Feynman’s path integral approach

to quantum physics
and its relativistic generalization
Jürgen Struckmeier
j.struckmeier@gsi.de, www.gsi.de/˜struck

Vortrag im Rahmen des Winterseminars

Aktuelle Probleme der Beschleuniger- und Plasmaphysik“

”
des Instituts für Angewandte Physik
der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main

Riezlern, 9.–13. März 2009

Feynman’s path integral – p. 1
Outline
• Classical action principle

• Canonical quantization

• Quantum action principle

• Classical limit

• Riemann integral, path integral

• Example 1: Transition amplitude for a free particle

• Example 2: Derivation of the Schrödinger equation

• Relativistic generalization of the path integral

• Conclusions

Feynman’s path integral – p. 2

Classical action principle
With L(ẋ, x, t) the system’s Lagrangian, the classical action
functional is defined by

 
Z tb
S x(t) = L(ẋ, x, t) dt.
ta

; S is a mapping of the set of functions x(t) (“paths”) into

the real numbers (hence the name “functional”).

Feynman’s path integral – p. 3

Classical action principle
With L(ẋ, x, t) the system’s Lagrangian, the classical action
functional is defined by

 
Z tb
S x(t) = L(ẋ, x, t) dt.
ta

; S is a mapping of the set of functions x(t) (“paths”) into

the real numbers (hence the name “functional”).
The classical action principle now states that among all
possible paths, the physical system actually “chooses” the
particular path xa (t) that is associated with the least action
 
δS xa (t) = 0.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 3

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vs
Sand

LS

Life-saver problem as an example of a variation of a functional

Feynman’s path integral – p. 4

From variational calculus, we find that the particular path
xa (t) that minimizes the action S satisfies the Lagrange
equation of motion
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0.
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x

Feynman’s path integral – p. 5

From variational calculus, we find that the particular path
xa (t) that minimizes the action S satisfies the Lagrange
equation of motion
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0.
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x

With the transition to quantum mechanics (QM), we

encounter the following problems:
• The classical concepts of “point particles” and “sharp
trajectories” do not exist anymore in QM
• QM is the more detailed theory ; we can infer from
QM to classical mechanics but not vice versa.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 5

From variational calculus, we find that the particular path
xa (t) that minimizes the action S satisfies the Lagrange
equation of motion
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0.
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x

With the transition to quantum mechanics (QM), we

encounter the following problems:
• The classical concepts of “point particles” and “sharp
trajectories” do not exist anymore in QM
• QM is the more detailed theory ; we can infer from
QM to classical mechanics but not vice versa.
• There exist various quantization prescriptions aiming to
“deduce” a quantum theory from an underlying classical
theory. These prescriptions are “cooking recipes”.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 5
Canonical quantization
The classical Hamiltonian of a point particle in an external
potential V (x) is given by
p2
H= + V (x) = e,
2m
with e denoting the particle’s energy.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 6

Canonical quantization
The classical Hamiltonian of a point particle in an external
potential V (x) is given by
p2
H= + V (x) = e,
2m
with e denoting the particle’s energy.
The “canonical quantization” then means to promote the
canonical variables x, p, e into the state of operators x̂, p̂, ê
that act on a wave function ψ(x, t)


∂ψ
∂ψ
x̂ψ (x, t) = xψ(x, t), p̂ψ (x, t) = −i~ , êψ (x, t) = i~ .
∂x ∂t
We thus “derive” the Schrödinger equation
2 2
 
~ ∂ ∂
Ĥψ = − + V (x) ψ = i~ ψ.
2m ∂x 2 ∂t
Feynman’s path integral – p. 6
The above procedure to derive the Schrödinger equation
comprises of two steps (eqom=equation of motion)
least action principle
classical action integral −−−−−−−−−−−→ classical eqom
canonical quantization
classical eqom −−−−−−−−−−−−→ quantum eqom

Feynman’s path integral – p. 7

The above procedure to derive the Schrödinger equation
comprises of two steps (eqom=equation of motion)
least action principle
classical action integral −−−−−−−−−−−→ classical eqom
canonical quantization
classical eqom −−−−−−−−−−−−→ quantum eqom

One may now ask: is there a way to directly derive the

quantum equation for a given classical system from a
modified formulation of the action principle?

