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Chapter 6
Learning Outcomes
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6.1 Introduction
The term research methodology is used in two inter-related ways which
are often not very clearly separated. Methodology is frequently used as an
overarching term to refer to the principal paradigms of an approach to
researching a problem, for instance the researcher takes a qualitative
approach, or a quantitative approach. The distinction between these two
approaches is explored in the first part of the chapter. Strictly speaking,
this is defining the methodological strategy according to the data form.
Assuming that a universal research target is the robust treatment of the
collection and the interpretation of the data, this distinction between
qualitative and quantitative approaches relates to differences in the
methodological techniques which are used, and the way in which they are
applied. The term methodology is also used as a definition of an
operational research technique, hence the researcher may use The Delphi
Approach, or undertake a Questionnaire-Based Study, use a Case Study
Technique, or conduct Semi-Structured Interviews. The techniques vary
but tend to accord with the clearly definable methodological paradigms
of qualitative or quantitative research.
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causes and effects. With this research approach, the research question
and hypothesis usually refer expressly to identifying and testing specific
causes and effects.
6.2.2 Requirements
Experimentation requires the manipulation of independent variables,
followed by the measurement of the effect of this on the dependent
variables. An independent variable is a variable which is assumed to
come first in a relationship between two variables. The dependent
variable is assumed to follow the independent variable, and therefore
depend upon it. Hence changes in the independent variable cause changes
in the related, or dependent, variable. This approach requires a scenario
where variables can be identified and distinguished as dependent or
independent. Also the variables in question must be capable of
manipulation, which requires an understanding (or conceptual theory) of
how the experimental focus relates to external factors. This implies a
tightly-defined boundary to the research, and a relatively high degree of
advanced conceptual theory. Quantitative approaches to experimentation
tend to require a high degree of detailed conceptual underpinning.
Therefore the classical experimental approach tends to be used for theory
testing rather than theory building. Also as a consequence of this,
experimentation does not tend to be well suited to complex systems.
Any problems with the degree of isolation or the control experiment can
produce profound difficulties for the experimental process. It is essential
that the experimenter has complete control over the independent
variables and that there are no uncontrolled or ‘invisible’ forces acting on
the experiment. Accordingly, it is usual for the experiment to be reported
in sufficient detail to allow its replication by another researcher to verify
the phenomenon or results. Hence a requirement of the analysis of
experimentally-derived data (and the scientific method in general) is that
the experiment-as-reported can be repeated. This condition alone requires
an abstraction of the experiment from real world pressures, since any
circumstantial specifics which are unrepeatable or unverifiable will
seriously effect the experimental validity.
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6.2.3 Operation
The independent variables selected for experimentation are isolated and
then manipulated in some controlled manner to produce an identifiable
and measurable response. The hypothesis usually defines the expected
identifiable and measurable result, and therefore the experiment tests the
hypothesis. Accordingly, the research question and conceptual model
will detail the assumptions and concepts upon which the experiment is
based, and the conditions which are to be created and manipulated to
create the causal effect on the experimental scenario.
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6.2.5 Uses
Properly applied, experimentation can establish causality links and their
direction. The relationship between independent and dependent variables
can be clarified in terms of their directionality. Where it is possible to
adjust variables and parameters in a controlled and measured manner,
experiment can produce very useful sets of data which allow the
extension of findings beyond the simple demonstration of cause and
effect, onto calibration. Experiment can be a very effective method of
testing the principles of a technique in a controlled and cost effective
manner, and may be used successfully as a piloting or feasibility tool.
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6.2.8 Requirements
The principal distinctions between true experiments and quasi-
experiments lie in their requirements. The quasi-experiment
approximates to a true experimental approach in the sense that
explanations for cause and effect are sought. However, most quasi-
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experiments operate with data that are not random. This is because there
is a lack of complete control over the experimental data design which the
researcher cannot solve. The quasi-experiment is therefore a pragmatic
solution to experimenting without random data. Also, there may be no
intervention of the researcher.
6.2.9 Operation
The quasi-experiment operates as an experimental mode of analysis
rather than within the controlled circumstances of the true experiment. It
may be that the researcher has no control over the independent variables,
or for some reason it is invalid to control them (because the change has to
be a natural phenomenon to be realistic, perhaps). With the quasi-
experiment technique, the researcher uses the opportunity afforded by an
accidental or chance change in the independent variable which stimulates
the phenomenon that is then observed.
6.2.11 Use
The quasi-experiment is extremely useful for illuminating potential
relationships between variables which are involved in complex
phenomenological systems. It is also more potentially applicable to real-
world research problems. In the right circumstances, it can be used to
assist in creating conceptual models and is consequently more useful for
theory building than the true experiment. The researcher uses logic to
analyse the data provided by the quasi-experiment to make deductions
about the phenomenon. Natural, uncontrollable scenarios may yield to
quasi-experimental research where the control requirements for true
experiment are not achievable (or ethical).
Uses a less robust/ prescribed model than true experiments. Does not
meet the full criteria for rigorous true experiment research.
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6.3.1 Requirements
One of the key requirements for a successful interview or questionnaire-
based data collection exercise is the sample size and sample
representativeness.
6.3.2 Operation
Some of the most commonplace approaches to collecting data for
construction research involve questionnaires and interviews. Many of the
principles of their operation are similar, the principal distinctions
between a questionnaire and an interview lie in the administering of the
questions.
