarded by three volunteers who
embraced the trees and consequently the police left the place. 111

In March 1978 a new auction was planned in Narendranagar. A large popular

demonstration was organised against it and the police arrested twenty-three Chipko
volunteers, including women. In December 1978, the public sector Uttar Pradesh
Forest Development Corporation planned a massive felling programme in the
Badiyargarh region. The local people instantly informed Bahuguna who started a
fast unto death at the felling site, on 9 January 1979. On the eleventh day of his fast,
Bahuguna was arrested in the middle of the night but this act further strengthened

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the commitment of the people. Folk poet Ghanashyam Raturi and priest Khima
Shastri led the movement as thousands of men and women from the neighbouring
villages joined them in the Badiyargarh forests. The people remained in the forests
and guarded the trees for eleven days, when the contractors finally withdrew and
Bahuguna was released from jail on 31 January 1979.112

The Chipko Movement has been successful in forcing a fifteen year ban on
commercial green felling in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, in stopping clear felling in the
Western Ghats and the Vindhyas, and in generating pressure for a national forest
policy which is more sensitive to people's needs and to the ecological development
of the country.

Thus, this Movement gained popularity not only in India but around the globe. The
Swedish Parliament had presented an award to Chipko activists on 9 December 1987
and the citation read:

The Chipko Movement in India, whose members „hug trees‟ to prevent their
felling, and have revived traditional agro-forestry, is honoured for its
dedication to conservation, restoration and ecologically responsible use of
India‟s natural resources. 113

(ii) Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA):

Narmada Bachao Andolan is another popular and organised environmental

movement in India against the development of Narmada Valley Development
project to prevent its dangerous impacts on the environment and the people. The
project was formulated in 1980s including 2 mega-dams, the Narmada Sagar Project
(NSP) and the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP), 30 large dams, 135 medium dams and
over 3000 small reservoirs and dams. The movement is a coalition of project-
affected people, urban activists and supporters protesting the construction of dams
and the displacement of the people.114 The Movement is a coalition of project-
affected people, urban activists and supporters protesting the construction of dams
and the NBA was formed in 1985 with Medha Patkar and a few other social activists
when they organised the disgruntled villagers of the Narmada valley into a
movement against the Sardar Sarovar Project. It too, like the Chipko movement,
started on the lines of Gandhian Satyagraha. Medha Patkar said, “Our weapon is our

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movement and struggle, and not arms”. The first major event of the NBA was on
August 18, 1988, when the people of the valley staged a protest rally in six different
places. The NBA continuously highlighted the economic fallacy of having big dams
and its social costs. This ultimately led international financial agencies, the most
important being the World Bank and USAID, to withdraw funding for the project.
Recently, the people of that region marked the 25 th anniversary of the movement.115

(b) Media:
Besides, affecting policy decisions, mass media also plays an important role in
environmental protection by communicating environmental awareness among
people and fostering an environmentally conscious citizenry. 116 In the 1970s itself,
several universities conducted workshops for journalists on environment
conservation and related issues. These developments enabled journalists to reach out
to the people with competent, and often expert, inputs from environmentalists.
Today, almost all newspapers publish articles on environment-related issues on a
fairly regular basis, although there is much scope for qualitative improvement. 117
Moreover, some issues of environment are very popular in the media. For instance,
in 2006, it was found that highest number of environment issues discussed in print
media was of climate change, NGOs and wildlife trade. 118 A number of magazines
and journals are also published that deal exclusively with the environmental issues.
Some of the famous environmental journals in India are Down to Earth, Indian
Journal for Environment Protection, Indian Journal of Ecology, Indian
Journal of Environment and Toxicology , Journal of Education for Sustainable
Development (JESD), Indian Journal of Environmental Law, Indian
Journal of Environment and Eco-planning, Indian Journal of Environmental
Sciences and so on.

