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Chapter 7
Learning Outcomes
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Masters Level Module – Research Methods
7.1 Introduction
The analysis of captured data is traditionally the final exercise in
producing research results, leaving only their dissemination and
exploitation to complete an entire cycle of the research process. It is
during the analysis phase that the data are translated into information,
and the results are transformed into the findings. However, data analysis
is an integral part of the overall research process, hence it should be
considered as a component of the research rather than an interruption to
or the simple culmination of it.
By this stage of the module, you should be aware that the research
process is cyclical and involves a complexity of feedback and
feedforward relationships. These also manifest themselves via data
analysis in several contexts − research needs are identified as knowledge
needs, to be systematically resolved by the collection of targeted data and
its transformation into information. The resulting information supports or
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challenges the existing field knowledge. It may also extend it, either
qualitatively or quantitatively, thereby extending the knowledge base and
offering the opportunity for the research cycle to recommence.
Activity
Activity
Using your chosen research topic, record your current frame of reference
here, and compare it with your initial frame of reference. How has it
changed in terms of assumptions, boundaries, identified processes,
variables, and theoretical constructs?
In the final data analysis phase, the conceptual frame of reference can be
used to produce templates for the description or explanation of the data
patterns which emerge. These templates will represent the link between
the researcher’s hypothetical conceptual framework and the analysed
findings. They should contain the key concepts which form the
conceptual model and the research question/ hypothesis. These concepts
are usually described in terms of:
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2. processes, which define the nature of operation of the system and the
way in which it changes or operates under change
Looking for instance at (4), the key variables, depending on the style of
conceptual model being used, the explanatory template used for data
analysis may emphasise any or all of the following aspects:
f) any assumptions which are being incorporated into the research design
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Activity
(2) processes
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Further data collection may allow new insights, which in turn lead to the
development of new explanatory templates, and so the process goes on.
Hence the interim assessment of data allows the progression of the
research concepts and makes an important contribution to the overall
research process.
Activity
processes, which define the nature of operation of the system and the way
in which it changes or operates under change
Step 2: Next highlight the data needs and data analysis opportunities
associated with each of these five issues. It is also best to do this
graphically and to use different colours for each issue.
Step 3: For each highlighted part of the diagram, summarise where your
data analysis opportunities lie. By studying the template in detail,
describe what you are trying to establish using the data (for example,
patterns, comparisons, clusters of evidence, identification of inter-
relationships between variables; or new conceptual links).
If any obvious limitations in your data set emerge consider what you can
do about them.
The analysis techniques applied to the data will differ according to the
purpose of the analysis, also whether the data analysis is being carried
out within the terms of a qualitative approach or quantitative approach to
the research. Consider in particular whether you are exploring the data
for trends or emergent theories, or if you expecting to be analysing data
to confirm an existing theory. This distinction is one of exploratory data
collection or confirmatory data collection.
Consider also the issue of data correlation. Think about the way in which
you will make comparisons within the data set. Are you looking, for
instance, at multiple cases with the aims of identifying overall patterns or
to make cross-case comparisons?
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Consider also the specific issue of data overload. Is the amount of data
that you have collected actually required for the purposes of its
originally-intended application? It is quite common for researchers to
generate immense data sets as a precaution against the charge of under-
evidencing their research. This often has the counter-productive effect of
swamping the researcher with data sets that are problematic to assess but
give little or no extra value to the research. This may be an issue of
rigour or simply a problem of scale. Looking carefully at the nature of
limiting assumptions placed on the data collection exercise may reveal a
previously unforeseen distinction between large portions of the data set
characteristics which could give a valuable and sustainable method of
dividing the data to make it more manageable.
Are your data sources multiple or single, and does this create consistency
problems? Data gathered by more than one researcher should be
collected using a very tight procedural and coding design to prevent
differences in the collection or processing of the raw data occurring.
Making the links between the different data sources can be difficult
unless a generic set of criteria can be established for their assessment. If
this was not done at the formative stage of the research then this is going
to be very problematic.