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6.3.4 Uses
The careful selection of measurement scales can allow semi-quantitative
or quantitative data to be gathered using questionnaires or interviews. An
alternative is the use of fixed alternative questions, which operates rather
like a multiple-choice exercise. By devising scales or set responses the
researcher pre-determines the categorisation of the data and makes
processing and analysis much more straightforward. Where this data
would be too constrained for the intended use, a semi-structured
interview could be used to allow open-ended questions to be asked. The
resulting data would be less focused, although the start point (and
therefore the initial attachment of data to the conceptual frame of
reference which the interview was designed to gather data for) would be
preserved. Whilst being less focused and therefore more difficult to
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Can be used for theory building, but tend to be applied to theory testing.
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6.4.1 Requirements
Case studies have few generalisable requirements other than access to the
level of data required for the study. Consistency of depth of access is
important to get a coherent picture. It is also essential to pay attention to
the frame of reference or explanatory template (more on this in Chapter
7) used for the analysis of the data with this sort of research.
6.4.2 Operation
Case study data is, by definition, particular to the case from which it was
collected. Therefore the generalisability of the results is limited to those
principles which emerge and could be of a general nature. Establishing
the generalisability of results is usually done using the criteria of
replication. Cross-case analyses may be employed for this purpose to
compare the results from several broadly similar cases to assess if there
are any consistent and generic trends which can be concluded.
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One of the most characteristic problems with case study research lies in
the volume of data which is generated and (paradoxically) its richness. It
is easy to get lost in the detail of the data and lose sight of the bigger
picture and the direction of the research. It is also possible to become
completely swamped by data and find it impracticable to make
conclusions due to data overload.
6.4.4 Uses
The case study approach is useful for allowing a particular issue to be
studied in detail and in the context of its relationship with the real world.
It is also beneficial for some studies that the case study can operate over
a long period of time, which can bring with it other positive certainties
over the consistency and representativeness of data. An extension of the
case study is the Case-Based Reasoning technique, which uses pattern
analysis in unstructured data generated from case study to derive
relational theories; also Ethnographic Studies, which involve a written
representation of a culture based on evidence derived from case study
circumstances. Ethnography often involves a high degree of immersion
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in the study environment, similar to that required for action research, but
without the deliberate manipulation of change that characterises action
research. Grounded Theory, an approach which is used to generate theory
from the bottom-up analysis of evidence, is also best supported by a case
study methodological approach.
One of the most characteristic problems with case study research lies in
the volume of data which is generated and (paradoxically) its richness
It is also beneficial for some studies that the case study can operate over
a long period of time.
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6.5. 1 Requirements
Action research operates on the basis of participation. In contrast to the
scientific method ideal of objectivity and disinterest, the action
researcher adopts a collaborative research strategy with those being
studied. Action research requires a pragmatic researcher for its successful
use. Action research requires access to the case being studied to allow the
necessary participation if it is to be successful. The other principal
requirement for successful action research is that the researcher or their
proxy has the authority and capability to make a change. Full control
over changes is usually needed. This allows them to deliberately
manipulate variables and case environments and observe the effects.
6.5.2 Operation
The researcher becomes part of the research problem and instigates
changes in the independent variable(s). It is common for action research
to emerge from a case study situation, and for the outcomes of the action
research to be jointly analysed by the client and the research team. As the
access required for the case study observations introduces the researcher
to the organisational representatives, a level of trust may build up which
allows the researcher the deeper level of access and role required for
action research.
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6.5.4 Uses
Action research has not been accepted in all disciplines. It clearly suits
situations where change is planned or imminent, and allows the
researcher in collaboration with the host organisation to analyse a rapid
and significant change. It is common for action research to start with the
client or the researcher presenting a problem and agreeing mutual goals
and research participation, in addition to mutual agreement over changes
that will be made. Action research will probably produce results in the
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form which business can most readily accept and re-apply for useful
effect. At its extreme, it is a hybridisation of research consultancy.
Common for action research to emerge from a case study situation, and
for the outcomes of the action research to be jointly analysed by the
client and the research team.
PF6.8
How can the researcher protect the rigour of the research process and
outcomes when using action research?
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Activity
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6.7 Summary
The selection of the methodological approach and data collection
technique represents the major commitment in the active research phase.
After working through this chapter you should now be sufficiently aware
of the various mainstream methodological techniques to allow you to do
this. Further reading has been provided for more detailed aspects which
will arise in their use. The next stage in the research process is to collect
the data, and then to analyse it. Chapter 7 deals with the analysis of data,
which should be undertaken on a regular basis as the research proceeds.
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What are the strengths and weaknesses of the case study approach?
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What are the principal differences between the Qualitative Approach and
The Quantitative Approach to research?
Mark, R., 1996 Research Made Simple: A Handbook for Social Workers.
Sage Publications. ISBN 0-8039-7427-2. See Chapter 10 Qualitative
Research (pp 206 - 229); and Chapter 12 Sources of Data:
Questionnaires, Interviews, Schedules, and Available Materials (pp 241 -
268).
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Yin, R.K., 1984 Case Study Research: Design and Methods Beverly
Hills, Calif. Sage Publications. A classic on case study.
Hague, P., 1993 Questionnaire Design Kogan Page The Market Research
Series ISBN 0-7494-0917-7. A practical guide to the questionnaire
methodology.
Sapsford, R., Jupp, V., 1996 Data Collection and Analysis Sage
Publications ISBN 0-7619-5046-X. Covers a wide range of research
techniques and approaches, including quantitative analysis.
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