Even the former Chief Justice of India Y.K. Sabharwal in a speech in 2006,
acknowledged the role of media in environmental awareness. He observed:

“It is the poor and illiterate. It is this class which is exploited most –
whether in case of illegal felling of trees or of killing of animals – vested
interests mislead them – misguide them. This class has to be educated about
the need to protect environment for their self-preservation as well. It can be

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 done by the media of television, radio and print media. They can increase
environmental awareness or even help remedying environmental problems.
The communication media can play a positive role in the protection and
preservation of environment. They can play an active role in alerting people
about environmental damages, corporate failure to meet its legal
obligations and truthful analysis of new legislations. The basic
responsibilities of the communication media may include: (i) reporting and
publishing the truth (ii) conducting thorough probes into issues relating to
violations (iii) highlighting the failure of government officials (iv) not
succumb to the pressure tactics adopted by governmental officials/ anti-
social elements and (v) forcing others to avoid making political mileage
from issues relating to the violations.”119

Further, he said that radio and television, particularly Doordarshan, are most
important sources of information as they have the maximum of rural audience.

(c) NGOs:
Again, former Chief Justice of India Y.K. Sabharwal in his speech also acclaimed
the role of NGOS in environmental awareness. He said the NGOs play their role by
advocacy, discussing and debating, bringing awareness, undertaking research and
publication in environmental issues. Further, he recognised the following
120
contributions of NGOs:

 conducting education and citizen awareness programmes in the field of

environment;

 fact-finding and analysis;

 filing public interest litigations;

 innovation and experimenting in areas which are difficult for government

agencies to make changes in;

 providing expertise and policy analysis;

 providing factual and reliable information with a network of professional

expert staff;

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 remaining independent while passing relevant information to the public and
governmental bodies;

 solidarity and support to environmental defenders;

 working in collaboration with the government for capacity building and

promotion of community participation in environmental awareness and
protection; and

 working out at the grassroots level and reaching far-flung areas with or
without the government invitation.

Thus, the role of NGOs is no less in the environmental protection, influencing

environmental policies and generating awareness among people. There are countless
environmental groups in India, some dealing with specific environmental issues
while others are general in nature. Groups dealing with particular issues include
Akash Ganga, Animal Rights Fund, India Tiger Welfare Society, We for Yamuna,
and a few others. Groups for environment in general include Centre for Science and
Environment, The Energy and Resources Institute, Environment Support Group,
Green Coalition, Greenpeace India, Green Corporate Network and so on. A brief
description about Centre for Science and Environment may not be out of place as it
is considered to be one of the pioneering agencies working for the protection of
environment.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE):

It is one of the most popular environmental non-government, public interest research

and advocacy organisation in India based in New Delhi. Anil Kumar Agarwal was
the founder-director of this organisation. At present, Sunita Narain is the director of
the Society for Environmental Communications. The Centre has been recognised by
many awards for its contribution and the awards include the Jawaharlal Nehru prize
for 'popularisation of science' in 2008-09, Stockholm Water Prize in 2005 and
UNEP Global 500 Forum Award in 1988. The Centre‟s efforts to accomplish its aim
around five broad programmes: (1) Communication for Awareness, (2) Research
and Advocacy, (3) Education and Training, (4) Knowledge Portal and (5) Pollution
Monitoring.121 The Centre has made a number of major contributions which gained

112
not only national but international uproar. In 1996, CSE started a project to present a
market-oriented framework by which environmental impacts of industrialisation
could be monitored and influenced. CSE's Green Rating Project (GRP) is a civil
society initiative to develop an alternative form of governance to control industrial
pollution in India.122 In 2003, the CSE astonished the country by giving details about
the high levels of toxic pesticides and insecticides in soft drinks and bottled water,
which are high enough to cause cancer, damage the nervous and reproductive
systems, cause birth defects and severe disruption of the immune system. These
startling facts forced the government to constitute a Joint Parliamentary Committee
(JPC), only the fourth in post independent India and the first on health and safety of
Indians. Again, in 2006, CSE undertook a nationwide study of nearly a dozen soft
drink brands and found that little had changed in the intervening period. The study
found pesticide residues in all samples. After this, JPC had asked for setting
standards for carbonated beverages.123

In April 2004, the Centre, in an article published in Down to Earth stated, "Lies,
damned lies and endosulfan", gave detailed information about the manipulation of
data and misinformation that was used by the expert group, known as the O P Dubey
Committee, to base its conclusion, that "there is no link between the use of
endosulfan in PCK (Plantation Corporation of Kerala) plantations and health
problems reported from Padre." Consequently, investigations were conducted and it
was found that the conclusions were doctored. 124

