Carpentry in Poland in The Past and Today

Introduction 4
1. Carpentry - characteristics 6
1.1 Scope of carpentry works 6
1.2 Outline of the history of carpentry 6
1.3 Characteristics of wooden structures 8
2. Breakdown and general characteristics of building materials 9
2.1 Types of building materials 9
2.2. Properties of building materials 10
2.2.1 General information 10
2.2.2. Density, tightness, porosity 11
2.2.3 Absorption, sorption, hygroscopicity and permeability 11
2.2.4 Thermal properties 12
2.2.5 Gas permeability 13
2.2.6. Sound absorption and sound conductivity 13
2.2.7. Mechanical properties 14
3. Wooden walls and ceilings 15
3.1 General information 15
3.2 Tie-beam walls 17
3.3 Framework walls 18
3.3.2 Vertical-post log walls 18
3.3.3. Timber framing 19
3.3.4 Beam walls 20
3.3.5 Plank walls 21
3.3.6. Formworks 22
3.3.7 Insulation fillings 23
3.4. Partition walls 25
3.5. Wooden ceilings 26
3.5.1. Positioning of floor beams 26
3.5.2. Backing the floor beams against the walls 27
3.5.3. Anchoring floor beams 27
3.5.4. Types of wooden ceilings 28
3.6 Installation of walls and ceilings 30
3.6.2 Installation of walls 30
3. 6.3. Floor installation 31
3.6.4 Laying floors 33
3.6.5 Installation of partition walls 35
4. Girders and beams 36
4.1 Roof Components 36
4.2. Multi-compartment roof trusses 40
4.2.1. Types of girders 40
4.2.2. Rafter system 40
4.2.3 Collar system 42
4.2.4. Rafter-purlin system 44
4.2.5 Hanging beams 46
4.3. Multi-roof roofs 47
4.4. Smokes 48
4.6. Climbing and roofing 49
4.7. Making a roof truss 51
4.8. Roof girders 53
4.8.1. Beam full girders 54
4.8.2. Beam lattice girders 57
4.8.4. Installation of girders 59
4.8.5. Framework 59
5. Roof wall and roof elements in wooden system construction 59
5.1. General news 59
5.2. DK systems 60
5.3. DK system 61
5.4. Curtain walls and lightweight shelters 61
5.5. Securing buildings against moisture 63
5.6. Transport, storage and assembly 64
6. Carpentry works related to the development of the construction site 65
6.1. General news 65
6.2. Equipment and auxiliary equipment 66
6.3. Fences 67
6.4. Temporary buildings 68
6.5. Warm casings 72
6.6. Storage of building materials 72
6.7. Operation of the construction site 74
Bibliography 75
Introduction
Out of the possible types of construction works, carpentry has the longest tradition in
Poland. That fact is proven by numerous excavations and wooden monuments still to this day
preserved on the Polish soil. They constitute a proof not only of the high level of Polish
carpentry but also allow to trace the development of folk art.
Currently, although wood-based construction works are being replaced by masonry,
reinforced concrete and steel, the importance of carpentry has not diminished. Carpenters
typically make up about 25% of constructions crews and accompany the works from the
outset, until the very end.
Carpenters manage construction sites, erect fences, temporary buildings, build
construction equipment, scaffoldings and create forms to be filled by bricklayers and concrete
workers, construct wooden elements of a building, such as: roof structures, flooring, and
lastly, dismantle temporary construction equipment.
Such importance of carpentry provides quite a challenge for carpenters who are faced
with crucial tasks, which need to be fulfilled in order to allow for a faster, fuller and better
implementation of economic plans.
The basic prerequisite for the proper performance of the works is adequate selection
of appropriate material. For instance, a roof support column cannot be made of a mouldy,
paper thin round log. The carpenter shall not cut 6 m and 20 cm long boards in order to
construct layers for formwork, when such layers should measure precisely 5 cm by 30 cm.
The carpenter always makes sure that material of appropriate quality and size is used
in order to create the necessary part of the structure (the element). That is why each carpenter
must be thoroughly familiar with the properties and range of materials used in his field of
work.
For carpenters, the basic material is wood. It is used both raw, i.e. in a so-called
rounded state, as well as after being sawn. For carpentry work with sawn wood, the tool of
the trade is the so-called sawn timber with even surfaces on all four sides.
It is made of coniferous trees such as pine, fir and spruce. In special cases, oak wood
is used for manufacturing of certain small parts. Sawn timber can be categorized into one of
the six following categories, depending on its size:
● boards which are 13-45 mm thick and at least 10 cm wide and 40 cm long,
● logs which are thicker than boards, ranging from 50 to 100 mm,
● battens with dimensions ranging from 13 to 25 mm to 29 to 90 mm
● patches with a profile of 32-50 mm up to 76-140 mm.
● planks 10 by 10 cm to 18 by 18 cm in cross-section and length of at least 2.5 m,
● beams with a profile of 12 by 20 cm to 22 by 26 cm and a length of 3 m and more.
Carpenters also use so-called "lining boards" for works of lesser importance, which
are a waste product of cutting round logs into sawn timber.
Building nails most often used for joining wood are round or square, including in
addition clamps. various shapes of ferrules and shackles, made by a blacksmith. Often, the
wood joints are reinforced with square or hexagonal screws. Thin boards are sometimes fixed
using flat head screws.
For joining complex wooden structures, most often used elements include round steel
bolts or pipes and special metal inserts, as well as smooth or toothed rings. In order to ensure
a more reliable wood denting, the round or square inserts are made in the shape of a spikey
diaphragm.
Adhesives are currently used to join wood in carpentry structures. Hot-soluble
adhesives are used and are generally supplied in the form of hard plates or cold adhesives,
supplied in powder form.
It is a well known fact that wood is easily damaged by moisture. In order to protect it
from damage, wood can be saturated with various chemical substances.
These products can be categorised into oily, salt and paste products. Oily agents are
dense yellow, brown or black liquids with a pungent odour. They are stored in glass bottles or
metal barrels.
Salts are usually supplied as powder or crystal form, packed in paper bags or boxes or
in wooden barrels or boxes. Paste is delivered in metal or cardboard boxes.
In addition, insulating materials are used in the construction of wooden buildings.
Wood is insulated from moisture by laying tar paper (o.r. cardboard soaked in tar or asphalt)
underneath it, where it is in direct contact with a wall or concrete. Tar paper made with the
use of asphalt is referred to as roofing felt. Wood in direct contact with the ground or water is
often insulated by means of tar coating.
In order to insulate a building, walls are covered with pressed straw or cane insulation
boards, wood chipboards pressed and bonded with cement, fibre boards, etc.
In Poland, fibreboards are manufactured in two grades. These include porous boards
and hard boards. Porous boards resemble cardboard board in which wood particles are clearly
visible.
Hard boards are thinner and harder, usually brown or creamy in colour. Thermal
backfill from broken slag, peat powder, sawdust, glass or slag wool are also used. These types
of wool resemble white or slightly yellowish wadding with 0,3-0,4 mm thick fibres and a
width of 4-6 mm.
Wood is protected against fire by covering it with sheet metal, sheathing with
asbestos-cement boards, asbestos or by coating it with special liquid glass paints or various
solutions of fire protective salts.1
1. Carpentry - characteristics
1.1 Scope of carpentry works
The main carpentry work consists in erecting entire buildings buildings or their
elements out of wood. These works include: buildings, bridges, towers, fences, containers
and many other structures, as well as other wooden elements of buildings made out of other
materials: roof trusses, ceilings, stairs, floors and panelling in buildings, linings, bridges and
balustrades in reinforced concrete tanks, etc.
In addition, carpentry includes the construction of auxiliary structures, such as
scaffoldings, formworks and site management elements, which enable the construction of
permanent structures.
The decay of massive erection of wooden buildings has determined caused the
carpentry market shift towards service works, which involve carpenters operating not only
with wood, but also with other materials, for example scaffolding and metal formworks.
1.2 Outline of the history of carpentry
The former abundance of forests, providing easy to process pine, spruce and once also
larch wood, has contributed to the spread of wood construction in the temperate climate
regions of Europe and America. Even fortified settlements were built from wooden trunks.
As early as 19th Century, buildings made only out of wood were built in towns and
cities, while ceilings, roof trusses and stairs in brick buildings were made out of wood until
World War II. Wood was also used in industrial and transport construction.
Under these conditions, the craftsmanship of carpentry has already achieved a high
level in very ancient times. Numerous archaeological discoveries indicate the skilful use of
wood in buildings.
Wall structures of residential buildings from the early years of history do not differ
from the solutions used to this day. At the time, tie-beam walls made out of of round logs and
1 F. Krzysik, Nauka o drewnie, Warszawa 1975, p. 42.

joined together at notch corners by carpentry joints have already been known. Vertical post-
log walls were also built.
Farm buildings often had rocky wooden walls filled with braided wicker or clay-
bonded branches. The buildings of that period had a floor made of split boards, nailed to
round beams. The presented constructions have also been found in buildings from the Middle
Ages and even in modern times.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, mixed structures became widespread. The ground
floors of the buildings were made of brick, while the floors were made of wood. Timber
framing, i.e. a wooden framework filled with brick, was also becoming widely used. Roofs,
stairs, ceilings, galleries and bay windows were made of wood in brick buildings.
In addition to buildings, many other constructions were made of wood. It is proven by
the fact that, during the reign of Casimir the Great, mining carpenters, for instance, were
already known.
The level of carpentry in Poland at the end of the 18th century is evidenced by a
record made by a French MP from that period. It contains information on transporting
elements of finished wooden houses to Warsaw via the Vistula River. The houses were later
assembled within a week.
At the turn of the 20th century, Polish artists became interested in wooden
constructions. At that time, designs of buildings by Stanisław Witkiewicz were created,
modelled on the basis of folk motifs. Today, they constitute valuable monuments.
The shortage of wood resulting from the destruction of forests by wars and irrational
economy, as well as lack of immunity to fire, limit the scope of application of wood.
Currently, wood is used as a building material only in countries which are rich in forests, such
as Russia, the USA, Sweden and Canada.
Nevertheless, wood is still used in modern solutions, especially in agricultural
buildings, as well as in facilities for the chemical industry, where the resistance of wood to
aggressive chemicals is of great importance.
In Poland, the construction of structures which require large amounts of wood is
limited, e.g. erecting tie-beam walls. On the other hand, modern glued constructions are being
introduced.
Wood is used for curtain wall frameworks, interior decorations, etc. In particular,
wood is still the basic material for temporary buildings and auxiliary structures such as
scaffoldings and formworks.
1.3 Characteristics of wooden structures
Wooden buildings have many valuable advantages. First of all, they are said to be
warm, which is a result of good insulating properties of wooden partitions. A 13 cm thick
wooden wall corresponds to a 51 cm thick solid brick wall in terms of thermal conductivity.
Wooden buildings can be built quickly and during any time of the year. Unlike brick
and concrete buildings, they do not require drying before they can be put into service. As
residential buildings, they are much better in terms of health than other materials because
they are radiation-free and maintain a better microclimate. Without disturbing radio and
television reception (as is the case with ferroconcrete buildings), they are also often of great
aesthetic value.
Wooden buildings are lightweight, therefore they do not require costly solid
foundations. Transport and labour costs in wood construction industry are lower than in other
types of construction.
In addition to these advantages, wooden buildings also have a number of
disadvantages, which significantly limit their use. The most important of them is
flammability. Other disadvantages include the low moisture resistance of wood, which makes
it susceptible to harmful fungi and insects, and the high shrinkage of wood due to drying.
Additionally, eradicating nested insects is also particularly difficult in wooden buildings.
The aforementioned disadvantages of wooden buildings can be reduced by painting
the building with a fire protection agent, plastering the wooden partitions, using cladding or
saturating the wood with chemical salt preparations, which significantly reduce flammability
and susceptibility to decay. Even in case of using best protection, wood does not achieve the
durability of natural or artificial stone.
Other wooden constructions have the same advantages and disadvantages as
buildings. Segments of wooden constructions which are exposed to frequent changes in
humidity tend to decay the quickest.
For instance, a column protruding from water is susceptible to faster biological
erosion in the area where air and water meet, while a column installed in the ground is
quickly destroyed over the entire section below ground level. Wooden elements which are
permanently protected against dampness or remain permanently underwater can last even
several hundred years.
In Poland, hardly any wood constructions are erected anymore, except for summer
cottages. Wood is used only for making smaller constructions, such as fences, information
board posts and playgrounds. On the other hand, timber is used in mass quantities for
applications where no other material with equivalent properties has yet been found.
Take railway sleepers for instance, concrete sleepers do not have the same elasticity as
wooden sleepers and do not provide proper driving comfort. Similarly, power poles made of
concrete are heavier and therefore more difficult to distribute and erect than wooden ones,
and more difficult to climb in case of need of cable repair.
2. Breakdown and general characteristics of building materials
2.1 Types of building materials
Building materials can be classified according to the following criteria: Breakdown by