Feynman’s path integral – p. 7

The above procedure to derive the Schrödinger equation
comprises of two steps (eqom=equation of motion)
least action principle
classical action integral −−−−−−−−−−−→ classical eqom
canonical quantization
classical eqom −−−−−−−−−−−−→ quantum eqom

One may now ask: is there a way to directly derive the

quantum equation for a given classical system from a
modified formulation of the action principle?

The answer is: yes! Namely by means of Feynman’s

path integral quantization on the basis of the appropriate
quantum formulation of the action principle:
path integral
quantum action integral −−−−−−→ quantum eqom
Feynman’s path integral – p. 7
Quantum action principle
According to the statistical interpretation of the wave
function, |ψ(x, t)|2 gives the probability density of finding
the particle at the point x at time t. Its evolution can be
described by the integral equation
Z ∞
ψ(xb , tb ) = K(xb , tb ; xa , ta )ψ(xa , ta ) dxa .
−∞

Feynman’s path integral – p. 8

Quantum action principle
According to the statistical interpretation of the wave
function, |ψ(x, t)|2 gives the probability density of finding
the particle at the point x at time t. Its evolution can be
described by the integral equation
Z ∞
ψ(xb , tb ) = K(xb , tb ; xa , ta )ψ(xa , ta ) dxa .
−∞

Postulate: the transition amplitude K(b; a) is the sum

of the contributions from all paths
 
X     i  
K(b; a) = φ x(t) , φ x(t) ∝ exp S x(t) .
~
all paths
from a to b
 
wherein S x(t) denotes the classical action functional.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 8
  
X     i  
K(b; a) = φ x(t) , φ x(t) ∝ exp S x(t) .
~
all paths
from a to b

• Not only the path with the extreme action is relevant;

rather it is that all paths contribute to the transition
amplitude K(b; a).

Feynman’s path integral – p. 9

  
X     i  
K(b; a) = φ x(t) , φ x(t) ∝ exp S x(t) .
~
all paths
from a to b

• Not only the path with the extreme action is relevant;

rather it is that all paths contribute to the transition
amplitude K(b; a).
• All paths contribute equal magnitude, i.e. all paths
have the same weight.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 9

  
X     i  
K(b; a) = φ x(t) , φ x(t) ∝ exp S x(t) .
~
all paths
from a to b

• Not only the path with the extreme action is relevant;

rather it is that all paths contribute to the transition
amplitude K(b; a).
• All paths contribute equal magnitude, i.e. all paths
have the same weight.
• The paths differ in their phases. The phase of the
contribution from a given path is the classical action S
for that path in units of ~.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 9

  
X     i  
K(b; a) = φ x(t) , φ x(t) ∝ exp S x(t) .
~
all paths
from a to b

• Not only the path with the extreme action is relevant;

rather it is that all paths contribute to the transition
amplitude K(b; a).
• All paths contribute equal magnitude, i.e. all paths
have the same weight.
• The paths differ in their phases. The phase of the
contribution from a given path is the classical action S
for that path in units of ~.
• We will see that the classical action principle emerges
as the classical limit of the quantum action principle.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 9
Classical limit
• As ~ is tiny, the phase S/~ of a contribution is some
very, very large angle.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 10

Classical limit
• As ~ is tiny, the phase S/~ of a contribution is some
very, very large angle.
• Small changes in an arbitrary path will, generally,
make enormous changes in phase
; | exp(iS/~)| will oscillate rapidly between ±1.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 10

Classical limit
• As ~ is tiny, the phase S/~ of a contribution is some
very, very large angle.
• Small changes in an arbitrary path will, generally,
make enormous changes in phase
; | exp(iS/~)| will oscillate rapidly between ±1.
• If the neighboring path has a different action, then
their contributions will add to zero.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 10

Classical limit
• As ~ is tiny, the phase S/~ of a contribution is some
very, very large angle.
• Small changes in an arbitrary path will, generally,
make enormous changes in phase
; | exp(iS/~)| will oscillate rapidly between ±1.
• If the neighboring path has a different action, then
their contributions will add to zero.
• For the path in the vicinity of the classical path, we get
no change in S (in the first order), since δS = 0.
; we get important contributions to K(b; a) only for
paths in the vicinity of the classical path.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 10