Recently, CSE Pollution Monitoring Laboratory exposed the high levels of

antibiotics from the banned chloramphenicol to broad spectrum ciprofloxacin and
erythromycin – in almost all brands of honey including leading brands, sold in
Delhi. The other significant findings and issues of CSE include the toxic toys, lead
in paints, pesticides residue in bloods of Punjab farmers, trans-fat in oils and so
on.125

(d) Private Companies:

The deep response of the public towards environment protection has led even the
companies to include environment issues in their strategies. They have realised that
campaigning for environment issues will enhance their esteem in the public. Further,
the companies have recognised that the increasing complexities of environment have

113
great impacts on the sustainability of their businesses. Therefore, it is found that
number of companies in India has considered environmental protection as their
social responsibility and are thus, campaigning and advertising for it. Further, to
motivate the companies, the Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) instituted the
TERI Corporate Awards for Environmental Excellence in 2001. 126 There are a
number of companies that are involved in this area which may be cited as examples:

In 2009, Nokia launched the „take-back‟ programme in four cities to support e-waste
recycling. It was a success as the company was able to collect three tonnes of
electronic waste consisting of 68,000 old devices including 10,000 mobile handsets,
10,000 batteries, 32,000 chargers, 1,000 headsets, body covers and accessories in
about 45 days. Moreover, the company said that it was able to save 100,000 tonnes
of packaging material over two years when it decided to cut back on the size of
packaging for a few of its models. The company has tied up with NGOs to plant one
tree for every handset that is handed in for recycling. 127 Nokia has taken up the
conservation of Nilgiri Tahr.128

Aircel has started the campaign „Save our Tigers‟, in partnership with World
Wildlife Fund, calling for immediate action to protect the national animal. The
campaign went on air on January 30, 2009, has a dedicated site
(www.saveourtigers.com) where the service provider's brand ambassadors actor
Suriya, cricketer Mahender Singh Dhoni and footballer Baichung Bhutia insist that
we roar with them for the cause. Similarly, another cellular company „Idea‟ is
endorsing to go green and is urging people not to waste paper, with Abhishek
Bachchan as their brand Ambassador.129

The electronic company „Panasonic‟ also came up with the environmental initiative
in 2009 in India. Further, for spreading environmental awareness, the company has
launched „eco ideas‟ campaign all over India. In 2010, it revealed its plans to
become the top green innovator in the electronics industry by its centennial
anniversary in 2018, by making its products more energy-efficient and by
minimising the environmental impact of its operations. The company aims to reduce
its carbon dioxide emissions by 120 tonnes compared to the base level in 2006. It
also plans to increase the sales of energy systems business to three trillion yen out of
the total targeted sales of 10 trillion yen by 2018. 130 As part of the programme in

114
India, the company has tied up with the Bangalore-based E-Parisaraa Private Ltd for
recycling its products while Panasonic exclusive outlets have been used as collecting
131
points for old televisions.

There are other companies also, involved in environment protection, in particular,

wildlife. For instance, Tata Chemicals is lending its voice for saving whale sharks
and Gir lions. HSBC is involved in turtle conservation. It provides Rs 4 lakh per
year for Operation Kachhapa to spread awareness about the conservation of the sea
turtle, a project by the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) and Wildlife
Society of Orissa.132

Greenathon:

NDTV with the support of Toyoto started a campaign to save the environment in
which they telecasted 24-hour nonstop programming -THE GREENATHON, urging
Indian citizens to take a pledge towards a greener tomorrow. Taking forward its
'Open Up Tomorrow, Today' campaign to save our planet. The Greenathon started
across the NDTV network on the 7 February 2009. It was inaugurated by Dr. R.K.
Pachauri, Nobel-prize winner, Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change and Director-General of TERI, and Dr. Prannoy Roy, Chairman of NDTV.
Popular Indian actress Priyanka Chopra is the brand ambassador of this campaign.
The campaign roped in a number of Bollywood celebrities like Shahrukh Khan,
Preity Zinta, Aamir Khan, Aishwarya Rai, Madhuri Dixit and many more. The
NDTV-Toyota Greenathon in its first year helped raise funds to solar power over 55
villages in India through TERI's Lighting a Billion Lives initiative. 133