origin is most commonly used. In this respect, a distinction is made between the following
types of materials:
● mineral of natural origin: natural stones, gravels and sands,
● mineral of artificial origin: this group includes building ceramics (bricks, hollow
bricks, ceramic tiles, etc.), metals (steel and non-ferrous metals), glass and also
gravel, grits and mineral powder, stones, slags, etc., separate subgroups consist in
mineral binding materials: cement, lime and plaster, and mineral mixtures: mortars
and concrete,
● of organic origin, this group includes: wood and wood-based materials, as well as
reeds, straw, peat, varnish and other, separate sub-groups are bituminous materials:
tar, asphalt and cotyledons, as well as materials produced on the basis of synthetic
resins: plastics, paints, adhesives and impregnates.
In terms of application, a distinction can be made between wall, ceiling, roof,
insulation, finishing, road, etc. materials.
Depending on the production technology, the materials can be classified in the
following groups:
● materials to be extracted or extracted, such as sand, gravel slag or soil for
embankments,
● raw materials which need to be extracted or sourced and then treated in order to give
their surface a necessary shape and look,
● materials resulting from single technological processing of raw materials: ceramic
products, adhesives, wood-based materials,
● materials requiring two technological processes, which include mainly mixtures
obtained from artificial materials such as mineral (mortars, concretes) or
combinations of various materials such as reinforced concrete or carpentry panels.:2
2.2. Properties of building materials
2.2.1 General information
Each material has its own specific physical and chemical properties. Physical
properties can be divided into external properties, which can be determined by sight and
touch, such as: colour, shape, texture of the external surface and breakthrough, drawing of
e.g. wood graining or distribution of minerals in natural stone, as well as internal properties,
which require measurements with various instruments to be made in order to be determined.
These include: density, apparent density, tightness, porosity, absorbability, sorption,
humidity, thermal expansion, gas permeability, thermal conductivity, thermal capacity,
shrinkage, sound absorption, sound conductivity, and certain material-specific properties such
as adhesion of glues, paint coverage and more.
A separate group of physical properties are mechanical properties, which require
testing by appropriate standards in order to be determined. These include mainly the
compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength and shear strength, as well as
elasticity, ductility, impact strength, hardness and other properties specified for certain
materials.
Similarly, chemical properties are defined by standardised tests. The most important
of these are the chemical composition of the material, its resistance to acids and alkalis,
flammability and type and degree of contamination.3
2.2.2. Density, tightness, porosity
Density is the ratio of the mass of a material sample to its absolute volume, i.e.
without pores. The density of wood is approx. 1500 kg per cubic metre, steel 7850 kg per
cubic metre, stone approx. 2600 kg per cubic metre.
2 Budownictwo betonowe, vol 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa 1968, p. 23.

3 F. Kopkowicz , Ciesielstwo polskie, Warszawa 1985, p. 26.
The apparent density is the ratio of the mass of the sample to its volume without
deducting pores. It depends on the structure of the test material. The more porous the material
is, the lower its density.
The structure of a material also determines its tightness, expressed as the ratio of
apparent density to specific mass and porosity, measured as the percentage of free cavity in a
given material. The porosity of scale and glass is 0%, and the material in insulation reaches
up to 90%.4
2.2.3 Absorption, sorption, hygroscopicity and permeability
Water has a very significant effect on the durability of materials and can change their
properties. Therefore, an important feature of the material is the absorbability measured by
the amount of water in relation to the volume or mass of the material. Absorbability is
expressed as a percentage. Building materials have absorbability of 0 to 200 and more %.
The ability to quickly absorb water vapour from the air and fill pores with water is
called hygroscopicity. By filling the capillaries of material, water causes them to expand
them, thus consequently making the material expand. When water evaporates, the material
shrinks. This phenomenon can be observed in wood, plaster, concrete and other materials.
If open capillaries of the material are in direct contact with water, the phenomenon of
capillarity occurs, i.e. the water in the capillaries is pulled up well above the level of water
with which it is in contact. The phenomenon of capillary rising of water is observed in walls
without damp insulation, which as a result may become damp even up to the level of the first
floor of the building.
Material moisture under certain conditions is defined as the moisture content of the
material. It is measured by the weight of water taken up by the test material and raised to its
mass in a dry state.
Wood moisture ranges from just a few to more than 30 percent.
Moisture is not a property, i.e. it does not constitute a constant feature of the material,
but rather a condition which depends on the external factors mentioned above. Moisture
measurements are important for many materials to be used in construction, insulation,
finishing, etc., for example, wood with high moisture levels is not suitable for building
structures or flooring.
4 Otwarty system szkieletowy z drewna klejonego dla budownictwa ogólnego, Centralny Ośrodek Badawczy
Budownictwa Ogólnego, Warszawa 1980, p. 38.
Wood moisture is usually determined by two methods: dry oven and electrometric.
The first consists in taking a sample measuring 20x20x20 mm from the test material,
weighing it, drying it in a drier and weighing it.
A resistance hygrometer shall be used in the electromotive method. In order to
perform the measurement, two electrodes of the device are pushed into the wood. The
electrometric method is much simpler, but it allows to test the humidity only in the range of
0-35 percent, and the obtained results are not accurate.
Moisture is associated with the degree of saturation.
If the material is saturated with water at a rate of more than 0.85 per cent, it bursts
open after freezing by the ice formed by the water frozen in its pores. The release of material
from the accumulated water is faster or slower depending on the structure of the material.
The drying rate of a material, referred to as evaporation capacity, is measured as the
time needed to dry a wet sample to a constant mass.
Moisture of the material often reduces its mechanical strength. A softening factor is
calculated to determine whether the material can be used in damp areas, such as foundations.
Some materials, e.g. used for roofing or tank insulation, are tested for permeability.
These properties are measured by the amount of water passing through 1 cubic cm of sample
per hour at a constant pressure.5
2.2.4 Thermal properties
Temperature changes are caused by material movements called thermal movements:

lowering the temperature causes shrinkage of the material, while increasing causes it to
expand. Since these movements can cause deformations which are unfavourable to the
structure, the thermal expansion of building materials is tested. This property is usually
measured by the coefficient of linear thermal expansion a.
The materials used for external building partitions should provide good thermal
insulation. An important feature of these materials is therefore their thermal conductivity
coefficient, which determines the amount of heat flowing through a homogeneous layer of
material.
Some building materials are intended to store the heat emitted by heating appliances
and to release it during periods when the appliances cease to heat, e.g. construction materials
for domestic ovens. This ability is determined by the thermal capacity Q of the material.
5 W. Michniewicz , Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985, p. 41.

The external building partitions and numerous engineering structures are exposed to
frost. Building materials to be used in these conditions should have a tested frost resistance.
To determine this property, samples of water-impregnated material are further frozen and
defrosted. Depending on the type of material, samples are subjected to 10, 15 or 25 freezing
cycles, after which the degree of their decay and the drop in strength are determined.6
2.2.5 Gas permeability
Some materials used for building partitions are required to allow for a certain degree
of permeability of air or other gases. The gas permeability of material depends on its porosity
and pore structure.
This property is important for room ventilation and noise transmission. It is measured
in kg of gas which permeates through 1 sq. m of the surface of a 1m thick partition made of
the tested material during 1 hour as a result of pressure difference of 10 Pa.7
2.2.6. Sound absorption and sound conductivity
Sound is, as it is known, the mechanical vibration of an elastic gas medium that is
perceptible to humans. The particles which make up each material resist the force that causes
them to vibrate. This resistance reduces the force by varying degrees depending on the
properties of the material, known as sound absorption. Sound absorption is measured by the
ratio between the different energies that cause the material to vibrate and the energies that the
material gives off to the energies that cause it to vibrate.
Sound conductivity is measured by the ratio of the intensity of sound after passing
through the partition from the tested material to the intensity of sound flowing into the
partition.8
2.2.7. Mechanical properties
The most important group of characteristics of construction materials is their

resistance to various external forces: compressive, bending, torsional, etc. For some
6 S. Olszak, W. Jędrejek, W. Wiater, Poradnik cieśli wiejskiego. Roboty ciesielskie, stolarskie dekarskie,
Warszawa 1966, p. 99.
7 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol 3, Warszawa 1967, p. 58.
8 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, Vol 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 91.
construction materials having a layer, fibrous or e.g. structure, this resistance, generally
referred to as strength, depends on the direction of action of the forces.
Compressive strength is tested on rectangular samples of different dimensions
depending on the type of material. This property is determined by dividing the destructive
force by the cross-section of sample F.
The wood's compressive strength along the fibres is in the range of 25 MPa to 66
MPa. Pine has a compressive strength of 47 MPa, spruce 43 MPa, for 40 MPa and oak 52-55
MPa.
Tensile strength is tested on cylindrical or row-shaped samples. Tensile strength is
determined by dividing the tensile force by the cross-sectional area of the sample. It ranges
from 77 MPa to 165 MPa. The tensile strength of pine wood along the fibres is 104 MPa, of
spruce 90 MPa, of fir 84 MPa and of oak 90 MPa.
For some materials, including wood, shear strength is sometimes tested. Rectangular
samples of a special shape are used to test wood shear.
As well as tensile and compressive strength, the shear strength of wood varies
longitudinally and perpendicular to the fibres. The shear strength of pine wood measured
along the fibres represents 20 percent of the compression strength, and only 5 per cent
perpendicular to the fibres.
The impact resistance of the materials shall be tested by hammering the standard
samples until they break. It is determined by the quotient of the breaking load of the sample
and the cross-sectional area of the sample. The impact strength of wood shall be tested when
it is essential for the manufacture of tools, housings, etc.
Hardness is measured by the resistance of material when it is crushed by a hard body.
Hardness of wood is tested by the Janka method, which consists in pressing a steel ball with a
diameter of 1 cm square into the surface of the wood. The hardness of wood is measured by
the amount of force the ball exerts on the wood, which is equal to its radius. The hardness of
pine wood is 30 MPa and that of oak is about 70 MPa.
The hardness of material determines its resistance to pressure. In timber structures,
there are numerous contacts between the elements, in which the clamping forces are present.
In order to protect such areas against creasing, a sufficiently large clamping area is designed
in the joint.
Abrasiveness is measured by the loss of the sample cut into with a special abrasive
disc.
Flexibility is the ability of a material to bend without damage. Of the various types of
wood, beech wood is the most flexible when moistened and heated to a high temperature.
Other flexible materials include, for instance, metals.
Cleavage is a characteristic feature of wood, measured by the susceptibility to
splitting along the fibres. Cleavage test is carried out in test machines on samples of a special
shape.
Resilience and plasticity of materials are of great importance in the design of the
structure.
Resilience is the ability of a material to recover its original shape after subtraction of
the load that caused the deformation.
Plasticity is the ability of material to retain the deformations caused by the load.
Resilience and elasticity of materials is connected with the phenomenon of creeping,
i.e. an increase in deformations under constant load.9
3. Wooden walls and ceilings
3.1 General information
In the contemporary building industry, wooden walls are rarely an essential element
of a building's construction. They still play such a role only in historic buildings and
temporary buildings, mostly of the Baroque type, as well as in renovated buildings and in
summer cottages or cottages on agricultural parcels.
The reasons which limit the use of wooden walls include the deficit of wood, its
flammability and lack of resistance to biological corrosion in damp conditions at room
temperature. Corrosion-resistant oil preparations increase the flammability of wood.
The structure of a wooden wall transfers the dead weight, wind loads and roof weight
and its wind and snow load to the foundation. Depending on the type of structure, wooden
walls can be divided into solid and framework walls.
The construction of walls has a significant impact on their insulation properties, in
particular their thermal insulation. It is measured by the heat transfer coefficient k, which is
the reciprocal of the thermal resistance R being the quotient of the wall thickness d and the
thermal conductivity coefficient d.
9 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 112.

