SIGNS, WORDS, MORPHEMES, MORPHOLOGY

The most obvious sign in human language is the word

American linguist Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) -- defined

the word as a minimal free form

WORD - the smallest free-standing sign in language

Classification of words

Content words Function words

extra-linguistic meaning grammatical "glue"

nouns, full verbs, adverb of linking verbs, adverbs of

manner, adjectives place/time, pronouns,
prepositions, articles,
(open classes) conjunctions

(closed classes)

Lexicon = the vocabulary of a language

Lexicology = the study of a language's vocabulary

Morphology = the study of how words are built

IS THE SMALLEST SIGN IN LANGUAGE THE WORD? NO.

APPLE

REREADING

RE + READ + ING

MORPHEME - the smallest sign in language (smallest form

with a specific meaning)

renewable rewritable
re + new + able re + writ(e) + able

MORPHOLOGY
= the study of how words are built

= set of morphemes + the rules of how they are combined

= "word grammar"

Problems in defining the morpheme

fatter bigger worker teacher screwdriver

fat(t)+er big(g)+er work+er teach+er screwdriv(e)+er

Homomorphs - morphemes with same form but different

meanings

-ER1 (comparative): fat(t) + er big(g) + er

-ER2 (human agent): work + er teach + er

-ER3 (inanimate instrument): screwdriv(e) + er

can
redder tiger salamandercharacter hammer
opener

Cranberry morph: appears only in a single word, like "ham"

in hammer, also: uncouth, huckleberry, lukewarm,
knowledge

ALLOMORPHS:

- red [r E d] red in "redder" [r E |]

- fat [f œ t] fat in "fatter" [f œ |]

ALLOMORPHS = forms with the same meaning but slightly

different sound-shapes, and the difference is predictable

sincere / sincerity severe

/ severity profound/profundity

confuse / confusion, use / usury

**Both "Morpheme" and "Word" are fuzzy concepts, hard to
define

Classification of Morphemes

1. According to their position in the word:

read re+read read+ing rereading

root prefix + root root + suffix prefix + root + suffix

infix: kilad (red) --> kumilad (be red)

circumfix: chokma (it is good) --> ikchokmo (it is not good)

lakna (it is yellow) --> iklakno (it is not yellow)

AFFIX TYPES: prefix, suffix, infix, circumfix,

agglutination: affixes don't change form when combined

simple fusion: at least one of the morphemes changes form:

confuse -> confus+ion, able -> abil+ity, explain ->

explan+ation, electric-> electric+ity, long -> leng+th

symbolic fusion: tooth -> teeth, run -> ran, take ->
took, use (the noun) -> use (the verb)

2. Types of affixes:

Derivational affixes make new words by adding concrete

meanings to old words:

-er, -ess -hood, -ive, -ness, re-, un-

All English prefixes and most suffixes are derivational.

Inflectional affixes make different grammatical forms of the

same word. English has only 8 productive inflections:

3 for verbs: -ed, -s, -ing work+ed, work+s, work+ing

3 for nouns: -s, -'s -'s boys, boy's, boys'
2 for adjectives: -er, -est smart+er, smart+est

There are several unproductive inflections too, like the plural

-en in oxen, and the participial -en in given.

stem + ending (inflectional suffix)

3. Classification according to whether morpheme = word

FREE BOUND
most roots in English most prefixes and suffixes
but: adept, inept (BOUND ROOT) ism (free suffix) ex, pro, con (free prefixes)

4. Classifying words according to morpheme structure

Simple words- a single morpheme: house, I, the, off,

salamander

Complex words - root + at least 1 affix: worker, reread,

retelling

anti + dis + establish +ment + ari + an +ism

Compound words - 2 roots: ashtray, mailbox, lazybones

Minor word formation techniques (major ones are

compounding and affixation)

1. null affixation sheep (is) vs. sheep (are)

zero morpheme morphological conversion.

2. reduplication (common in Hawaiian)

- wiki move fast -> wikiwiki quick, helu count-

> heluhelu read. partial reduplication: 'uku flea --
> 'u'uku tiny

3. blend smog (smoke + fog) Great Eggspectations

4. abbreviations (several types)

clipping, or clipped word: grad, prof, dorm, Liz, Flo, Ed, Al.

stub compound: polysci, sci-fi, physed

true acronym: scuba, radar, AIDS.

alphabetism: DJ, VIP, OK, USA

5. back formation: enthusiasm -> enthuse; action -> act

also: cherry <cherise, pea < pease

6. agglomerations: irregardless, komiksy, Zaliv Pyudzhet

Saund.

7. eponym (proper noun becomes a common noun):

sandwich, Sequoia, sideburns, hooker.

Minor inflectional techniques:

symbolic fusion (only in some noun plurals, some denominal

verbs, and some past tense verbs)

suppletion (change the morpheme instead of adding an

affix):

bad -> worse, good -> better, go -> went, is -> was, am, is,
are

partial suppletion: was -> were, teach -> taught