People from all fields are encouraged to involve in programmes and activities for the
protection of the environment. A number of colleges and schools are organising
environment programmes, rallies, competitions and activities to enhance awareness
and a sense of responsibility among students towards environment. In 2006, the
Bharathidasan University in Tiruchi, stepped in to offer MBA in Environmental
Management and, in 2008, the University Grants Commission recognised the course
under „Innovative Programme' with a grant of Rs.50 lakh. 134 Recently, before
Diwali, an anti-crackers rally was organised by Kendriya Vidyalaya students in the
capital city of Delhi to sensitise residents of adjoining areas about the ill-effects of

115
pollution caused by bursting of crackers.135 The educational institutions have also
adopted green technologies in their campuses to promote environmental protection
among students. Top educational institutions like Jadavpur University, St Xavier‟s
College, Scottish Church College in Kolkata have installed solar power facilities.136
The Indian army, too, got involved in environmental protection. In the 1980s, a
comprehensive environmental programme was formulated by the Army which
envisages a three-pronged strategy:

1. To educate all ranks to conserve environment.

2. To authorise infrastructure and limited funds available to the Army for eco-
generation work on ground.

3. To create environmental cells at all levels of command to provide

institutional back-up.137

To further enhance the awareness of public regarding environment, the government

also organises rallies and festivals. One of the major environmental film festivals
being held in India is the CMS Vatavaran Film Festival initiated in 2002. It is
India‟s premier festival on environment and wildlife issues in the country organised
by the CMS Environment team. The festival has two different versions (1)
competitive festival and (2) travelling festival. The competitive festival is held in
every odd year in New Delhi. In the competitive festival more than a 100 green
films are screened over a period of five days. Eminent personalities from diverse
fields constitute the award jury and the awards are conferred on to the filmmakers in
a gala award ceremony. The cash component of the award ranges from Rs. 25,000 to
Rs. 1.5 lakh. Five editions of competitive festivals have been organised till date. The
sixth competitive festival will be held in November 2011 in New Delhi. In the
travelling festival, seminars, symposiums, technical workshops, painting
competitions, exhibitions, games, talks and eco-trips are held.138

116
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S. P. Das Gupta, „Environmental Science in Ancient India‟, Geographical
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2
Mahesh Mathur, Legal Control of Environmental Pollution: Jurisprudence
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3
Ibid, p. 137.
4
Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, Environmental Law and Policy in
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Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, The Use and Abuse of Nature:
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Madhav Gadgil, „Towards an Ecological History of India‟, Economic and
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Ranabir Chakravarti, „The Creation and Expansion of Settlements and
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Phillippe Cullet and Joyeeta Gupta, „India: Evolution of Water Law and
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9
S. P. Das Gupta, op. cit.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid.
12
Ibid.
13
Ranabir Chakravarti, op.cit., pp. 95-96.

117
14
Ibid, p. 96.
15
Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., pp. 88-89.
16
Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (Second Edition)
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1973, p. 264.
17
Ranabir Chakravarti, op.cit., p. 98.
18
Ibid, p. 99.
19
Richard Grove, „Conserving Eden: The (European) East India Companies
and Their Environmental Policies on St. Helena, Mauritius and in Western
India, 1660 to 1854‟, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Volume
35, Number 2, 1993, pp. 318-351.
20
Aparna Sawhney, New Face of Environmental Management in India,
Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire, 2004, p. 125.
21
Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., p. 116.
22
Phillippe Cullet and Joyeeta Gupta, op. cit.
23
Ibid, pp. 118-120.
24
H. Cleghorn, Forests and Gardens of South India, W. H. Allen, London, p.
60.
25
Mark Harrison, Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and
British Imperialism in India 1600-1850, Oxford University Press, New
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26
Jacques Pouchepadass, „Colonialism and Environment in India: Comparative
Perspective‟, Economic and Political Weekly, Volume 30, Number 33, 1995,
pp. 2059-2067.
27
Richard Grove, op.cit.
28
S. Shyamsunder and S. Parameswarappa, „Forestry in India: The Forester's
View‟, Ambio, Volume 16, Number 6, 1987, pp. 332-337.
29
Ravi Rajan, „Imperial Environmentalism or Environmental Imperialism?
European Forestry, Colonial Foresters and the Agendas of Forest
Management in British India 1800-1900‟, in Richard H. Grove, Vinita
Damodaran and Satpul Sangwan(eds.) Nature and the Orient, op. cit., pp.
343-344.
30
Ibid, p. 347