Classical limit
• As ~ is tiny, the phase S/~ of a contribution is some
very, very large angle.
• Small changes in an arbitrary path will, generally,
make enormous changes in phase
; | exp(iS/~)| will oscillate rapidly between ±1.
• If the neighboring path has a different action, then
their contributions will add to zero.
• For the path in the vicinity of the classical path, we get
no change in S (in the first order), since δS = 0.
; we get important contributions to K(b; a) only for
paths in the vicinity of the classical path.
• In the limit ~ → 0, only the classical path contributes.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 10
Riemann integral
f(x)

x0 x1 x2 xi xi+1 xN x
X
A ∝ f (xi ),
i
N
X xN − x0
A = lim h f (xi ), h=
h→0
N →∞ i=0
N

; The step width h directly acts as the integration measure.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 11
Path integral
t

tb
●
●
●
N ǫ = tb − ta
●
●
t i+1
ti ε

●
●
●
●
ǫ = ti+1 − ti
●
●

●
●
●
ta ≡ t0 tb ≡ tN
●
●

●
●
●
xa ≡ x0 xb ≡ xN
●
●
●
ta ●

xa xi xi+1 xb x

We divide the independent variable time into steps of width ǫ

; we obtain a set of values ti between ta and tb
We then select at each time ti some special point xi
; we thus construct a path by connecting all the points
xi so selected with straight lines.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 12
We finally sum the action exponential φ[x(t)] over all paths
constructed in this manner
ZZ Z
 
K(b; a) ∝ . . . φ x(t) dx1 dx2 . . . dxN −1 .

; This definition corresponds to the Riemann integral

definition
X
A∝ f (xi ).
i

Feynman’s path integral – p. 13

We finally sum the action exponential φ[x(t)] over all paths
constructed in this manner
ZZ Z
 
K(b; a) ∝ . . . φ x(t) dx1 dx2 . . . dxN −1 .

; This definition corresponds to the Riemann integral

definition
X
A∝ f (xi ).
i

The approximation to K(b; a) gets better by making ǫ

smaller. Similar to the case of the Riemann integral, we
need a normalization factor A(ǫ) in order for the procedure
to converge
 
1 i
ZZ Z
 
K(b; a) = lim N
. . . exp S x(t) dx1 dx2 . . . dxN −1 .
N →∞ A(ǫ)
ǫ→0 ~

; We encounter an infinite chain of integrals!

Feynman’s path integral – p. 13
In order to distinguish a path integral from a conventional
Riemann integral, a specific notation is appropriate
  Z tb
i 
Z
  
K(b; a) = exp S x(t) D(t), S x(t) = L(ẋ, x, t)dt.
~ ta

Feynman’s path integral – p. 14

In order to distinguish a path integral from a conventional
Riemann integral, a specific notation is appropriate
  Z tb
i 
Z
  
K(b; a) = exp S x(t) D(t), S x(t) = L(ẋ, x, t)dt.
~ ta

From the definition of the path integral, we immediately

conclude for the transition amplitude K(i + 1; i) of an
infinitesimal time step ǫ
 
1 i  
K(i + 1; i) = exp S i + 1, i
A(ǫ) ~
with
 
  xi+1 − xi xi+1 + xi ti+1 + ti
S i + 1, i = ǫ L , , .
ǫ 2 2

We will now work out some simple examples.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 14
Example 1: Free particle
The non-relativistic Lagrangian L of a single free particle is
m 2
L(ẋ) = ẋ .
2
The quantum mechanical transition amplitude
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) for a free particle over a finite time interval
tb − ta is then obtained by the path integral
N
!
−1 2
1 im X (xi+1 − xi )
Z Z
K(b; a) = lim N
. . . exp dx1 . . .dxN −1 .
N →∞ A(ǫ)
ǫ→0 2~ i=0 ǫ

