2007-8-30

Vatten(byggnad)

‰ Vätskors egenskaper (1)

‰ Hydrostatik (3)
‰ Grundläggande
ekvationer (5)
‰ Rörströmning (4)

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2. Vätskors egenskaper (1.1, 4.1 och 2.8)

(Föreläsningsanteckningar)

‰ Vätska som kontinuerligt medium

‰ Densitet
‰ Kompressibilitet
‰ Viskositet
‰ Ytspänning, kapillaritet
‰ Övningstal:
Ö B1, B2, B5 och B7

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FLUID AS A CONTINUUM

A fluid is considered to be a continuum in

which
hi h there
h are no h
holes id ⇒
l or voids
velocity, pressure and temperature fields
are continuous.

Validity criteria: Smallest length scale in a

flow >> average spacing between molecules
composing the fluid.

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DENSITY (ρ)
Mass/ unit volume (kg/m3)

Density decreases normally with increasing

temperature
ρwater = ρ(T,S,p)

i.e., dependent on
- Temperature
- Salt content (ρ ≈ 1000 + 0.741⋅S, S in per mille;
S = 3.5% in ocean ⇒ ρ = 1026 kg/m3)
- Pressure (but only a small variability)

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OTHER DEFINITIONS
‰ Weight = mass × gravity acceleration
(W = mg, [N = kg⋅m/s2]) (Eqn. 1.4)

g density
‰ Weight y ((“tunghet”)
g ) ((or specific
p weight)=
g )
density × gravity acceleration
(w = ρg, [N/m3 = kg⋅/(m2s2)]) (Eqn. 1.6)

‰ Specific volume ν = reciprocal of density

(ν = 1/ρ, [m3/kg])

‰ Relative density (or specific gravity)

gravity), ss, is the density
normalized with the density of water at a specific
temperature and pressure (normally 4°C and
atmospheric pressure):

s = R.d. = ρ/ρwater (often = ρ/1000) (Eqn. 1.7)

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Example – density.

The specific weight of water at ordinary

temperature and pressure is 9.81 kN/m3.
The specific gravity of mercury is 13.56.
Compute the density of water and the
specific weight and density of mercury.
mercury

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COMPRESSIBILITY

All fluids can be compressed by application of

pressure ⇒ elastic energy being stored

Modulus of elasticity (“elastitetsmodul”)

describes the compressibility properties of
the fluid and is defined on the basis of
volume

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Modulus of elasticity:

E = -dp/(dV/V1) [Pa]

For liquids, region of engineering interest is when V/V1 ∼ 1 ⇒

ΔV Δp
≈−
V E
Ewater ~ 2⋅109 Pa (function of temperature)

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B1 What pressure must be applied

to water to reduce its volume 1 % ?

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Example – compressibility.

At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8

MPa. Assume that the specific weight of sea water
at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3 and that the average
volume modulus of elasticity is 2.34*109 N/m2 for
the pressure range.

A) What will be the change in specific volume

b t
between that
th t att the
th surface
f andd att th
thatt d
depth?
th?
B) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
C) What will be the specific weight at that depth?

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IDEAL FLUID
A fluid in which there is no friction

REAL FLUID
A fluid in which shearing forces always
exist whenever motion takes place due
to the fluid’s inner friction – viscosity.

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VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s “inner
friction” or resistance to shear stress.
friction

It arises from the interaction and cohesion of

fluid molecules.

All fluids posses viscosity, but to a varying

degree. For instance, syrup has a considerably
higher viscosity than water.

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DEFINITION OF DYNAMIC VISCOSITY - μ

Shearing of thin fluid film between two plates. The

upper plate has an area A.