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31
Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, op. cit., p. 121.
32
Ibid, pp. 122-123.
33
Ravi Rajan, op. cit., p. 352.
34
Joseph Sramek, “Face Him Like a Briton”: Tiger Hunting, Imperialism, and
British Masculinity in Colonial India, 1800–1875‟, Victorian Studies,
Volume 48, Number 4, 2006, pp. 661-680.
35
Richard H. Grove, Ecology, Climate and Empire: The Indian Legacy in
Global Environmental History, 1400-1940, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, 1998, p. 19.
36
Ravi Rajan, op. cit., p. 352.
37
http://indiacode.nic.in/ accessed on 22 November 2010 at 6:32 pm.
38
First Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New
Delhi, p. 1.
39
Ibid.
40
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/history/func.htm accessed on 17
January 2011 at 3:08 pm.
41
http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/index.html accessed on 17
January 2011 at 3:09 pm.
42
H.P. Chattopadhyay and Indu Baghel, Indian Administration (Volume I)
Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi, 2009, p. 211.
43
O. P. Dwivedi, India‟s Environmental Policies, Programmes and
Stewardship, Macmillan Press, London, 1997, p. 64.
44
Ravindra N. Saxena and Sangita Saxena, The Handbook of Environment and
Forest Legislations, Guidelines and Procedures in India (with special
reference to mining) Green Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003, pp.139-141.
45
O.P. Dwivedi, op. cit., p. 64.
46
Sixth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India, New
Delhi, p. 343.
47
Ibid, p. 351.
48
Ibid, p. 343.
49
Ibid, pp. 343-348.
50
Ibid, pp. 348-349.

119
51
Ibid, p. 349.
52
Ibid, pp. 349-350.
53
O.P. Dwivedi, op. cit., pp. 64-65.
54
Seventh Year Plan (Volume II), Planning Commission, Government of India,
New Delhi, p. 385.
55
Ibid, p. 388.
56
Ibid, pp. 388-393.
57
Ibid, p. 394.
58
Eighth Five Year Plan (Volume II), Planning Commission, Government of
India, New Delhi, p. 95.
59
Ibid, p. 96.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid, p. 97.
62
Ibid, p. 92.
63
Ninth Five Year Plan (Volume II) Planning Commission, Government of
India, New Delhi, p. 936.
64
Ibid.
65
Ibid, pp. 937-938.
66
Ibid, p. 940.
67
Ibid, p. 941.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid, p. 942.
70
Ibid, pp. 942-944.
71
Ibid, p. 944.
72
Ibid, pp. 946-947
73
Ibid, p. 947.
74
Ibid, pp. 949-951.
75
Eighth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 100.
76
Ninth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 935.
77
Ibid, p. 930.
78
Ibid, p. 951.
79
Ibid, p. 952.

120
80
Ibid, pp. 955-957.
81
Ibid, pp. 957-960.
82
Ibid, pp. 961-966.
83
Tenth Five Year Plan, Volume 2, Planning Commission, Government of
India, New Delhi, p. 1055.
84
Ibid, p. 1073.
85
Ibid, p. 1074.
86
Ibid.
87
Ibid, p. 1075.
88
Ibid.
89
Eleventh Five Year Plan (Volume II) Planning Commission, Government of
India, New Delhi, p. 207.
90
Tenth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 1059.
91
Ibid, p. 1061.
92
Ibid, pp. 1062-1063.
93
Ibid, pp. 1064-1065.
94
Ibid, pp. 1066-1067.
95
Eleventh Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 191.
96
Tenth Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 1076.
97
Eleventh Five Year Plan, op.cit., p. 217.
98
Ibid, p. 191.
99
Ibid, p. 192.
100
Ibid, p. 195.
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid, p. 196.
103
Ibid, p. 197.
104
Ibid, pp. 207-214.
105
Ibid, Volume 3, pp. 65-76.
106
Ibid, Appendix.
107
Uma S. Nabhi, „Environmental Movements in India: An Assessment of their
Impact on State and Non-state Actors‟, India Quarterly, Volume 62, Number
1, 2006, pp. 123-145.