Feynman’s path integral – p. 15

Example 1: Free particle
The non-relativistic Lagrangian L of a single free particle is
m 2
L(ẋ) = ẋ .
2
The quantum mechanical transition amplitude
K(xb , tb ; xa , ta ) for a free particle over a finite time interval
tb − ta is then obtained by the path integral
N
!
−1 2
1 im X (xi+1 − xi )
Z Z
K(b; a) = lim N
. . . exp dx1 . . .dxN −1 .
N →∞ A(ǫ)
ǫ→0 2~ i=0 ǫ

The integrand is an exponential of a quadratic form (“gaussian”)

; The integral of a gaussian is again a gaussian.
; The chain of N − 1 integrals can be solved analytically,
and, consequently, the limit N → ∞.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 15
The first two terms of the sum are integrated over x1
 
im 
Z ∞
2 2
exp (x2 − x1 ) + (x1 − x0 ) dx1
−∞ 2~ǫ
r  
2iπ~ǫ 1 im
= √ exp (x2 − x0 )2
m 2 2~ · 2ǫ

Feynman’s path integral – p. 16

The first two terms of the sum are integrated over x1
 
im 
Z ∞
2 2
exp (x2 − x1 ) + (x1 − x0 ) dx1
−∞ 2~ǫ
r  
2iπ~ǫ 1 im
= √ exp (x2 − x0 )2
m 2 2~ · 2ǫ

We add the third term to this result and integrate over x2

Z ∞r  
π~ǫ im  1 2 2
exp 2
(x2 − x0 ) + (x3 − x2 ) dx2
−∞ im 2~ǫ
r !2  
2iπ~ǫ 1 im
= √ exp (x3 − x0 )2
m 3 2~ · 3ǫ

Feynman’s path integral – p. 16

The first two terms of the sum are integrated over x1
 
im 
Z ∞
2 2
exp (x2 − x1 ) + (x1 − x0 ) dx1
−∞ 2~ǫ
r  
2iπ~ǫ 1 im
= √ exp (x2 − x0 )2
m 2 2~ · 2ǫ

We add the third term to this result and integrate over x2

Z ∞r  
π~ǫ im  1 2 2
exp 2
(x2 − x0 ) + (x3 − x2 ) dx2
−∞ im 2~ǫ
r !2  
2iπ~ǫ 1 im
= √ exp (x3 − x0 )2
m 3 2~ · 3ǫ

After N − 1 integrations, we have

r !N −1  
1 2iπ~ǫ 1 im 2
K(b; a) = lim N
√ exp (x N − x 0 )
N →∞ A(ǫ)
ǫ→0 m N 2~ · N ǫ
Feynman’s path integral – p. 16
For the limit ǫ → 0, N → ∞ to exist, we must define A(ǫ) as
r
2iπ~ǫ
A(ǫ) = .
m
; In contrast to the Riemann integral, the measure of a
path integral cannot be defined a priori, but must be
chosen appropriately in order for the integral to converge.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 17

For the limit ǫ → 0, N → ∞ to exist, we must define A(ǫ) as
r
2iπ~ǫ
A(ǫ) = .
m
; In contrast to the Riemann integral, the measure of a
path integral cannot be defined a priori, but must be
chosen appropriately in order for the integral to converge.
With N ǫ = tb − ta , xN ≡ xb , x0 ≡ xa , we thus find the final result
!
2
m im (xb − xa )
r
K(b; a) = exp .
2iπ~(tb − ta ) 2~ tb − ta

Feynman’s path integral – p. 17

For the limit ǫ → 0, N → ∞ to exist, we must define A(ǫ) as
r
2iπ~ǫ
A(ǫ) = .
m
; In contrast to the Riemann integral, the measure of a
path integral cannot be defined a priori, but must be
chosen appropriately in order for the integral to converge.
With N ǫ = tb − ta , xN ≡ xb , x0 ≡ xa , we thus find the final result
!
2
m im (xb − xa )
r
K(b; a) = exp .
2iπ~(tb − ta ) 2~ tb − ta
It is straightforward to verify that the transition amplitude
K(b; a) satisfies the partial differential equation
∂K(b; a) ~2 ∂ 2 K(b; a)
i~ =− 2
.
∂tb 2m ∂xb
; K(b; a) satisfies the Schrödinger equation.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 17
Example 2: Schrödinger equation
On the basis of the path integral formalism, it is actually
possible to derive the Schrödinger equation. The starting
point is the non-relativistic Lagrangian of a point particle of
mass m in an external, possibly time-dependent potential V ,
m 2
L(ẋ, x, t) = ẋ − V (x, t).
2