Experiments have shown that for a large number of

fluids:
F ~ AV/h (if V and h not too large)

Linear velocity profile ⇒ V/h = dv/dy

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Introduction of the proportionality constant μ,

named dynamic viscosity, gives Newton’s
viscosity law shear force (“skjuvspänning”):

F V dv
τ= =μ =μ (Eqn 4.1-4.2)
(Eqn. 4 1 4 2) N/m2
A h dy

μ [Pa⋅s or kg/ms] - Dynamic viscosity

ν = μ/ρ [m2/s] - Kinematic viscosity

No-slip condition – water particles adjacent to

solid boundary has zero velocity (observational
fact)
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μ (Pa
(Pa·s)
s)

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Implication of viscosity: a fluid cannot

sustain a shear stress without deformation

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Implications of Newton’s law:

• τ, μ independent of pressure (in contrast
to solids)
• no velocity gradient ⇒ no shear stress

Restriction of Newton’s law:

• law only valid if the fluid flow is laminar
in which viscous action is strong

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‰ Laminar flow: smooth, orderly motion in

which fluid elements appears to slide over
each other in layers (little exchange
b t
between llayers).
)
‰ Turbulent flow: random or chaotic motion of
individual fluid particles, and rapid mixing
and exchange of these particles through the
flow

Turbulent flow is most common in nature.

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Newtonian – non-Newtonian fluids

Examples non-Newtonian fluids:
Plastics, blood, suspensions, paints, foods

Shear vs. rate of strain re-

lations for non-Newtonian
fluids:

Bingham plastic

du
τ −τ = μ , τ >τ
i dy i

n>1: Shear
Shear-thickening
thickening fluid,
n<1: Shear-thinning fluid

du n
τ = μ( )
dy

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Example – viscosity.

A space, 3 cm wide,
id between
b t two
t plane
l
horizontal surfaces is filled with SAE 30
Western lubricating oil at 20°°C. What
force is required to drag a very thin plate
of 1 m2 area through the oil at a velocity
of 0
0.1
1 m/s if the plate is 1 cm from one
surface?

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B2 A very large thin plate is centred in a

gap of width 0.06 m with different oils of
unknown viscosities above and below;
one viscosity is twice the other. When the
plate is pulled at a velocity of 0.3 m/s, the
resulting force on one square meter of
plate due to the viscous shear on both
sides is 29 N
N. Assuming viscous flow
flow, and
neglecting all end effects, calculate the
viscosities of the oils.

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B5* A circular disc of diameter d is slowly

rotated in a liquid of large viscosity m at a
small distance h from a fixed surface. Derive
an expression for the torque T necessary to
maintain an angular velocity ω . Neglect
centrifugal effects.

(Torque = rotational
(T t ti l fforce, T = F · r
angular velocity ω = V/r)

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SURFACE TENSION (“ytspänning”),

CAPILLARITY
Surface tension effects occur at liquid surfaces
(interfaces of liquid-liquid, liquid-gas, liquid-
solid).

Surface tension effects are often negligible in

engineering problems. Exceptions:
1. Bubble formation
2. Capillary rise of liquids in narrow spaces
3. Break-up of liquid drops
4. Formation of liquid drops
5. Investigations using small physical models

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‰ Surface tension, σ [N/m], is thought of as a molecular

force in the liquid surface.
‰ Surface tension decreases with temperature
p and is
dependent on the contact fluid (surface tension
usually quoted in contact with air).
‰ The surface tension force will support small loads if
liquid surface is curved.

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Implications of surface tension

1) Capillary rise/drop

Contact angle θ between glass

and water
water. Vertical force balance
between surface tension force
and weight of water column
gives

σ · 2π r · cosθ = ρ g · h · π r2 →

h = (2 σ · cosθ)/ (ρ g · r)

(valid if r<2.5 mm)

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Angle of contact θ

θ depends on relation between cohesive and adhesive forces.

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2) For spherical droplet

Balance between internal

pressure force and surface
tension force:

p · πR2 = 2πR · σ →

p = 2 · σ /R

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3) For bubble

Balance between internal

pressure force and surface
tension force:

p · πR2 =2 · 2πR · σ →

p = 4 · σ /R

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Measurement of surface tension

F = 2σπD ⇒ σ = F/(2πD)

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B7 Calculate the maximum capillary

rise of water (T = 20°C) to be expected
in a vertical glass tube, diameter 1
mm.

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Tal – Delprov 1, 010921

En insekt hålls uppe på ytan

av en damm av ytspänningen
(vattnet väter inte insektens
ben), se Figur. Insekten har
sex ben och varje ben är i
kontakt med vattnet över en
längd av 5 mm. Vad är den
maximala massan (i gram) för
insekten om den skall undvika
att sjunka? Ytspänningen för
dammens vatten är 0.0728
N/m.

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