121
108
Ibid.
109
Ibid.
110
http://unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a03e/80A03E08.htm accessed on 21
January 2011 at 9:56 pm.
111
Ibid.
112
Ibid.
113
Uma S. Nabhi, op.cit.
114
Shepard Krech, John Robert McNeill, Carolyn Merchant, Encyclopedia of
World Environmental History: F-N, Volume 2, Routledge, London, 2004, pp.
869-870.
115
Ajoy Ashirwad Mahaprashasta, „Call of the River‟, Frontline, Volume 27,
Number 23, 2010, pp. 29-32.
116
World Wide Fund for Nature-India ENVIS Centre (NGOs, Parliament &
Media), Volume 6, Number 19, October- December 2006, p. 3.
117
S. Viswanathan, „Growing Awareness about Environment‟, The Hindu, 28
June 2010, available at
http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/28/stories/2010062851060900.htm accessed
on 20 January 2011.
118
World Wide Fund for Nature-India ENVIS CENTRE (NGOs, Parliament &
Media), Volume 5, Number 17, p. 9.
119
http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2006/E-APJA.pdf
accessed on 2 November 2010 at 10: 47 pm.
120
Ibid.
121
http://www.cseindia.org/node/214 accessed on 3 November 2010 at 6:47
pm
122
Fighting for a Better, Cleaner World, India Together, April 2005, available at
http://www.indiatogether.org/2005/apr/env-csenarain.htm accessed on 3
November 2010 at 6:45 pm
123
http://www.cseindia.org/node/527 accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:48 pm.
124
Press Release, „Disclosed: Lies about Endosulfan‟, 5 April 2004, available at
http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/endosulfan-pressrelease.pdf accessed on 3
November 2010 at 7:11 pm.

122
125
Press Release, CSE Lab Study: Busting the Myth about „Pure and Natural‟
Honey, 15 September 2010, New Delhi, available at
http://www.cseindia.org/node/1728, accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:38
pm.
126
http://www.teriin.org/awards/ accessed on 3 November 2010 at 8:34 pm.
127
„Hand in Old Phone, Nokia will Plant a Tree‟, The Hindu, available at
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2009/06/06/stories/200906065094110
0.htm accessed on 3 November 2010 at 10:40 pm.
128
Unit Prasanna Mukherji & Krishnendu Mukherjee, „Beyond the Tigers:
Corporates Turn Green Crusaders‟, The Times of India, 21 October 2010,
New Delhi (NCR), p. 23.
129
Sangeetha Devi Dundoo, „Stripey wins Hearts‟, The Hindu, 14 February
2010, available at http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/society/article105969.ece
accessed on 3 November 2010 at 10:53 pm.
130
„Panasonic to Invest Rs 1,000 cr in New Plant‟, Business Line, 12 October 2010, available at
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/10/12/stories/201010125285030
0.htm accessed on 3 November 2010 at 11:03 pm.
131
„Panasonic to Extend Recycling Programme‟, 25 September 2010, The Hindu, New
Delhi, available at http://www.thehindu.com/business/companies/article795483.ece
accessed on 3 November 2010 at 11:08 pm.
132
Unit Prasanna Mukherji & Krishnendu Mukherjee, op.cit.
133
http://green.ndtv.com/Greenathon-campaign.aspx accessed on 21 January
2011 at 11:15 pm.
134
R. Krishnamoorthy, „The Need of the Hour is Environment Management‟, 21
June 2010, The Hindu, available at http://www.hindu.com /edu
/2010/06/21/stories/2010062150070400.htm accessed on 21 January 2011 at
11:14 pm.
135
„School Children Pitch in for an Eco-friendly Diwali‟, The Hindu, New
Delhi, 3 November 2010, p. 4.
136
„Colleges in Kolkata Run on Solar Power‟, The Pioneer, 20 September 2010,
New Delhi, p. 6.

123
137
Seveshree Mohapatra, „Conservation of the Environmental and Indian
Army‟, Kurukshetra, Volume 45, Number 4 & 5, 1997.
138
http://cmsvatavaran.org/indexinner.php?cat=home%20&%20id=30 accessed
on 5 November 2010 at 5:12 pm.

124