Feynman’s path integral – p. 18

Example 2: Schrödinger equation
On the basis of the path integral formalism, it is actually
possible to derive the Schrödinger equation. The starting
point is the non-relativistic Lagrangian of a point particle of
mass m in an external, possibly time-dependent potential V ,
m 2
L(ẋ, x, t) = ẋ − V (x, t).
2
The modification of the particle’s wave function ψ(x, t)
along an infinitesimal time step ǫ is then described by the
integral equation (
1
Z ∞
ψ(x, t + ǫ) = exp
A(ǫ) −∞
"  2  #)
iǫ m x − y x+y ǫ
−V ,t + ψ(y, t) dy.
~ 2 ǫ 2 2
Feynman’s path integral – p. 18
After performing a change of the integration variable
y = η + x, dy = dη
the integral simplifies to

1
Z ∞
ψ(x, t + ǫ) = exp
A(ǫ) −∞
2
 
iǫ m η  η ǫ 
− V x + ,t + ψ(x + η, t) dη.
~ 2 ǫ 2 2 2

Feynman’s path integral – p. 19

After performing a change of the integration variable
y = η + x, dy = dη
the integral simplifies to

1
Z ∞
ψ(x, t + ǫ) = exp
A(ǫ) −∞
2
 
iǫ m η  η ǫ 
− V x + ,t + ψ(x + η, t) dη.
~ 2 ǫ 2 2 2

We expand the expressions for the wave function and for

the potential
∂ψ(x, t) η 2 ∂ 2 ψ(x, t)
ψ(x + η, t) = ψ(x, t) + η + + ...
∂x 2 ∂x 2

∂ψ(x, t)
ψ(x, t + ǫ) = ψ(x, t) + ǫ + ...
∂t
 η ǫ η ∂V (x, t) ǫ ∂V (x, t)
V x + ,t + = V (x, t) + + + ....
2 2 2 ∂x 2 ∂t
Feynman’s path integral – p. 19
and insert these expansions into the integral equation.
Omitting all terms of higher order than one in ǫ, this yields
   
∂ψ 1 iǫ im 2
Z ∞
ψ(x, t) + ǫ = 1 − V ψ(x, t) exp η dη
∂t A(ǫ) ~ −∞ 2~ǫ
  2 Z ∞ 2   
iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ η im 2
+ 1− V − exp η dη .
~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x −∞ 2 2~ǫ
We have already skipped all integrals that are of odd power
in the integration variable, η, since these integrals vanish.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 20

and insert these expansions into the integral equation.
Omitting all terms of higher order than one in ǫ, this yields
   
∂ψ 1 iǫ im 2
Z ∞
ψ(x, t) + ǫ = 1 − V ψ(x, t) exp η dη
∂t A(ǫ) ~ −∞ 2~ǫ
  2 Z ∞ 2   
iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ η im 2
+ 1− V − exp η dη .
~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x −∞ 2 2~ǫ
We have already skipped all integrals that are of odd power
in the integration variable, η, since these integrals vanish.
The gaussian integrals can now be solved analytically
(  r
∂ψ 1 iǫ 2iπ~ǫ
ψ(x, t) + ǫ = 1 − V ψ(x, t)
∂t A(ǫ) ~ m
  2  r !3 )
iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ 1 2iπ~ǫ
+ 1− V − .
~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x 4π m
Clearly, the equation must establish an identity for ǫ → 0.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 20
We thus obtain the condition to determine A(ǫ)
r r
1 2iπ~ǫ 2iπ~ǫ
ψ(x, t) = ψ(x, t) ; A(ǫ) = .
A(ǫ) m m
; This is the measure for the infinitesimal path integral.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 21