In order to reduce heat losses and energy savings, the standard PN-82/B-02020
"Thermal protection of buildings. requirements and calculations" reduced the coefficients k,
depending on the type of partition and calculation temperature difference on both sides of
partition.
A standard k coefficient has to be maintained in order to conserve heating energy of
buildings. To conserve wood at the same time, solid walls are replaced by frameworks. If a
material with very good thermal insulation, e.g. mineral wool, is placed between two
formworks of a frame wall, a much thinner partition is obtained while maintaining the same
k-value. It also enables significant savings of valuable wood.
Solid wooden walls include tie-beam walls and walls made of vertical elements.
In order to conserve wood, the tie-beam walls are now used almost exclusively in
historic buildings.
Vertical element walls are typically not made because the shrinkage of the wood
creates vertical slits in the elements, which cause them to become wet and rotten.
Framework walls are more economical in terms of wood consumption than solid
walls. Nowadays, they often consist of ready-made boards made of boarding frames on both
sides.
The most modern buildings with metal frames are made of curtain walls with wooden
frames, filled with insulation of foamed plastics, mineral wool or, from the outside, with
aluminium or enamelled steel sheet, and from the inside with plasterboards, wood panels, etc.
Wooden ceilings do not meet many of the requirements of today's construction
elements. Their main disadvantage is flammability. A wooden ceiling, even plastered, does
not constitute a sufficient firewall. Ceilings over the top floor are considered to be partially
fireproof if they are insulated by clay.
Wooden ceilings also poorly bind the external and internal walls, as their structure is
not rigid enough and the connection with the wall is loose, despite anchoring of floor beams.
Sockets left in the wall to support beams on brick walls significantly reduce stiffness of the
walls.
Wooden ceilings are also characterized by low load resistance and low durability in
comparison to other types of ceilings. Due to technical properties of wood, wooden ceilings
bend considerably under load. These deflections cause movements of the floor, which in turn
destroys floors, causes chipping of ceiling, squeaks during walking, etc.
Wooden ceilings are very sensitive to moisture, therefore they require careful
protection against moisture penetration into the elements of the ceiling. Healthy, dried and
properly impregnated wood has to be used for the ceiling elements. Moisture may cause
rotting or fungus of the entire ceiling structure.
Ceiling beams lying on the wall are particularly exposed to moisture infiltration from
the wall. Because of the high probability of dampening above the basements, wooden ceilings
should not be made at all.
Wooden ceilings also have advantages which justify their use today. These advantages
include ease and possibility of being constructed even during winter at low cost and provide
heat protection.10
3.2 Tie-beam walls
These elements are laid horizontally one on top of the other and connected in corners
by carpentry joints. This creates the horizontal tie-beams, thus determining the name of these
types of walls. Among the various types of tie-beam walls, Slavic and Podhale walls are the
most commonly used in our country, as well as timber walls in some south-eastern regions of
the country.
These walls are placed on a continuous foundation made of bricks or stones or on
foundational posts. The foundation rises no less than 40 cm above the ground level in order to
protect the wooden wall from being closed by melting snow. In mountainous areas, where
snowfall is high, foundations of even over 1 m in length are used.
A waterproofing made of two layers of tar paper is laid on the surface of the
foundation or on foundational posts which are equally protected against moisture.
3.3 Framework walls
Framework walls consist of a frame, formwork and an insulating filling.

The framework made up of pillars, constructional structures, clamps, rafters and
centerboards or braces creates the supporting structure.
The formwork protects the building premises from external influences and transmits
wind pressure to the frame.
The filling is insulated from cold, noise, etc.
10 Deskowanie drobnowymiarowe U-Form, deskowanie drobnowymiarowe Stal-form, deskowanie wielko

wymiarowe ścienne, deskowania stolikowe, Wrocław 1970, p. 181.
The following types of framework walls can be distinguished: vertical-post log walls,
timber framing, barrel wall and boarding wall.11
3.3.2 Vertical-post log walls
The structure of vertical-post log walls, apart from the foundation and graft, consists
of pillars, in some areas referred to as patches and horizontal logs, i.e. wooden logs filling the
cavities of the framework.
The wall is laid on a brick, stone or concrete foundation. The foundation should have
a base overhanging the area of at least 40 cm. The foundation is laid on an insulating layer
based on a pedestal in line with the pedestal's external side.
In the first case, the wall places an uneven load on the foundation, while in the second
case, the pressure is even, but there is a possibility of rainwater accumulating on the top of
the plinth at the base of the foundation. Therefore, in order to protect the foundation against
decay, a triangular strip is nailed to it, and a diagonal board is nailed to the strip, which drains
water outside the plinth.
The columns are made with 12x12, 14x14 or 1x16 cm planks and are connected by
means of a pivot to the foundation and the hook.
In order to connect it to filling logs, longitudinal notches are made in the column or
strips are nailed to the columns. The columns are positioned at intervals of 1 to 1,5 m and
stiffened with boards during installation.
The fillings consist of wooden logs, the thickness of which depends on the purpose of
the building and is 5, 7, 5 and 10 cm. Logs - horizontal logs are inserted between the columns
from above into longitudinal grooves in the columns. Then, a hook is placed on the posts,
which is connected with the posts by means of pivots and slots, and with the logs by means of
hooks or notches.
In order to stiffen the walls, diagonal elements, called swords, are used in the corners
at the top. The centerboards are made of 4, 4, 5 and 5 cm thick logs, depending on the cross-
sections of the columns and logs used in the building, as they are outside of the horizontal log
plane and should have a thickness equal to the protruding part of the column. The swords are
connected on one side to the column and on the other side to the one-sided swallow tail hook.
The connection shall be made so that the post, the plate and the sword form a single plane.
11 F. Kopkowicz, Ciesielstwo polskie, Warszawa 1985, p. 201.

Locks are used above window and door openings. The rod carries the weight of the
logs lying above it and transfers it to the columns.12
3.3.3. Timber framing
The walls of timber framing consist of a wooden framework filled with brick. The
filling is made in half of the brick's thickness, rarely in one brick thickness.
Timber framings made of 1/2 thick brick are not suitable for our climate, even when
insulated by formwork and plastering, as they require a considerable amount of wood. That is
why other, more rational wall constructions have displaced the timber framing from our
building industry.13
3.3.4 Beam walls
Beam walls are currently used for temporary and leisure buildings. Much less wood is
used on the beam walls than on tie-beam walls. They do not subside as a result of wood
drying out and can be insulated with good insulating materials.
The wall framework consists of a foundation, columns, rafters, bracing braces in the
event of side action of wind, a graft and ceiling beams.
The foundations are made of impregnated beams, i.e. protected against biological
corrosion. In the past, oak beams were used as foundations, which were more durable than
coniferous impregnated beams. The foundations transfer the weight of the building to the
foundation or walls of the cellars, usually made of stone or brick.
The width of the foundation is the same as that of the columns, and the height is 1 cm
greater. The corner joints of the foundation are made with a French lock. The foundations of
the internal walls are connected with the foundation of the external wall using a swallow tail
hook.
The columns are made of square edges, usually 12x12 and 14x14 cm in size,
combined with a base and a plug for common pivots.
Struts shall be made of edges of the same dimensions as the columns or of smaller
rectangular cross-sections, set on the edge. The strut must be set to an outside-tilted position
12 S. Michalczyk, W. Lenkiewicz, Roboty ciesielskie w budownictwie, Warszawa 1954, p. 82.
13 W. Michniewicz, Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985, p. 34.

as it takes over the wind pressure. If it was to be set in the opposite direction, it would have
been subject to stretching, which would make it very difficult to make connections.
The compression struts are connected to the pivot by means of a butt joint. Stretch
struts need to be connected with steel anchors. In walls longer than 20 m, additional supports
are used in one of the central cavities of the wall.
The bolts are made of edges of the same size as the columns or thinner, laid flat. They
divide the framework into squares with sides of 1 to 1,5 m.
The bolts are connected to the logs by means of butt joints, similarly to struts. On the
other hand, the bolts over the openings are connected to the logs by means of reversed strut
so that as the wood dries, no gap is created between the rafter and the door or window frame.
The bolts are connected to the pivot point.
The hooks crown the wall. They are made of edges or beams of the same size as the
foundation. At the corners, they are connected with French locks, as are the foundations.
The beams of the floor are connected to the one-sided or mutual notch plate.
Due to the relatively low weight of the building frame, it requires anchoring in the
foundation and insulation from the foundation. For this purpose, two layers of roofing paper
are laid on a brick or stone foundation or on a concrete foundation that rises at least 40 cm
above the ground.
The membrane can also be laid under the second or third layer of bricks counting
from the surface of the plinth. The brick foundation leaves approx. 50 cm free cavity for a
concrete block at each corner. Before concreting, the anchors are placed in place of the
concrete block, made of a flat bar with a threaded end. After the block has been concreted, an
anchor is set in it, which is used to attach the foundation to the foundation by means of a cap
made of a flat bar and nuts.
No anchorage shall be made at corners because they are weakened by shocks from
strong winds. In order to protect the building framework from being torn off from the
foundation by wind, the columns to which the ends of the stay are attached are connected to
the substructure by steel slings.14
14 Otwarty system szkieletowy z drewna klejonego dla budownictwa ogólnego, Centralny Ośrodek Badawczy
Budownictwa Ogólnego, Warszawa 1980, p. 43.
3.3.5 Plank walls
Plank walls are even more economical in terms of conserving wood, and the whole
building can be made of two types of boards, thicker ones - the frame and thinner ones - the
sheathing. The advantage of plank walls is that the joint is easy to make with nails or
skyways. In walls of this type, joints are avoided by using an external diagonal formwork
instead. The wall framework is made of boards 40-50 mm thick and 10-20 cm wide.
Plank walls are very popular in the USA, England and Scandinavian countries, and
recently the have become widely used in our country.
One of the construction systems of this type of walls is discussed below.
On the wall or more often on the concrete foundation bench or basement walls the
insulation is laid of two layers of tar paper glued together, and on it the basement ball, which
is fixed with wood screws to the steel anchors installed in the wall or concrete. Logs that
form the floor beam over the basement are attached to the foundation on the longitudinal
walls by means of logs.
Then the cover is nailed to the base and the wall columns are placed on it. In corners,
they are stiffened with diagonal braces and joined at the top, which in longitudinal walls at
the same time forms an easy footing for rafters and gables, the foundation of attic walls.
Door and window frames are inserted between the wall columns and then internal
formwork, usually wood-based panels, and external formwork are made of horizontally
nailed boards that are joined together to form a buttress. The thermal insulation panels are
mainly made of mineral wool or foamed polystyrene between the formwork.
On the cap, the beams of the attic floor are placed, the roof structure is mounted and
the attic closing walls are erected. The beams of both floors are stiffened with diagonal struts
and a cover on top with the floor, and on the underside with the soffit. Instead of a white
floor, a blind wood panel floor can be laid on which rainforests or mosaic parquet floors can
be laid.15
3.3.6. Formworks
Framework walls should be sealed with boards. The formwork protects the walls
against moisture from the outside and against cold. External and internal formworks are used
at the same time, or exclusively external formwork.
15 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 122.