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Internal validity issues can also arise from the inappropriate handling of
the data, such as the scope and scale, the detail of recording of the data
and assumptions used for its collection and processing.
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External validity is a related issue but is concerned with issues which are
out of control of the researcher. For example, the collection of qualitative
case data for an action research project may fail to identify a profoundly
important variable which is affecting the system, resulting either in an
apparently inconsistent effect for the (known) causes, or even over-
attribution of the effect to the planned cause. In a highly-defined research
field with a body of existing data, it may be necessary to demonstrate
statistically that the data is correct and of the appropriate form.
Finally, review the overall ‘correctness’ of the data analysis, which can
be assessed in a number of ways. In attempting to analyse your data,
consider whether the data analysis feels appropriate for the purposes.
Does the proposed fineness of analysis and scale of data correspond with
the rigour of the research methodology and/ or the conceptual detail
underpinning the research question? Are there assumptions in the
research design which affect the validity or reliability of the hypothesis
which the data is being used to test (and therefore the applicability of the
data)? Does the initial analysis match with or contradict the picture in the
mind which you started with? Is the data collection and analysis process
trustworthy and credible?
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Assuming that the data appears superficially to be sound, the next issue
that arises is how to confirm the findings. Miles and Huberman (1994)
provide an excellent and very readable review of verification and
confirmation tests in their book entitled Qualitative Data Analysis: An
Expanded Sourcebook, on which the remainder of this section is based.
They indicate thirteen tools for confirming findings, which tend to
overlap considerably, and we have grouped them together here as six
distinct approaches.
7.5 Representativeness
Is the set of results typical, and does it represent a generalisable finding?
Using a non-representative sample of interviewees or questionnaire
respondents, perhaps because they were easily accessed; generalising
from non-representative events; or drawing inferences from non-
representative processes; each of these could restrict the
representativeness of the findings.
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Secondly, the case being examined can affect the perception of the
researcher. This is a similar phenomenon to that which can occur in
literature reviews, where the first profound document that the researcher
reads can establish a mindset against which other subsequent theories are
compared. The researcher is no longer ‘disinterested’.
7.7 Triangulation
This is the use of an independent means of assessing the findings, in
other words an alternative perspective. The aim is to test whether the
independent measures agree with, or at least do not contradict with the
findings of the research. This is useful for testing whether it is possible to
replicate a finding, for instance by using cross-case analysis, or in
extreme cases by re-running the test completely with new data sources.
This is most relevant in the qualitative approach for the replication of
generalisable, or thematic findings. The Scientific Method applie s this
approach as a common measure for experimental verification.
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which should be given greater weighting: Data which are collected later,
or after repeated contact; that which is seen or reported first hand;
observed behaviour; a field worker whose reports are known to be
trustworthy; information collected in an informal setting; and information
collected from the respondent when they are alone rather than in
company.
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7.11 Summary
This chapter has dealt with designing, conducting and confirming the
analysis of research findings from data analysis. This exercise can occur
and reoccur throughout the research process. Once the final analysis of
results has been made it is next necessary for the research to be reported.
The final chapter of the workbook will deal with writing reports and
disseminating the findings of the research.
PF 7.1
PF 7.2
PF 7.3
How would you deal with a mismatch between the collected data and the
data analysis parameters?
PF 7.4
PF 7.5
PF 7.6
PF 7.7
PF 7.8
What are outliers and how can they affect the research findings?
PF 7.9
PF 7.10
Mark, R., 1996 Research Made Simple: A Handbook for Social Workers.
Sage Publications. ISBN 0-8039-7427-2. Chapter 15 How to Analyze
Data (pp 300 - 321), deals with detailed data handling tools as well as
principles. See also Chapter 16 Statistical Hypothesis Testing (pp 322 -
343); and Appendix C, Presenting Data in Tables and Figures (pp 370 -
374).
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Sapsford, R., Jupp, V., 1996 Data Collection and Analysis Sage
Publications ISBN 0-7619-5046-X. Authoritative.
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