We thus obtain the condition to determine A(ǫ)
r r
1 2iπ~ǫ 2iπ~ǫ
ψ(x, t) = ψ(x, t) ; A(ǫ) = .
A(ǫ) m m
; This is the measure for the infinitesimal path integral.
The equation now simplifies to
    2 
∂ψ iǫ i~ǫ iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ
ψ+ǫ = 1 − V ψ+ 1− V − .
∂t ~ 2m ~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x

Feynman’s path integral – p. 21

We thus obtain the condition to determine A(ǫ)
r r
1 2iπ~ǫ 2iπ~ǫ
ψ(x, t) = ψ(x, t) ; A(ǫ) = .
A(ǫ) m m
; This is the measure for the infinitesimal path integral.
The equation now simplifies to
    2 
∂ψ iǫ i~ǫ iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ
ψ+ǫ = 1 − V ψ+ 1− V − .
∂t ~ 2m ~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x
The term ψ(x, t) drops out, and we can divide by ǫ
  2 
∂ψ i i~ iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ
=− Vψ+ 1− V − .
∂t ~ 2m ~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x

Feynman’s path integral – p. 21

We thus obtain the condition to determine A(ǫ)
r r
1 2iπ~ǫ 2iπ~ǫ
ψ(x, t) = ψ(x, t) ; A(ǫ) = .
A(ǫ) m m
; This is the measure for the infinitesimal path integral.
The equation now simplifies to
    2 
∂ψ iǫ i~ǫ iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ
ψ+ǫ = 1 − V ψ+ 1− V − .
∂t ~ 2m ~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x
The term ψ(x, t) drops out, and we can divide by ǫ
  2 
∂ψ i i~ iǫ ∂ ψ iǫ ∂V ∂ψ
=− Vψ+ 1− V − .
∂t ~ 2m ~ ∂x 2 ~ ∂x ∂x
Taking to limit ǫ → 0, we finally get
∂ψ i i~ ∂ 2 ψ
=− Vψ+ ,
∂t ~ 2m ∂x 2

which obviously constitutes the Schrödinger equation.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 21
Relativistic generalization
The path integral based on non-relativistic Lagrangians
Lnr may be transposed to a relativistic description by
1. introducing the particle’s proper time s as the new
system evolution parameter,
2. treating the time t(s) as an additional dependent
variable on equal footing with the configuration space
variables q(s)—commonly referred to as the “principle
of homogeneity in space-time”
3. by replacing the conventional non-relativistic
Lagrangian Lnr with the corresponding
Lorentz-invariant extended Lagrangian L1 ,
We will sketch this approach as the last topic of this talk.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 22
The relativistic generalization of the integral equation for
the space-time evolution of a wave function ψ(x, t) ≡ ψ(xµ ) is
Z ∞
ψ(xb , tb ) = K(xb , tb ; xa , ta )ψ(xa , ta ) d4 xa ,
−∞

where x denotes the configuration space vector, and xµ

the set of Minkowski space variables.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 23

The relativistic generalization of the integral equation for
the space-time evolution of a wave function ψ(x, t) ≡ ψ(xµ ) is
Z ∞
ψ(xb , tb ) = K(xb , tb ; xa , ta )ψ(xa , ta ) d4 xa ,
−∞

where x denotes the configuration space vector, and xµ

the set of Minkowski space variables.
The analogous path integral description for the propagation
of a wave function ψ(xµ ) along an infinitesimal space-time
step is then  
1 i
Z
µ
ψ(xb ) = exp S1,ǫ ψ(xµa ) d4 xa .
A(ǫ) ~
Herein, S1,ǫ denotes the extended action along the
infinitesimal space-time step, which follows from the
system’s extended Lagrangian L1 (dxµ /ds, xµ ) as
 µ µ µ µ

xb − xa xb + xa
S1,ǫ = ǫL1 , , .
ǫ 2
Feynman’s path integral – p. 23
Example: relativistic point particle of mass m and charge ζ
in an external electromagnetic field.
The conventional relativistic Lagrangian of this system is
r
2 ẋ2 ζ
L(ẋ, x, t) = −mc 1 − 2 + A(x, t)ẋ − ζφ(x, t).
c c
φ and A denote the scalar and the vector potentials,
respectively.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 24

Example: relativistic point particle of mass m and charge ζ
in an external electromagnetic field.
The conventional relativistic Lagrangian of this system is
r
2 ẋ2 ζ
L(ẋ, x, t) = −mc 1 − 2 + A(x, t)ẋ − ζφ(x, t).
c c
φ and A denote the scalar and the vector potentials,
respectively.