The longevity of a building depends on good formwork design. For this reason, they
must be made very carefully and technically correct from dry boards. External formwork can
be used as vertical, horizontal or diagonal formwork if it is to replace the braces.
Vertical formwork is made of boards no wider than 16 cm in width and 25-38 mm
thick. Wider planks should not be used due to large shrinkage and warping, which distorts the
whole surface of the formwork. It is important that the boards are correctly positioned.
They are placed on the outside of the board as the joints between the boards do not
increase but rather decrease when they are twisted. The vertical formwork is made in contact
with the oil filling or at the head of the formwork.
External vertical formwork can only be made with sufficiently high bases. If the lower
parts of the boards are moistened, from a thick layer of snow to rainwater, they rot and the
entire formwork has to be replaced. For this reason, the vertical formwork is usually made
from the inside.
External vertical formwork is only used in walls with high foundations and when, in
order to reduce column cross-sections, it is used as a load-bearing element in the calculation
of the formwork.
With a low base, an external horizontal formwork is preferable, as only one or two
replaceable bottom boards are destroyed when closing.
Horizontal formwork is made of boards 1-32 mm thick and not wider than 1 cm. The
thickness of the boards depends on the spacing of the poles and whether they are joined to the
buttress, grooves or overlay.
When the boards are joined together, they can be 1 mm thick with a column spacing
of up to 0 cm, 25 mm thick with a spacing of 1.2 m and 32 mm with a spacing of up to 1.5
mm. Tongue and groove boards should be at least 25 mm thick with a column spacing of 1.2
m and 32 mm with a spacing of up to 1.5 m.
At present, the internal formwork is replaced by fibreboards, fibreboards,
plasterboards or plasterboards using the following methods: fibreboards, fibreboards, cane
mats or plasterboards.16
3.3.7 Insulation fillings
The framework walls of heated cavities should be insulated, which is achieved by

● creating gaps between the two sides of the formwork,
● backfill of the cavity between the formwork and loose insulating materials,
● placement of insulation boards or mats between the formwork.
Well-made insulation of walls protects them against excessive penetration of warm air
from rooms and cold air from the outside.
The cavities, which consist of closed chambers 3-4 cm wide, form a good insulating
layer. Such chambers are formed e.g. in windows between external internal wings.
The formwork of the wooden walls also forms air chambers. However, the air
enclosed inside the formwork in too wide and high a space, which is not separated between
the cladding and the base, is in constant motion and does not play the role of insulation. A
wall has good insulation if the void thickness does not exceed 7 cm and the height reaches up
to 1 m.
To measure the height of the chambers, the rafters are arranged at vertical intervals of
not more than 1 m. Since the thickness of the columns in the frame is greater than 7 cm, the
chamber must be divided into two parts by an internal wall. This type of insulation can be
made of fibreboard or fibreboard.
More often the chambers are formed by columns and the formwork is covered with
dry insulating material, which adequately insulates the wall. Moist material causes the wood
to go wet, thus causing it to rot and damage the structure.
When using bulk materials, the cavities between the foundation and the hook should
also be divided into parts by means of the hook-and-loop fasteners. These materials have, and
if the space between the base and the graft was not divided, we would have a large empty
space under the graft after a few months.
The wall in this place would be insulated and damp. A well-made wall with a backfill
effectively retains heat more efficiently than a plastered brick wall of 2 bricks on both sides.
It is also possible to create a void from the ground up to the attic. Then, in the attic at
the eaves of the roof, a certain amount of backfill is left, which, as the filling settles down,
slips down by itself, filling the empty space. However, it is important to remember that the
joints and transoms are narrower than the gaps between the formwork.
The simplest way to insulate the chambers is to fill them with insulating panels. They
are used in curtain walls, which fill the fields of not only wooden skeletons, but also steel and
reinforced concrete.
Curtain wall panels of wooden construction have a load-bearing frame of wood and
are covered from the outside with corrugated sheet or asbestos-cement panels, insulated with
foamed plastic or mineral wool, and from the inside with drywall, asbestos-cement panels,
paździerzowe panels, hard fibreboards, etc.
Tie-beams or vertical post-log walls can be insulated with an insulating layer - from
the outside or inside the building. Prior to laying the insulation layer, the welds must be
sealed with tufts, chips, moss, etc., in order to avoid any damage to the joint.
The simplest insulation from the outside is formwork. Plaster applied to reed mats is
also used. In this case, however, the building loses its aesthetic appearance as a wooden
structure.
From the inside, the wall is insulated with formwork and plaster made of reed mats or
mesh. Better results are obtained by using a layer of plasterboard in addition to the tar paper,
which protects the walls against moisture penetration.
The insulating formwork can be nailed to the battens, which creates a space between
the formwork and the wall structure. Instead of formwork, fibreboards, reedboards,
strawboards, particleboards, etc. are used to insulate the walls from the inside. The boards are
attached directly to the walls and patches. A layer of tar paper should be laid under the
boards.17
3.4. Partition walls
According to the technical and construction conditions, partition walls should be

lightweight so that they can be placed anywhere on the floors without the need for additional
reinforcement.
Wood partition walls can be categorised in two types: unplastered or plastered.
Partition walls which are are not plastered are light wooden constructions made of
boards, carpentry boards, fibreboards, chipboards or plywood. These walls are also called
carpentry walls.
They consist of frames joined together by pivot rectangular joints. The cavities
between the two frames are filled with plywood or fibreboard panels. The frame can also be
glued with plywood or fibreboard on both sides to create a smooth wall.
Unplastered partition walls are made of 25-50 mm thick planks planed on both sides,
usually connected in parallel - lengthwise by means of straight or rectangular frame joints for
tongue and groove, or by means of tongue. These walls are placed on a foundation laid
directly on the floor.
17 W. Michniewicz , Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985, p. 217.
In the upper part adjacent to the ceiling, they are stiffened with two battens covering
the wall boards and fixed to the ceiling.
The foundations are made of battens or planks. Battens or planks with longitudinal
grooves are attached to the floor.
The matching planks, placed vertically in grooved foundations, are also nailed to the
bottom and top of the frame with nails. Door and window openings are framed with a loom
connected to a partition wall.
Partition walls intended for plastering can be made as single or double layer board
walls as well as frame walls. These walls are twice as heavy as non plastered walls.
Therefore, they should rest on continuous supports, such as partition walls of the lower floors
or reinforced floor beams.
Single-layer walls are made of planed planks 40-45 mm thick and about 15 cm wide,
wider planks should be split before installation. The boards are placed vertically on the joint
and connected with round or flat pegs placed in a chequered manner at intervals of 1.5.
Double-layer walls are made of unchipped, 25-32 mm thick boards. One layer of
boards is placed vertically and the other at an angle of 45 degrees. The boards of both layers
are nailed and their ends bend after passing through both layers of boards. Reed mats or mesh
are wrapped around single and double layer walls and later plastered.
Framework partition walls consist of a framework made of planks or batten. The
framework of the partition wall is made up of a foundation, a plate and posts placed at
intervals of approx. 1 m. The framework of the structure is wrapped on both sides with
boards 1 or 25 mm thick or with chipboards and cement boards.
The walls are fixed to the load-bearing walls of the building with hooks and brackets.
In order to improve sound insulation, the free space between the boarded formwork is filled
with insulation boards or a backfill.18
3.5. Wooden ceilings
3.5.1. Positioning of floor beams
Wooden ceiling consists of beams, a ceiling and a soffit. The load-bearing element is a
rectangular ceiling beam made of beams, logs or boards.
18 Budownictwo betonowe, Vol 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa 1968, p. 108.

The arrangement of the beams depends on the dimensions and shape of the rooms
conveyed by the floor. Floor beams should be positioned in a way which allow for the
shortest spans. They can be supported by external or internal structural walls, or by the use of
hoists.
The internal wall hooks parallel to the floor beams replace them. In the floor slab, the
same role is performed by the higher level foundations.
In brick buildings, the floor beams running along the walls should be laid at the
junction with bricks protruding out of the wall or a spacer strip should be placed on the side
of the wall. The gap between the girder and the beam allows air to flow, which protects the
wood against decay due to moisture.
3.5.2. Backing the floor beams against the walls
A wooden ceiling beam, supported by a masonry or concrete wall, should be insulated

from moisture and be able to stretch under the influence of temperature changes.
The beams of the attic floor are supported by rafter plates, i.e. edges with dimensions
of -12 cm, laid at the edge of the wall at the end or on its parting. Rafter plates spread the
pressure of the floor beams on the wall surface, which can be significant, because they are
loaded with the roof structure, the walls also bind the floor beams, which increases the
stiffness of the building. The rafter plates also laid under the beams of the interstorey floors,
when they are supported by cornice boards.
The beams of the interstorey floors are supported by the wall sockets. The dimensions
of such socket should be 3-4 cm or between the wood and wall or concrete, for proper
ventilation of the socket. At the point where the beam is supported, the wall or concrete
should be levelled with mortar and dry. The mortar is covered with a membrane on which the
head of the beam is directly laid.
Longer spans of floor beams are laid on an oak washer in a slot on the paper and the
load is transferred to the wall. The head of the beam shall be protected against fungus
infestation by fungicides. The brick wall of the socket in the outer wall should be at least 25
cm thick so that it does not freeze. In concrete walls, the socket is insulated.19
19 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 24.

3.5.3. Anchoring floor beams
The wooden ceilings are anchored in the load-bearing walls. At intervals of 2.3-3 m,
every third or fourth beam is anchored to the walls at both ends of the beam. The anchor is
made of a flat bar and fixed with one end to the beam at the top or side, the other end of the
anchor has a shape of an ear, with a 50-70 cm long stopper, made of round steel or sandstone.
The plug is placed vertically and securely on the cement mortar with brick. Anchors
and plugs may corrode in damp wall, therefore they should be coated with cement milk
before being masonry. Do not place the plug on the outside of the wall, which until recently
was widely used.
In the concrete wall, the stopper is placed horizontally in a specially shaped or carved
concrete drum and concreted.
External transverse walls, on which the floor beams are not supported, should also be
behind the ceilings to protect the walls against tilting out. Such connection is achieved by
connecting the three closest floor beams with a flat anchor and attaching them to the anchor
wall with a plug.
The way the beams are anchored to the internal walls depends on the thickness of the
wall on which they are to be anchored.
In walls which are 25 cm thick, connecting the beams to the front contact is
inappropriate, but a straight or diagonal contact with the beams at the contact is the proper
solution.20
3.5.4. Types of wooden ceilings
A naked ceiling is the simplest type of wooden ceiling. It consists of floor beams and
planks arranged on them, known as the sheath. Beam dimensions, depending on span and
load, are assumed to be 14x20 to 20x2 cm in dimension, beam spacing is 1-1.5 m. For the
spanning, 25 or mm thick boards are used.
The boards are connected to the front, tongue-in groove, at the joint with the battening
or by means of an overlay. The method of formwork depends on the purpose of the rooms
above the ceiling. This type of ceiling can be used in farm buildings and warehouses. Naked
wooden ceiling is insulated by means of clay pugging.
20 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 181.

