CAHPTER 2

LITERATURE VIEW

2.1 Introduction

In general, a lot of ways can be used the incinerator ashes in construction

industries such as concrete fillers, aggregate or admixture according to (Tyrer, 2013). And
several researchers have been carried out studies on the use of incinerator ash in several
engineering application such as partial replacement as cement and fine aggregate (Al-
Rawas. et,al, 2004), soil stabilizing agent (Ferguson, 1993), and as aggregate supersede
in roads and highway construction (Gress, 1992). Using incinerator ashes as a partial
replacement in cement will improve the workability and the performance in concrete
significantly (Al-Rawas. et,al, 2004) especially when be replace the cement by 20% of
incinerator ashes the compressive strength after 28 days of curing will significantly be
more compare it with the control mix and when replace it by fine aggregate for more than
10% will be increasing slightly to reach the maximum strength for 40% is 35.2MPa.

For all levels of OPC substitution, particularly for the 15%, the RHA concrete
accomplished predominant execution in the mechanical and toughness tests contrasted
and the reference blend. The workability of the solid, be that as it may, was decreased
with the expansion of cement substitution into RHA. Therefore, four different concretes
contriving different percentages of RHA were produced with 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, of
the cement (by mass) replaced by ultrafine RHA. For these mixtures, rheological,
mechanical and durability tests were performed
 Rice husk ash remains has been created in extensive amounts in rice delivering
nations. This result can contain non-crystalline silica and along these lines has a high
potential to be utilized as OPC substitution in mortar and concrete. Nonetheless, as the
RHA delivered by uncontrolled consuming conditions as a rule contains high-carbon
content in its arrangement, the pozzolanic action of the ash and the rheology of concrete
can be unfavorably affect

2.2 Concrete

Concrete is the most commonly used man-made construction material. It has

become very popular not only among civil engineers but among common people also. The
basic ingredients to produce or make concrete are cement, water, coarse and fine
aggregates mixed together. This ingredients or material is mixed in measured amounts to
make concrete easy to transport, place, compact, and finish a concrete mix. Only fresh
water is used in larger amounts, and this is very often because it is wasted. Although the
two words concrete and cement are used interchangeably, cement is actually one of the
ingredients in concrete. It is the fine gray powder that, in combination with 7 water, binds
sand and gravel or crushed stone into the rocklike mass known as concrete. Therefore,
cement constitutes only 10-15% by weight of concrete’s total mass, cement is the essential
binding agent in concrete.

2.2.1 Concrete constituents

Concrete is the main component in the construction industry. The composition of

concrete consists of cement, water, and aggregates. The aggregates are divided into two
that are fine aggregates and coarse aggregates. The other material replacement is added
into the concrete mix to enhance the properties of concrete.

2.2.1.1 Cement

There are numerous sorts of cement accessible for making concrete. A few nations
have a national standard, for this research, Phoenix Portland Composite Cement was used
which is one of the basic components of concrete. this type of cement considers as the
common type of cement due to is the most used for the building around the world.
However, Portland cement consist of four ingredients which is silica, alumina, iron and
calcium

Additionally, Phoenix is the first Green Label Cement in Malaysia and is

appropriate for all broadly useful utilization. Phoenix have got many good advantages,
for example, enhancing similarity, enhancing cohesiveness, enhancing board life,
wealthier blend enhances surface complete, and decreases dying

2.2.1.2 Aggregates

Generally, aggregate is more important for a good concrete and it could be caused
for deterioration the concrete. The aggregate ingredients of a mix concrete are around 60
to 75 percentage of a total concrete volume. Coarse aggregate is any type of particles that
not exceed 0.19 inch. aggregate should be delivered separately to coarse and fine and its
expensive then the natural in aggregate (Mindess, 2005).

Aggregates are blended into cement, sand and water to control shrinkage of
concrete, lessen heat amid hydration process and creates solid which is reasonable for its
use other than diminishing expense. In any case, The workability of the concrete compares
to the size and the state of the aggregates. The shape and surface of the fine totals
influenced just workability in the meantime the qualities of the coarse aggregates
influence the mechanical properties of concrete by influencing the mechanical bond
2.2.1.1.3 Water

The amount of water in concrete mix controls numerous fresh and solidified
properties in concrete including workability, compressive qualities, porousness and water
tightness, sturdiness and weathering, drying shrinkage and potential for cracking.
Therefore, constraining and controlling the measure of water in concrete is essential for
both constructability and administration life.

Water is required to wet the surface of totals to create glue quality as the concrete
glue ties rapidly and attractively to the wet surface of the totals than to a dry surface.
Additionally, water is expected to make plastic blend of the different fixings in order to
grant workability to cement to encourage putting it in the coveted position. At last, by
artificially responding with bond, water delivers the coveted properties of the concert
(Mindess, 2005).

2.3. Replacement Cement Material

Replacement cement material is currently being used in the production of

concrete. The replacement cement material is such as fly ash, silica fume and rice husk
ash (RHA). This cement replacement can enhance the strength and properties of the
concrete.