Problem: the Lagrangian is no longer a quadratic form in

the dynamic variables.
; The path integral formalism does not yield gaussian
integrals.
; The path integral cannot be worked out.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 24

The extended Lagrangian L1 that desribes the same
dynamics as the conventional relativistic Lagrangian L writes
"     #
2 2
1 2 1 dq dt ζ dq dt
L1 = 2 mc 2 − − 1 + A(q, t) −ζ φ(q, t) .
c ds ds c ds ds

; The extended Lagrangian of a relativistic particle in an

external electromagnetic field is quadratic in its velocities.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 25

The extended Lagrangian L1 that desribes the same
dynamics as the conventional relativistic Lagrangian L writes
"     #
2 2
1 2 1 dq dt ζ dq dt
L1 = 2 mc 2 − − 1 + A(q, t) −ζ φ(q, t) .
c ds ds c ds ds

; The extended Lagrangian of a relativistic particle in an

external electromagnetic field is quadratic in its velocities.
Based on this Lagrangian L1 , we may proceed similarly to
the case of Schrödinger equation.
Working this out, we end up with the Klein-Gordon equation
  
∂ iζ ∂ iζ α  mc 2
− Aα − A ψ= ψ.
∂x α ~c ∂xα ~c ~
with A0 ≡ −φ and x0 = ct, x0 = −ct.
; The Klein-Gordon equation is the quantum equation of
a system whose classical counterpart is a relativistic
point particle in an external electromagnetic field.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 25
Conclusions
• It is possible to formulate a generalized action
principle such that the fundamental equations of
quantum physics can be derived from it. The classical
action principle emerges from it for the limit ~ → 0.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 26

Conclusions
• It is possible to formulate a generalized action
principle such that the fundamental equations of
quantum physics can be derived from it. The classical
action principle emerges from it for the limit ~ → 0.
• This way, the Schrödinger equation emerges as the
quantum equation of a system whose classical
counterpart is given by a point particle in an external
potential.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 26

Conclusions
• It is possible to formulate a generalized action
principle such that the fundamental equations of
quantum physics can be derived from it. The classical
action principle emerges from it for the limit ~ → 0.
• This way, the Schrödinger equation emerges as the
quantum equation of a system whose classical
counterpart is given by a point particle in an external
potential.
• The path integral formalism thus replaces the rather
unsatisfactory ad hoc prescriptions (“equivalence
principle”, “canonical quantization”).

Feynman’s path integral – p. 26

• Treating space and time variables on equal footing,
we may straightforwardly generalize the path integral
formalism to cover relativistic quantum physics.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 27

• Treating space and time variables on equal footing,
we may straightforwardly generalize the path integral
formalism to cover relativistic quantum physics.
• On the basis of the extended Lagrangian of a
relativistic point particle in an external electromagnetic
field, we could show that the corresponding quantum
equation is given by the Klein-Gordon equation.

Feynman’s path integral – p. 27

• Treating space and time variables on equal footing,
we may straightforwardly generalize the path integral
formalism to cover relativistic quantum physics.
• On the basis of the extended Lagrangian of a
relativistic point particle in an external electromagnetic
field, we could show that the corresponding quantum
equation is given by the Klein-Gordon equation.
• This talk can be downloaded from
“http://www.gsi.de/ ˜struck”

Feynman’s path integral – p. 27

• Treating space and time variables on equal footing,
we may straightforwardly generalize the path integral
formalism to cover relativistic quantum physics.
• On the basis of the extended Lagrangian of a
relativistic point particle in an external electromagnetic
field, we could show that the corresponding quantum
equation is given by the Klein-Gordon equation.
• This talk can be downloaded from
“http://www.gsi.de/ ˜struck”
• More details can be found in:
“Extended Hamilton-Lagrange formalism and its
application to Feynman’s path integral for relativistic
quantum physics”, Int. J. Mod. Phys. E. 18, No. 1
(2009) p. 79–108.
Feynman’s path integral – p. 27