The ceiling and the soffit consists of beams in the dimensions of a naked ceiling, a
ceiling with 25 or 32mm thick boards, poles and soffits with 1-25 mm thick boards. The
ceiling boards are usually arranged so that they touch each other. Tar paper with a layer of
pugging are laid on the ceiling. The pugging is an insulating layer that protects the room from
low temperature.
The material used for the pole should be porous, light, not absorbing moisture and
cheap. The field shall be fire-resistant and free from fungal contaminants. In the past, algae
polish was used, which was cheap but heavy and provided low heat protection.
The soffit, also known as the soffit, is made of boards nailed to the underside of the
beams. The soffits cover the floor beams and forms an even ceiling surface. Such a ceiling
can be used as an attic.
Nowadays, soffits are often made of hard fibreboards, nailed to 25mm boards, spaced
every 50 cm. However, these boards absorb moisture from the air and crease over time. For
this purpose, chipboards tend to be better suited.
In addition to the elements presented so far, blind ceiling has an additional layer,
placed in the middle of the ceiling, made of 1-25mm thick boards or with hc chipboard panels
placed on easy hc board to the ceiling beams. battens of 4x4cm and 4x5cm cross-section are
nailed to the beams with nails at intervals of about 50 cm.
On the blind ceiling and on the upper parts there is a roofing felt which protects
against falling through the gaps between the boards of the blind ceiling and against
dampening.
A plank floor is nailed directly to the floor beams or to the beams at the top. The joists
are laid parallel to the beams, they are used to improve the acoustic insulation of the floor or
when the floor consists of a single layer of thin boards. The rainwater surface is laid on a
blank floor.
The ceiling is nailed to the bottom of the beams. The boards can be plastered after
being nailed to them with reed mats or mesh. Plastered soffit can also be made of cemented
chipboards, boards, while the unplastered wall can be made out of fibreboard or chipboard.
This type of ceiling is used as an inter-floor ceiling.
Ceilings where the floor surface rests directly on the floor beams have the
disadvantage that all impacts or vibrations are transmitted to the rooms beneath the floor. In
order to reduce the transmission of impacts and shocks, the rooms located under the ceiling
are not supported directly by the ceiling beams, but placed on joists which rest on the
pugging and are parallel to the floor beams.
A variant of a ceiling with an intermediate ceiling is also a double ceiling, referred to
as “quiet”. This ceiling prevents the transmission of shocks and sounds. It consists of the
main plain ceiling, with an intermediate ceiling and a headliner nailed to a separate beam not
connected to the floor. Such a structure significantly thickens the ceiling and is expensive. It
can be used in rooms where severe shocks are expected, such as gyms, dayrooms, etc., or
over rooms whose ceilings are painted or stuccoed.
The difference between the plank floor and the one mentioned above is that the load is
carried by beams placed intermittently. They shall be laterally stiffened by a cross-pierce
between the batten logs.
There is a 2.5 cm plank floor nailed to the logs, often at an angle of 45 degrees to the
beam axis to stiffen the floor. In single-family houses or utility rooms at the bottom, instead
of the soffit, plasterboards can be nailed directly to logs, or only planed planks can be used.
In the floors of inter storey residential buildings, 5mm thick felt insulation is used to
dampen shocks transmitted through the floor, which is laid at the top on the beams and hangs
loosely between the beams. A blind ceiling can also be made and stiffenings are not
necessary. This ceiling is suitable for single-family, recreational and attic wooden houses. Its
fire resistance is negligible, as liquid carrier elements are easily flammable.21
3.6 Installation of walls and ceilings
Currently, each construction company has a central carpentry, equipped with machine
tools, which facilitate the preparation of elements. If the carpentry is not in operation or the
construction is carried out at a distance from it, a manual carpentry workshop must first be
organised on the site. This should include tables, circular saws and, if necessary, a levelling
machine as an accessory.
In the carpentry or in the workshop, the cuttings are prepared according to the
drawing and measurement of the foundation by nature. Then, especially in the remote
carpentry, trial assembly is carried out, the cuttings are assembled and transported to the
construction site.

3.6.2 Installation of walls
Installation of the walls is preceded by laying the anti-dampening insulation in the

form of two layers of membrane, glued together with adhesive and attached to the bedding or
concrete by means of an adhesive. The insulation layer is then laid with a foundation
previously impregnated at least on the plane of contact with the insulation.
If tie-beam walls are to be installed, the window and door pillars are first placed at the
base, supported by board or pole joists and vertical. In turn, the individual wreaths are laid
levelling them by conquering the wooden clients and connecting them with pegs. In coal, the
verticality of the walls should also be checked.
The foundation of the frame walls is fixed to the foundation with anchors. Then, the
columns are placed inside the head, the cords are stretched on them at the level of 1 m.
According to the cords, the intermediate columns are placed to check their vertical position,
especially in the plane of the wall. The set posts are fitted with hooks. In the case of bunker
buildings, ceiling beams are placed on the trailer and the foundations for the floor walls are
laid on these beams.
3. 6.3. Floor installation
Floor beams, in buildings with coronal walls, are laid between the corners of the walls
and connected to them by joints. In marble buildings, the floor beams are supported in the
wall cavity or on the murals. The beams are prepared at the construction site in a handy
carpentry workshop, from where they are moved to the construction site.
The beams are cut to any length, notches, grooves are made and battens are nailed to
form a blind ceiling. Ceiling installation begins with the installation of wall joists under
partition walls, replacements and, finally, intermediate joists. The spacing of the beams shall
be checked by means of a scale or a template cut from the boards. The level deviation ought
to be checked during installation.
These deviations shall not exceed 1 mm per 1 m of beam length. The difference in
levels between the beams must also be controlled. It should not exceed 5 mm on all beams in
one room. The differences are compensated for by cutting the beam or putting on suitable
pads.
In brick buildings, the beams are laid simultaneously with the erection of the walls,
while the targeting reinforced with the temporary boarding sheathing can serve as a bridge to
the bricklaying of the walls of the next storey.
The beams are laid by a two-person team - a carpenter and his helper. A blind ceiling
is then installed from separate boards, cut to size in the workshop or from prepared slabs. The
width of the board equals the access of the beams to the light, the length is about 2m. The
board can be made of compacted board or spigot waste.
After a part of the ceiling has been laid, it is covered with roofing paper and the pools
are poured. The floor is then laid of a suitable length of boards that have been prepared in
advance. The board joints should be in the middle of the upper surface of the floor beams or
beams, if a floor is laid on them.
For a blind ceiling, boards 1-25mm thick IV or V Class with a number of knots are
used. It may also be waste boards, but not moistened or contaminated with humus.
After being nailed to the floor beams, the soffits should form an even surface without
concave or convex elements. The boards are connected in the middle of the floor beam. If the
boards are so long that the contact would occur in the beam spans, an additional beam or rim
board should be inserted between the beams. 22
This solution is economical because the boards do not need to be cut off. The soffit is
nailed to the beams with nails 75mm long, leaving a gap between the boards of about 1 cm in
case of plastering the ceiling. The soffit is made of boards 1-25mm thick, class IV or V, with
a width of up to 10 cm, to prevent the boards from packing under the plaster. Before nailing,
the wider boards should be split along the fibres.
The soffit boards should be cut to size, split and enchanted in a carpentry workshop
before being nailed. The prepared planks are delivered to the workplace and placed in
packages on mobile trestles, placed next to each other at intervals of 0.-0.00 m. The trestles
are placed in such a way that without any adjustment it is possible to cover 10-15.00 m of the
ceiling. The soffits are nailed by two carpenters who, standing on the platforms, lift the board
by both ends at the same time, and then by the middle of the board.
At the end of one section, the carpenters cross over to the other prepared plot, during
which time the carpenters collect the trestles from the first section and prepare the work site
in the third section, placing the trestles and laying the planks.
3.6.4 Laying floors
Wood floors shall have sufficient durability and roughness, be flexible and heat-
resistant, be easy to build and have a relatively low cost.
22 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 121.
Pine, spruce or fir planks or logs are used to make floors. Pine planks are the most
suitable. Spruce boards have large knots. Fir boards are easy to sand, soft and should not be
used. The flooring material used should be carefully selected. It is therefore necessary to
choose planks which are narrow, uniform in width, hard and not alburnous.
Floorboards should be sufficiently dry, healthy and knot-free. Due to the fact that the
boards shrink under the influence of moisture, their width should not exceed 12-15 cm. The
wet boards dry out after installation and form gaps between them.
The size of the slots depends on the way the boards are arranged. The boards are
placed on the bottom side of the board and form a trough when they are dry. The upward side
of the board creates bulges which distort the floor surface while walking and moving heavy
objects causes the board to wear out more. Rather, the boards should be laid alternately thus
providing the most secure surface and only small gaps.
Floors are made as single or double layers. The thickness of the boards in a single
layer floor should be 3 mm. However, for the sake of wood economy, 25 mm thick boards are
used. Only when necessary, such as in warehouses, granaries, mills, car and rail ramps, can
single-layer floors be made of thicker planks or even logs.
In two-layer floors, the bottom layer, known as the blind floor, which is a base under
the white floor or a floor of a better material, is made of boards 25-32 mm thick. A blind floor
does not need to be airtight, so the planks are laid at intervals of 1-3 cm. Demolition boards
and scaffoldings can also be used.
Just like a blind floor, single-layer floors are made of raw boards, which are used in
warehouses and other utility rooms. The boards are nailed tight to the surface.
Planed plank floors, known as white, should be laid tightly. Therefore, they are
connected by half, or by attaching to a foreign tongue or by means of insertion or keyway.
These connections ensure that the floor is leak-proof even after the boards have dried out.
Floors are laid directly on the floor beams or on edge beams. If the floor is laid on a
concrete floor or on a levelled floor slab, logs with 50 mm or 40 mm flat planks are used as
beams.
Before laying the floor, carefully check the upper level of the floor beams or beams
with a spirit level or water hose. If the beam is found to be inaccurate, it should be wiped off
or increase the thickness of the pads on the supports. The level should not be adjusted by
knocking on the boards.
In order to ensure that the floorboards are tightly attached to each other, they are laid
with tightening, in which case, after 2-3 boards are laid, the guide is nailed to the beams and
between them, and the boards are nailed into wedges, which press the laid boards together.
Tightening the boards is the most important activity when laying the floorboards, as it will
determine the tightness of the floor.
When installing the tongue-and-groove boards, they should be laid out with the
grooves on the outside so that they do not damage the feathers when tightened. If, however,
they have to be laid in opposite directions, i.e. with the tongue on the outside, a protective
board with a groove is inserted between the wedge and tongue. After good tightening, each
board is nailed to the beam with two nails. Nails of a length equal to three times the board
thickness are used. Nails should be driven in with a small bevel and not to the full length.
The last board is laid by hitting the board in place with a hammer. The last board is
tightened by hitting the wedge between the board and the adjoining footbridge in front of the
wall.
When all the boards arrive, the nails are driven deeper into the wood so that the heads
enter the wood. The protruding edges of the boards are then crushed together. In order to
make the floor look more attractive, nails should be nailed along a straight line, which should
be drawn on the boards before nailing.
It is also possible to use nails with compacted heads, which after being knocked into
the board enter a few millimetres deep. The boards can also be nailed with covered nails, they
are driven into the front or back of the gully, hitting them with steel rammers with a concave
end. Each beam of the board is nailed with at least one nail.
The disadvantage of this method is that the boards are poorly fixed to the beams, as
they are nailed only on one side and with only one nail. If, at the same time, the contractor
does not nail the boards to each beam, they bend and squeak while walking. Planks wider
than 10 cm may not be used for this type of fastening. The advantage of this is that the nails
are not visible and that the floor can be planed again after a certain amount of wear and tear:
3.6.5 Installation of partition walls
Partition walls are installed after the load-bearing walls and floors have been made.
The order of works related to the execution of partition walls is as follows: first, the
foundation is determined, with the help of a vertical line the position of the upper mounting
strips is determined, one stripe is nailed and the wall elements are fixed to it. After the wall
has been set up, it is pressed against the ceiling with a second batten.
Due to the possibility of the ceiling bending over the partition wall, it is always
necessary to leave 15-20 mm between the upper edge of the boards and the ceiling.
As the wood dries, it shrinks and looks, and it easily undergoes biological corrosion.
Therefore, wooden buildings require careful maintenance, and especially protection against
moisture. A very common mistake is to build a building made of choked wood. The shrinkage
creates gaps in the formwork and in the floors. Repairing this formwork involves tearing it
off, arriving again and adding new boards.
Corroded elements, especially those attacked by fungus, must be removed and
replaced with new ones. Floor beams can only be planed if they are damaged on the surface
and then impregnated and nailed, i.e. the battened material is filled with new material. The
floor beams are wound on both sides over their entire length or only in the supporting zone.
Wood buildings and wooden elements of brick buildings often become mouldy and
therefore need to be renovated.
Wet wood in a warm room is very easy to be attacked by fungi. The presence of home
fungi infection is recognised by the characteristic pungent smell, browning and cracking of
the wood, the white or yellowish raids and the greyish white ropes of the mycelium. Some
types of fungus are almost invisible. The fungus usually develops under the floor and at the
ends of the floor beams supported in the wall sockets.
When starting to remove fungal infection from the building, the floor and the
formwork should first be torn off to expose the beams or the framework of the walls. Door
and window frames shall also be tested. Then all the elements attacked by the fungus are cut
out and burned immediately. They must not be stored as fuel, as they become a fungus seeder.
If the fungus bloom is superficial, it is sufficient to remove only browned wood and
remove the cleaned element with a fungicidal oil or sodium preparation. Plasters should be
cut 50 cm outside the trace of mycelium fibres, which must be scraped off from the wall
joints. The ground underneath the floor shall be removed to a depth of 30 cm below the
markings of fungus. In place of the removed soil, sand mixed with suitable fungicides is
poured. The exposed parts of the wall are also coated with a homemade fungicide to disinfect
the walls.
Special oil impregnations are also used to coat left-over wood and inserted new wood
elements. Fungicide is also added to mortars intended to supplement exposed plaster or
demolished walls. Above all, however, the cause of the dampness in the building elements
must be eliminated and a constant supply of air must be ensured. In a dry, airy room, wood
does not become mouldy.
In rooms where fungal infestation has been carried out, a permanent stay of 4-5 weeks
is unacceptable in terms of health.23
4. Girders and beams
4.1 Roof Components
Roof consists of a load-bearing structure and roof covering. The roof is finished and
supplemented with gutters and drainage pipes for draining rainwater and skylights, roof
hatches, ventilators, chimney benches and flashings of fire walls, attics, chimneys, etc. The
roof is also equipped with a waterproofing membrane.
The roof shape is determined by the roof slope. A roof slope is defined as a plane or
surface of a curve at an angle less than 90 degrees.
The slope, i.e. the slope of the roof, can be defined in two ways: as the angle of slope
to horizontal or as the ratio of the height of the roof to the width of the roof slope in a
horizontal plan. This can be explained by the example of a 10 m wide building. If a 5 m high
two-part roof is built on it, the ratio of the roof height to the roof slope width in the horizontal
plan will be 5:5, i.e. the same as 1:1. The slope of the roof slope in this case is determined by
a ratio of 1:1 or also by a slope angle of 45 degrees. For a roof height of only 2.5 m, the roof
slope slope would have a ratio of 2.5 to 5, i.e. 1 to 2, or an angle of 27 degrees.
The intersection and limitation lines of the roof slope shall be named accordingly. The
eaves is the lower horizontal edge of the roof slope. The ridge is called the upper intersection
line of the roof slope.
If the intersection angle of the lateral roof slopes is convex, the slopes shall form
corners and, if concave, a basket. Roof coverings should be designed in such a way that water
from the roof does not flow onto the wall or wall protruding from the roof.
The roof superstructure shall support the roofing and the loading of snow, wind or
persons with tools to make or improve the roofing.
Wooden roof structures are divided into roof trusses or carpentry structures and
engineering structures.
The carpentry structure, i.e. the roof truss, consists of joined together elements of
appropriately prepared wood. An essential element of the roof truss is the roof truss. It may
23 W. Prządka, J. Szczuka, Technologia. Kierunek drzewny, Warszawa 1977, p. 66.