2.3.1 Fly Ash

Fly ash debris is one of the rural squanders that appropriate as concrete substitution
materials. Fly ash remains or pummeled fuel slag (PFA) is acquired from the ignition of
pounded coal gathered by mechanical electrostatic separators from the vent gases of
energy plants (Salihuddin, 1991).

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 Fly ash should consist mainly of alumina and silica and in a percentage higher
than 70% (Siddique 2003), class F fly ash is the one used in this project because it consists
of the requirement. An official letter from the school of Environmental Engineering was
taken to TNB power plant industry in Perak and the total amount of 40 kg was collected
for the project There are many researches that has been done in the uses of fly ash as the
partially cement replacement in concrete mix. Fly ash particle is generally spherical in
shape and range in size from 1.0 µm – 150 µm that largely determined by the type of dust
collection equipment use (Tangchirapat et al., 2009).

2.3.1.2 Silica Fumes

Silica fume is a result of delivering silicon metal or ferrosilicon compounds that

gainful to utilize together with bond in concrete. Silica seethe comprise of very nebulous
silicon dioxide (SiO₂) content that make it super pozzolanic material and it is greatly
fineness to be supplant with concrete. Concrete containing silica smoke can enhance in
compressive and bond quality, grating protection and strength. The concoction piece of
silica smolder relies upon the organization of crude material item being made by the
heater. The creation of silica smoke or amalgam gives the very of silica content which is
can be over 80% ().
Concrete with silica fume upgraded the mechanical properties of solidified
cconcrete. With the expansion of silica fume, the droop of the concrete will increment as
the expanding in silica fumecontent because of the huge surface region in the concrete
blend. Compressive quality of concrete contained silica fume relies upon the pozzolanic
properties of it which is begin impact the quality of cement after the a large portion of
pozzolanic action respond amid the 3 days to 28 day of curing period (). The plan of the
help structure can be littler than the typical size as a result of the expanding of cement
compressive quality with silica content.

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2.3.1.3 RHA

Rice husk are the by-products of rice paddy milling industries and known to have
high potential as a cementitious material in concrete due to its highly amorphous silica
content as high as 85% to 97% of the ash (Yamato, 1982). The combustion of rice husk
produces the Rice Husk Ash (RHA) that has high reactivity and pozzolanic property.
Chemical compositions of RHA are affected due to burning process and temperature.
Silica content in the ash is depending on the burning process which it will increase with
higher the burning temperature. RHA is found to be containing 90 – 95% SiO₂, 1 – 3%
K₂O and less than 5% un-burnt carbon by burning it with temperature between 600 –
700°C for 2 hours (Hwang, 1989).

So, use of RHA with cement in concrete improves workability and strength,
reduces heat evolution, thermal cracking and plastic shrinkage. The increase in strength
development, permeability and durability, modifying the pore structure and blocking the
large voids in the hydrated cement paste is due to the pozzolanic reaction in the RHA
(Metha, 1992).

Burning Process of Rice Husk

As specified over the nature of rice husk is extraordinarily reliant upon the
sort of combustion procedure experienced. Diverse kinds of burning are done, which are
detailed as follows:

Open – Field Burning

This method is carried under uncontrolled temperature of combustion in an open area in
order to produce rice husk ashes. A structure of crystalline is made when using this
method of burning which is of lower reactivity.

Fluidized -Bed Furnace Burning

Contrary to the open burning this method is burnt in a controlled temperate of burning the
rice husk to produce the ashes out of it. The combustion heat of rice husk is used for the
generation of electricity.

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The controlled activity is done by keeping up the time - temperature parameter. A burning
temperature between 500 to 700 degrees Celsius. This is done for a more drawn out time
with the goal that entire expulsion of the carbon is taken. Or on the other hand the
temperature is expanded from 700 to 800 degrees Celsius for a period of 1 minute.

The fluidized bed heater technique created rice husk powder have 80 – 95% of silicon
dioxide, 1-2% of K2O and 3-18% of unburned carbon. The rice husk slag created by this
strategy have a higher cell structure.

Industrial Furnace
This technique is advanced to encourage natural and financial reasons. The
productivity of burning would raise a silica dioxide in the scope of 90 – 95%. This strategy
helps in delivering the rice husk slag with indistinct silica and cell structure items in a
simpler way. The rice husk ash remains created by this strategy is very pozzolanic.

2.3.2 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Fresh concrete is concrete at the mixing stage that it can be transported, placed,
compacted and finished without harmful segregation. A proper mix should maintain its
uniformity inside the forms and avoid the excess in bleeding. The adequate strength can
be ensured by setting the concrete within a reasonable amount of time and hydrate in a
right manner (Somayaji, 2001). The properties of fresh concrete such as the workability,
the setting time of concrete, segregation and bleeding are very important properties as it
will affect the properties of the hardened concrete’s performance.

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2.3.2.1 Workability

Workability is defined as property determining the effort required to placing,

compacting and finishing a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum loss of
homogeneity such as bleeding and segregation (Metha and Monteiro, 2006). Workability
depends on water content, aggregate, cementitious content and level of hydration
and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. The test to
measure the workability of concrete is slump test by following the BS 1881- 102: 1983
Method for determination of slump.