be full, i.e. it may contain elements to transfer the weight of the roof to the walls or ceiling of
the building, or empty, i.e. composed of rafters. The spacing between the roof trusses depends
on the girder type and the roofing.
Rafters are elements made of edges set at an angle equal to the roof slope
perpendicular to the eaves board. The rafters are spaced at intervals of 70-120 cm and the
roofing underlay is nailed to them.
At the bottom, the rafters are supported by floor beams or purlins, centre purlins or
navels, at the top they can be supported by an opposite rafter or supported by a ridge purlin.
As we can see, rafters are beams supported by two, three or more supports and loaded along
their entire length.
The most common rafter cross-sections are between 7 cm and 14 cm, 10 cm and 15
cm, with the larger side always being the height. The rafters are supported on the floor beams
with or without journals.
In refractory ceilings rafters are supported by murals. The rafters are connected to the
foot purlin or to the moulting membrane by means of notches. If the rafter is supported on the
central purlin, a notch is made, cut only in rafters or mutual - rafters and purlins, which is
better because it weakens the rafter less and stiffens it better.
The rafters are joined in the ridge either by overlapping. The correct connection is
more appropriate as it transfers the wind load from one slope to the other better. Both
connections are reinforced by drilling a hole and knocking in an oak plug.
Purlins are beams which run horizontally along the roof slope and provide support for
rafters. Due to its location, three types of purlins are distinguished: the lower purlins or alloy
purlins, intermediate purlins or stool purlins, and top purlins or ridge purlins.
The alloy purlin is located close to the eaves on the floor beams or on the routes, i.e.,
wooden beams laid on a fire-resistant floor.
The surface purlin and ridge purlin are supported by columns spaced 3-4 m apart.
The purlins are loaded at the rafter support points and work, like rafters, to bend.
Purlins are usually made of beams. Nowadays, both purlins and rafters are increasingly made
of logs and even boards that are nailed into two or three layers.
The alloy purlins are connected to the grasses or the floor beams by means of a 2-3
cm deep notch. The steel and ridge purlins are connected to the pivot and socket columns.
The purlins are joined together to form a lengthwise unit. The joint shall be positioned above
the purlin support on the stanchion so that it is not bent. They are made overlapping or with
locks.
The purlins are used to support the purlins and transfer the load from the purlins to the
floor beams or topics. Most often they are vertical, and sometimes with a slight slope. They
transmit the loads along their axis. These are the compression elements. The most appropriate
cross-section for these elements is the square. The purlins and beams are connected to the
pivots by means of posts.
Intermediate purlins and the columns that support them form the framework are called
stool frames. This framework, if the attic is used, can be a framework of the walls of the attic
rooms. In roof trusses, called hanging trusses, supported only by external walls, the posts are
stretched and are called hangers. The ceiling beams are suspended from these posts by means
of special hooks.
Ticks are a horizontal element that affects the stalks and rafters on both sides. Their
task is to prevent the rafters from spreading under load. Ticks are connected with rafter by
screws, it is also allowed to connect them by nails. If the rafters are very thick, a bolted
connection to the dovetailing tail is also used.
The thickness of the rafters in such joints should be at least equal to the thickness of
the ticked post, reduced by 4 cm. It follows that ticks should be pressed into the post on the
mutual notch, depth 2 cm, the swallow tail should be retracted in rafters, also by 2 cm,
otherwise it is not worth to make a stab. Some roof trusses use groans instead of ticks. It is a
single element, connected with rafters by a notch.
When the attic is used as a living space, the yoke is used as a beam for the floor. The
rafters are used primarily to support the rafters directly, which is why every pair of rafters is
connected with them. Tongs are mainly used to tighten and stiffen the girder, so they are only
found in solid girders. In addition, tongs are always placed under the purlin and braids are
either placed over the purlin or supported by a frame in the middle of the span.
In roofs with long spans and heavy roof coverings, rafters may extend downwards. To
prevent this, posts must be stiffened by supporting them with brackets and the carpentry
clamps must be used to strengthen the connection of the foot purlin to the beams or trams.
Stays are diagonal elements that stiffen the posts, and thus the whole girder. They
provide protection in the event of an overload of tongs or tweezers. The wind pressure on the
roof slope is transmitted by rafters to the purlins and columns, i.e. to the surface frame.
If loaded, the surface frame could be tilted in the direction of wind pressure. This is
prevented by supporting the surface frame posts with braces. The wedges are therefore
working in compression. The combination of wedges is made of a notch and a screw or a
notch and a nail, however, the latter way of joining is less advantageous.
Swords are used for longitudinal stiffening of the roof truss against wind pressure on
the front of the building. These are diagonal elements, inclined at an angle of 45 degrees,
placed in the plane of the stool frame. The length of the purlins is about 1 m. Supporting the
purlins with swords results in a smaller cross-section of the purlins and stiffening of the
connection with the post. The swords work in compression, just like the shoots. They are
connected to the purlin and post via a pivot and a socket.
The beams that form the basis of the roof truss can also be floor beams, which occurs
in wooden floors or are completely independent of the floor structure. In the latter case, the
beams are supported by the load-bearing walls of the building. There are solutions where the
roof trusses are based not on beams or traverses but on the floor. The foundation of the posts
is then laid parallel to the purlins. It lies across the floor beams.
On the strengths, only sections of the beams for the posts themselves, known as
cushions, are used instead of the foundation.
The wall-bearings distribute the uniformly distributed loads from the roof truss over
the wall. They also form an even base for the entire roof truss. The rafters of the wall-
bearings are connected to the notches.
If the waterproofing is not removed, the roof girders are supported by oak washers. It
should be remembered that inverters and washers should be well protected against moisture
from the wall by placing paper under them and lubricating them with anti-humidity agents.24
4.2. Multi-compartment roof trusses
4.2.1. Types of girders
Roof trusses are of the following types: single span girders, purlins and hangers.
The simplest type of a roof truss is a rafter truss. All the girders are solid in it, each
consisting of two rafters and a ceiling beam. In more complex trusses, solid trusses are
formed by a beam or tram, a pair of rafters, steel posts, pliers and stays. the individual
elements should be connected so that the fields contained between them are triangles.
A triangle is a figure that is geometrically unchangeable, i.e. it does not change shape
under the influence of forces, while a rectangle or a square is deformed under the influence of
load, i.e. angles contained between its sides change in size. Solid trusses are spaced 3-4 m in
24 J. Dąbrowski, Cz. Wajdzik, Tradycyjne więźby dachowe, Wrocław 2009, p. 221.

the direction of the roof length. The individual solid trusses are connected to each other by
alloy purlins and sometimes also by ridge purlins.
In beam girders rafters, under the influence of their deadweight, underlay and
covering weight as well as snow and wind loads, form a spacer, i.e. they stretch the horizontal
beam connecting them with the bottom. The name of the girders is derived from this
Regulation.
The girders include rafter girders, moon girders and girders with supported moon
beams.25
4.2.2. Rafter system
Rafter system is a roof truss. It can be used for external wall spans not exceeding m
and a roof slope inclination of 40-50 degrees. The girder consists of two 4.5 m long rafters
supported by a beam. The loads are transferred directly through the beam to the masonry or
by means of wall-bearings.
In this system, the rafters work simultaneously in bending and compression. The
rafters bend under the load of covering, snow and wind. The wind pressure on the roof slope
puts pressure on the rafters on the leeward side and creates axial forces in the rafters.
The beams are stretched by the rafter pressure, called the rafter beam, and the beams
are also bent by the attic floor load. The entire weight of the roof and ceiling is transferred to
the wall by wall-bearings.
Thicker rafters are joined to form a pattern, while thinner rafters are joined to a
straight overlap. The connection is reinforced by a peg. The rafters are connected to the
protruding beams of the ceiling by means of a front notch with a blow to the beam along the
bisector angle between the rafter and the beam.
The rafter is nailed over the rafter with 12-15 cm long nails. For beams cut flush with
the rafter, a notch joint is used. At all these joints, the depth of the notch shall be at least 2-3
cm or 1/5-1/3 of the height of the beam, and the distance from the end of the beam shall not
be less than the depth of the notch.
Thinner rafters entering the eaves are connected with overlapping and notched beams,
where the beam should not protrude beyond the joint and thicker rafters should protrude
diagonally with the rebate. In the past, the connection of the beams to the soffit was made by
means of a single-sided notch, a full notch and sometimes also a cross notch or a fixed notch.
Today, these joints are very rarely made. In order to conserve wood, the rafters are
made of logs and nailed boards.
In girders with beams protruding beyond the rafters, small rafters, known as throttles,
are nailed to alleviate the roof slope at the eaves. Reducing the slope drop at the eaves results
in slower rainwater flow into the gutter and has a positive effect on the roof appearance. In
roofs with a low slope, the girders are sufficiently stiffened to withstand wind loads along the
building by formwork or battens.
On the other hand, in steep roofs, high wind pressure perpendicular to girders can be
expected. In order to protect the trusses, they are stiffened by nailing rafters at the bottom of
the slats diagonally. These strips, called wind girders, are nailed to each rafter by two 12-15
cm long nails. The wind girder together with the rafters and the inverter form a rigid
triangular system.
Where the horizontal beams of the trusses are not simultaneously floor beams, solid
trusses consisting of a pair of rafters and a main beam may be provided every third or fourth
truss.
Empty girders consist of two rafters spaced 0.-1.2 m apart and supported by steel
purlins. Empty girder connections are the same as those discussed above.
The rafter is supported by the alloyed purlins, which are made of a notched edge with
a tooth. In the absence of intermediate beams between the main beams, the padding rests on
the double flange as if it were a rafter on the alloy purlin. The purlins and the purlins are
connected to the beam of the ceiling by means of a solid rebate or a cross rebate, where the
connection to the purlin is reinforced by a bolt.
Between the beams, the alloy purlin and the purlin are bricked in and insulated from
the wall surface by the roofing felt. Wall-bearing in this solution is unnecessary. The roofs of
rafters are unfavourable due to the high slope of the roof slope. In order to apply this system
to smaller slopes, the connection of rafters to the beam or foot purlin must be reinforced. The
rafters are connected to the roof slope by means of a joint with a reinforcement on both sides
or by contact with a continuous ridge board.
For even smaller slopes and spans of more than 5 m, the rafters are joined in the ridge
by a ridge board and two overlaps. The ridge board aligns and stiffens the girders in a
perpendicular plane. In solid girders, the connection of the rafters to the beam and to the
purlin is reinforced by a 12 mm diameter screw in the event of small drops. In addition, in
girders with a foot purlin, in addition to the rafter nailing on the alloy purlin, the rafters are
additionally fixed to the anchor bolt with a wire diameter of 4 mm.26
4.2.3 Collar system
If the span between the external walls is more than 5 m, the rafters are reinforced
because their length exceeds 4,5 m. It is sufficient for each pair of rafters to be joined with a
groove. Collar trusses are thus obtained. The rafter is divided into two sections: the lower
section, which is always longer, is 4-4.5 m long and the upper section, which is shorter and
up to 2.5 m long.
In this arrangement, the rafter is an intermediate support for the rafter, which reduces
its span, so the cross-section of the rafter may be more economical. In addition, the yoke
binds the rafters together, preventing the bottom ends of the rafters from sliding apart under
load. The length of the yoke in this system must not exceed 3.5 m. If the attic is to be used,
the slope drops should be greater than 45 degrees. In this case, a light ceiling can be based on
the yoke. The connection of the yoke to the rafter is made to the notch, to the hook with oak
pin, less often to the diagonal pin and socket or to the pin and socket with the front notch.
In 7-10 m span girders, the moles are longer than 3.5 m and are therefore supported in
the centre of the stool frame to reduce their deflection and prevent buckling. It is a structure
used for roofs up to 10 m in span.
In 10-12 m span girders, the antlers are supported by two stool frames. The
connection of the rafters to the moles, floor beams and foot purlins is carried out in the same
way as in the molecular structure discussed above.
The braces are connected to the purlins by a single-sided or double-sided notch. The
columns are connected to the purlins and beams of the common pivot floor, while the swords
are connected to the posts and purlins by a straight cut with a pivot or a diagonal pivot. The
structure is stiffened with swords in the transverse and longitudinal direction of the roof.
Such girders may only be used if the building has external load-bearing walls.
Because of the long span of the floor beams or girders, they should be supported by one or
two internal walls or they should lie on the beams. In the absence of beams of sufficient
length, shorter sections are connected above the supports using clamps.
Collar trusses are used only in the attic of living rooms, in which case the molecular
trusses serve as beams of the ceiling. If no ceiling is used in the attic, this system is not used,
as it is not economical due to high wood consumption, and then a purlin truss is
recommended.
All of the above systems can also be used in buildings with refractory ceilings. The
rafters are then supported by a wall-bearing, well anchored in the wall, so that the ceiling,
which is also connected to the wall with anchors or a wreath, can take over the rafter spacing.
The floor supporting the yoke are set up not directly on the floor but on routes running along
the roof or on cushions, i.e. edge segments placed under each stool.27
4.2.4. Rafter-purlin system
Rafter-purlin trusses are used in flat roof buildings with a slope of less than 30 per
cent or in buildings with an external wall spacing of more than 5 per cent if no joists are used
as attic floor beams.
The cross-sections of the rafter edges and the weight of the coverings make it
impossible for the rafters to have a span greater than 4.5 m.
The alloy purlins, which lie on the external walls, provide the rafters with extreme
support. The stool wall in the longitudinal axis of the building is the second support for the
rafters. In the case of purlin trusses, only every third or fourth truss is made as solid, the
remaining trusses are empty. The girders are spaced 0.7-1.2 m apart.
Surface beams of solid trusses are supported directly by beams of the ceiling, trails or
foundations laid on the refractory floor slab. The support for the surface posts on the floor
beams shall be no more than 1,2 m from the location of the beam support to prevent large
deflection of the beam support.
The rafters and columns shall be stiffened in the plane of the solid truss by means of
ticks on both sides of the rafter and the rafter. The stiffening of the roof truss in the
longitudinal direction is achieved by the use of swords in surface frames.
In roofs with small pitches, the rafters at the bottom often rest on the wall-bearing. In
this case, it should be anchored in the wall by driving a steel rod, which is fixed to the wall,
into the wall every few meters.
In purlin trusses, the ridge joints of rafters are made in the same way as in rafter or
collar trusses. These joints are less rigid than the purlin support of the rafters, so that the span
of the rafters on the purlins to the ridge joint is assumed to be not more than 2,5 m. The ridge
joint of the rafters is used as a support in double faecal purlins.
27 J. Dąbrowski, Cz.Wajdzik, Tradycyjne więźby dachowe, Wrocław 2009, p. 88.
The solid girder consists of rafters, stool columns and ticks. The rafters are supported
by their lower ends on murals or steel purlins. The steel purlins support the rafters at
intermediate points, taking the load from the roofing, snow and wind from the rafters and
transferring them to the floor via the floor posts.
The floor posts rest on the floor through the foundation. Ticks include the posts to
which they are attached by means of a notch and a screw and rafters. Tongs are nailed to the
rafters, connected with a screw or a dovetail-shaped mutual notch, reinforced with an oak pin,
screws and nails.
In addition, tongs and surface purlins are also connected by means of a notch. This
combination of tongs with posts, rafters and stool lobes provides the full truss with the high
strength and stiffness it needs.
Purlins and stool posts shall be stiffened in the plane of the stool frame by swords
supported by notches or pivots on columns supporting the purlins. In tall and steep roofs, the
posts are stiffened in the truss plane by braces. If the attic is to be inhabited, the stool frames
are used as the backbone of the attic walls.
The rafters are supported on steel purlins by a notch cut only in rafters or by a notch
between rafters and purlins. The intention to use the attic for residential and commercial
purposes sometimes forces the attic to increase its height without increasing the roof slope
decline. In this case, the external walls of the building rise above the attic floor to a height of
no more than 1.20 m, with the thickness of the wall decreasing to 1 brick.
By raising the girder, a relatively high faecal wall is obtained, which would result in
an inflexible structure. To increase the stiffness of the rafter framing, the rafter ends above the
alloy purlin are connected to the posts or additional tongues with additional tongs. This
stiffness is necessary due to the wind pressure on the roof28.
Ticks shall be placed on or below the purlins. If ticks are under the purlin, these
include not only the rafter but also the frame post of the knee wall.
The posts of the knee wall are not bricked in, as this does not provide stiffness to the
structure, but hampers air access and causes the posts to rot.
Nowadays, as mentioned above, roof trusses are mostly made of logs and nailed
joists.
If the span of the external walls exceeds 12 m, the rafter joint in the ridge cannot be
considered as a support, as the outermost rafter sections extend to 4 m. Therefore, a third
faecal wall is constructed in the ridge axis29.
The stiffness of the girder is achieved by tying all three steel posts to the purlins and
rafters by means of clamps30.
For even longer spans of load-bearing walls, four or five faecal frames were used,
such girders are generally found in older buildings and can be found during the renovation of
such buildings.
A variety of purlin trusses is the trestle truss. It is used for a span of 7-11 m when the
internal load-bearing walls are in the middle of the building and the stool would load the
ceilings in the middle of the span, which would require a reinforcement of the ceiling
structure. Trestles transfer the load from the roof directly to the inner supporting wall or in its
immediate vicinity. Trestles should form a right angle or an angle very close to a right one
with rafters. They are connected to the beam of the ceiling for single or underwater jams,
depending on the pressure exerted31.
4.2.5 Hanging beams
If the building does not have internal load-bearing walls on which to base the stool
frames, then for the span above m the suspension ties are used. The construction of the
hanger differs from the construction of the girders described previously, that the load on the
roof is transferred in it not via posts, but braces, to the external walls of the building.
The construction of the truss girders consists of: from struts always working on
compression and almost parallel to the rafters, from hangers, working on stretching, not like
stool posts - for compression, from beams corresponding to beams, working on stretching,
and in case of hanging or resting the ceiling on them also for bending, with struts similar to
the position of ticks, they occur only in two hanger systems and are compressed.
In the girders one hanger hooks converge on the hanger. The girder is based on
purlins and rafters on the purlins. The full truss towers are set up every three, four or five
rafters.
Sometimes hangers supporting ceiling beams are suspended to hangers. Substrates
protrude from the ceiling structure. The beams can also be suspended to the substructure,
29 Ibidem, p. 232.
30 Ibidem, p. 33.
31 Ibidem, p. 261.
which then is placed on the braces. Suspension of beams to the beams is accomplished with
the help of stalk-type flat bar bends, bent in the U-shape.
The suspension of the hoist is carried out with the help of bolts with metal washers.
The trusses exert a lot of pressure on the walls, which is why the ties are laid on the roof-tiles.
In order to reinforce the wall in places of high loads, several layers of bricks are laid
on the cement mortar or at least lime-cement mortar.32
4.3. Multi-roof roofs
Multi-slope roofs made on a rectangular plan differ from the two-tiered ones in that
instead of the gable walls, they have tops of triangles inclined at the same angle as the
longitudinal slopes. If they are made on a composite view, they consist of interpenetrating
roof slopes inclined at the same angle or sometimes at different angles.
The simplest form of the multi-layered roof is a four-slope roof based on a
rectangular projection. It has two trapezoidal roofs and two triangular roofs. Trapezoidal
slopes form triangular corners with triangles, which should be made with special care. The
second, roughest place on the four-story roof is the intersection of the edge with the roof
ridge.
A four-tier roof truss in the central part, equal to the length of the ridge, is no
different from the truss roof truss. The difference between these trusses is visible at the top of
the building, where the four-story roof is terminated with a triangular roof, and the two-roof
roof - the top wall.
The basic element of the triangular section are trusses, based on a mound on a mantle
or knee wall, which does not end, as in multilevel roofs at the gable wall, but it occupies itself
in the building's coals and runs along the gable wall. The trusses will be based on the purlins
of the stool frame, which - just like the knee wall - breaks down under the curb. In the place
of the bend, a corner post is always set under the purlin.
In the ridge curbs are based on a pair of rafters. Due to the fact that the curb load is
larger than the rafters, the cross-section should be larger. To obtain the edge of the corner, the
cross-section is pentagonal. With such a cross-section, the curb their upper surfaces face, i.e.
they form a plane, with neighboring roof slopes.
Short rafters rest on the edges. The connection of the trusses with the lattice is made
at the contact by appropriate cutting of the bells and reinforcement with nails. Similarly, i.e.
on the contact, the cradles are connected to the lattice and rafters, nailing them with nails and
pulling the clamp. You can also base the ball on exchange. The exchanges are used in flat
roofs, where the contact at the contact would be too weak. The ball is connected to the
swallowtail exchange.
The intermediate-longitudinal and transverse purlins - lie in one level and are
connected with each other to a simple overlay nailed with nails. The corner posts are
connected with the rafters by means of tongs, and with the buoys - swords. In addition, corner
posts are supported from the side of the building with braces stiffening the stool wall in the
direction of its length. The lower ends of these braces based on bases, i.e. short bars arranged
on two extreme joists. In addition, the straps are connected with tongs with appropriate
crutches.
In roofs with a more complex layout, there are stretches of various sizes. Next to
convex corners, they are concave, called baskets, which are made similarly to convex
corners. On the line of intersection, the rafters run on which the crutches rest.33
4.4. Smokes
The smoke is used for ventilation of the attic. Their name came from the fact that in
the past the chimney was finished in the attic and smoke was coming out through the
windows, left in the roof.
In order to make a smoke-hole across the rafters, transverse bolts are placed nailed to
the rafters or connected to the rafter. On the lower rack there is a frame made of two pillars
and pillows, and two throttles are placed on it and on the top shelf.
The other design of the smoke diffuser differs from the one described above in that
there are rafters on the dampers forming a roof over the smoke bowl. The sides of the smoke
bar are plowed off, the roof is covered or trimmed, depending on the type of coverage.
The dimple called the free eye consists of a properly cut front panel, set on an
exchange with a batten, boarding nailed to the board and roof plating. 4.5 Vents In roofs
covering rooms that require intensive ventilation, vents are set up.
The ventilator consists of a box and a cross-section, usually square, at the top of
which blinds are made of diagonally positioned boards. The ventilation box is insulated in the
attic with straw or insulation boards. On the chest without the undersuit, especially in the