2.3.2.2 Setting of Concrete

Setting of concrete is the stage of concrete hardening before its hydration. It is

based to the setting of cement paste that greatly affect the setting time (Somayaji, 2001).
The paste would lose it fluidity few hours after mixing of cement and water. It could be
divided into two stages which is the initial set and the final set. The initial setting time is
not less than 45 minutes after water is poured into the mix while final setting time occurs
not more than 10 hours. The hydration process continues inside the core of concrete
during the final setting time.

2.3.2.2 Segregation

As indicated by ASTM C1712-09, segregation in concrete is a division of some

size of aggregates from bond. It could occur because of inner and outer elements. The
inward factor, for example, concrete not legitimately proportioned or not blended enough
while the outside figure, for example, overabundance vibration, inappropriate
transportation and position or unfriendly climate conditions. The homogeneous blends of
the solid material deliver a decent and better nature of cement. The isolation will diminish
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the compressive quality of the solid and makes it be less strong.

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2.3.2.4 Bleeding

Bleeding is a type of isolation where a portion of the water in the concrete tends
to ascend to the surface of the newly set material. This is because of the powerlessness of
the strong segments of the concrete to hold the majority of the blending water when they
settle downwards where water being the lightest of all the blend constituents. As indicated
by the Concrete Society, seeping of the water proceeds until the point that the bond glue
has sufficiently hardened to end the sedimentation procedure.

Overabundance bleeding could make hurtful impacts to the concrete. The

untimely completing is the reason of the draining that prompt loss of some entrained air,
presented the concrete to surface splits, and the evacuate the surface layer in concrete
sections. This could be occur by the weight produced when the water in pores weight
solidifies. (Somayaji, 2007)

2.3.3 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Hardened concrete is the remainder of the life of the structure where the property
of the concrete contributes to the service life of the whole structure. Properties of hardened
concrete are such as compressive strength, durability and creep.

2.4 characteristics of RHA concrete

Rice husk ash is found to be superior to other supplementary materials like silica
fume and fly ash. The both strength and durability of concrete are increase because of the
high pozzolanic properties of RHA. The quality of ash is influenced by its method of
production. The addition of RHA in the concrete will increase in the properties of
concrete. Table 2.0 shows the physical and chemical properties of the RHA from the
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previous research with the amount of SiO₂ of 88.32% which consider high pozzolanic and
with particle size of 12.34µm.

Table 2.0: Physical and chemical properties of RHA (Emphraim et.al, 2012)
Properties RHA
Physical properties
Mean particle size (µm) 12.34
Specific surface (m²/kg) 16196
Specific gravity (g/cm³) 2.11
Chemical properties (wt %)
CaO 0.60
SiO₂ 88.32
Al₂O₃ 0.46
Fe₂O₃ 0.67
MgO 0.44
NaO₃ 0.12
K₂O 2.91
LOI 5.81

2.4.1 Workability of concrete

According to (Zhang, 1996) 10% is an optimum value of RHA replacement

because the workability decreased with increasing quantity of RHA and it is necessary to
increase the amount of superplasticizer. Due to the technical and economical reason,
current research used 10% of RHA ashes as an optimum percentage of Portland cement
replacement as a standard for the second stage of the current research that compared fresh,
mechanical and durability properties of high performance concretes.

Permeability and corrosion protection

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Water is essential constituent of concrete preparation. When concrete is hardened, part of
the entrapped water in the concrete mass is consumed by cement mineralogy for
hydration. Some part of entrapped water evaporates, thus leaving porous channel to the
extent of volume occupied by the water. Some part of this porous volume is filled by the
hydrated products of the cement paste. The remaining part of the voids consists capillary
voids and gives way for ingress of water. Similarly, the liberated lime by hydration of
cement is water-soluble and is leached out from hardened concrete mass, leaving capillary
voids for the ingress of water. Higher the water cement ratio, higher will be the porosity
and thus higher will be the permeability. The permeability makes the ingress of moisture
and air easy and is the cause for corrosion of reinforcement. Higher permeability
facilitates ingress of chloride ions into concrete and is the main cause for initiation of
chloride induced corrosion. Additional cementitious material results from reaction
between liberated surplus lime and fly ash, blocks these capillary voids and also reduces
the risk of leaching of surplus free lime and thereby reduces permeability of concrete
(Mehta, 2004).

Compressive Characteristics

According to (Haque,2013), the study presents an experimental study on self-

compacting concrete (SCC). The obtained values of concrete compressive strength
according to the different used percentage of FA cement content are shown in the figure.
In type I (with FA) the higher the percentage of FA the higher the values of compressive
strength until 30% of FA, after that the increase in the percentage of FA lead to decrease
in values of concrete compressive strength as stated in Figure 2.3 below.

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Figure 2.3: Compressive strength for type I: (a) cement content = 550 kg/m3 ; (b) cement
content = 450 kg/m3 (Haque 2013) .

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