winter, water vapor settled when the warm air came into contact with the cold wall of the
vent. The cooling of the vent would also reduce the air draft.
At the bottom of the box there are flaps that can be opened or closed. The bottom
outlet of the box is closed by a shield made of two layers of boards sanded with tar paper. The
part of the box protruding above the roof covering is insulated with backfill of peat powder,
sawdust, etc. For this purpose, an outer box is made to keep the backfill around the box above
the roof. The top outlet of the chest is closed by a visor.
Vents are most often used in roofs of wooden buildings requiring frequent air
exchange, which include wooden barracks, sheds, a passage, various types of warehouses,
etc. rooms. Currently, vents are usually made of sheet metal or plastics.34
4.6. Climbing and roofing
Formwork or paving strengthens and stiffens the roof covering. Planking is made of
poles, patches, edged boards nailed to the forehead or planks joined to the rebate, tongue and
groove, depending on the type of roofing.
On pole, poles and patches are applied nailed to the rafters at intervals.
Under the roofing felt, the boards are nailed to the forehead. However, it is more
tightly connected to the rebate, and the tightest to the tongue and groove. Boards should have
a thickness of 25 mm, their width should not exceed 20 cm due to warping boards.
Boards under the cover plate are laid with the widths of five or six centimeters.
The corrugated and corrugated sheets are arranged for years spaced every 32-34 cm.
The tile is also laid on patches. Under the carpeting, the patch lace is placed every 20 cm,
under the husk cover - every 14 cm, overlapping tile - cp 31 cm, the Dutch roofer tile - every
32-34 cm.
Asbestos-cement panels are laid either on full boarding, when under the tiles there is a
layer of roofing felt or on boarding with breaks as under the sheet. You can also attach the
plates to patches.
Corrugated asbestos-cement panels are laid on patches spaced every 35-52 cm. The
patches are made of 40 mm boards or 50 mm long cut logs on a disk. The most common are
patches with a cross-section of four to five or five to six cm.
Formwork or splitting begins with the nailing of the front and eaves boards. The
thickness of these boards is at least 40 mm, especially when gutters are attached to them. For
34 Budownictwo betonowe, volume 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa 1968, p. 281.
roofing the eaves board should be increased accordingly, so that the last row of tiles will not
collapse.
For this purpose, a washer adjacent to the rafters is placed under the eaves board.
Under the eaves, a cow board is pushed to the end of the cow.
After the fascia and eaves board is attached, the formwork of the baskets is made. If
the formwork is carried out intermittently, e.g. under a plate, a gap width patch is placed
between the boards. These patches are not nailed, but they are applied successively between
the boards to maintain the same gap width.
Similarly when paying, we use the appropriate board width. Patches or boards are
made in the attic, helpers give them to carpenters by planking the rafters. Nails for nailing
boards or patches are kept in special cases.
In order to prevent stains from chimneys or other protrusions, special roofs are made
in the roof slope.
The board or patch should be nailed to each rafter with at least one nail. The wider
boards are nailed with two nails.
The formwork is nailed to the rafters parallel to the eaves. An exception in this
respect are the roofs, in which the load-bearing structure is the girders spaced at distances
greater than the average spacing of the rafters. In multi-pitched roofs, purlins running parallel
to the eaves are used.
If these purlins are placed sufficiently densely, the rafters are not laid on them, but
directly nails the formwork. In this case, the boards are fixed perpendicular to the eaves line.
If the roof is to be covered with corrugated corrugated board or corrugated asbestos-cement
panels, the purlins are spaced less frequently and the rafters are laid on them, since the fishing
should always be carried out parallel to the eaves.
Some historic buildings, due to the fire protection and durability, are covered with
reinforced concrete roofs at the time of the reconstruction, although the roofs of the buildings,
due to architectural reasons, are covered with tiles or sheet metal.
In such cases, on the reinforced concrete slab, we perform Latin or formwork. the
patches are then nailed to the blocks specially embedded in the reinforced concrete slab for
this purpose, and the boards to the wooden slats fixed perpendicularly to the eaves. These
strips are nailed like patches to embedded blocks.
Chimney benches are placed on steep roofs. They are made of impregnated beams 50
mm thick and 20 cm wide. benches are attached to special props recessed in the rafters at
distances of no more than 2 m. Bench benches should be supported every 1 m, while from the
top they should have patches nailed every 40 cm.
The exit to the roof is provided by a chimney vent located near the chimney benches.
The manhole consists of a box at this age. The lid has belt hinges and closes on the skewer.35
4.7. Making a roof truss
Before installing the rafter framing, one must first designate, cut and properly process
its individual elements: beams, purlins, rafters, poles, clamps, straps, swords, etc.
The roof truss is made on the basis of the building's design, which should include a
horizontal projection of the roof truss and its sections: transversal and longitudinal.
Complicated trusses are scaled 1:20 or 1:10.
The type of structure of the action truss structure defines the cross-section of the roof,
on which the full truss is visible along with the dimensions needed to be made. The
longitudinal section of the roof complements the cross-section and exposes the spacing of the
primary girders, the way of stiffening the truss in the direction of the length of the roof, etc.
On the basis of the drawing of the truss presented in the project of the roof truss, the
girder is scattered in its natural size on a properly level ground, eg a platform made of planks.
This template is used to make individual components.
This is done in the following way: the batten from which the rafter is to be made, is
applied to the template and marks on its narrower surface the vertical lines at the points
where the cutting lines are to be. Then, by means of a carpentry angle bracket, the notch lines
are drawn on the second plane of the batten.
After checking the dimensions and correctness, cutting out the grooves begins to
make them. For the sake of simplicity of work in determining the grooves of further rafters, a
few planes are stacked flat on top of each other and he places the rafter on them. At the same
time, the notch lines are drawn at all edges on their narrower sides.
The lines of rebates on wider springs are drawn with the apex of an angular corner
with a variable angle or sometimes by means of a special pattern having the shape of
appropriate rebates.
After performing all the elements, it is advisable to perform a trial merge. After
adjusting the girders, it adjusts the stool frames and trusses, basket rafters and cradles, if of
course these elements in a given roof truss are present.
35 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, volume 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 141.
After adjusting and juxtaposing individual elements, they should be marked
accordingly, which greatly facilitates installation of roof trusses, eg J-collar, K-rafter, Kk-
rafter basket, K1-ticks, M-murłata, Mw-sword in the truss plane, Ms-sword in the plane of
the stool wall, P-brace, Ps-flush stool, S-pillar, Hanger, Replace, Z-brace, etc. At each mark,
one must also give the next number of the truss.
After the trial merging and marking of elements, they are placed or entire units next to
the building near the vertical transport equipment. Elements can be arranged in piles
according to their types, i.e., for example, separately rafters, tongs or in succession of the
following girders.
The latter method requires more places and also hinders transport, but it makes
assembly much easier.
The following actions combine with the assembly of the rafter framing:
● vertical transport, ie pulling individual elements or certain assemblies onto the
building,
● folding the loose elements into the assemblies on an even attic floor or stacked plank
flooring,
● proper assembly, i.e. setting and fastening of ready construction units to the right
places.
Vertical transport can be done with the help of discs, pulleys and winches, lifts or
cranes. Use as much as possible of mechanical devices that reduce manual work and
shorten transport time. The assembly starts with laying the derricks, blocking them against
the dampness of the walls. At the same time, it connects both the pitch and the submerging
heaters.
On the wall cover or on the walls, the beams or trams of full girders are distributed in
the spaces provided for in the project, checking the level and the water hose for their
horizontal arrangement and in one plane. Further activities depend on the construction of the
girders.
Considerations will be given to the installation of a truss roof with a double stool,
without a knee wall based on a wooden ceiling. First, the ceiling beams are made and
arranged. At the beginning, blanks are prepared for marking the beams in the beams.
According to the truss template, individual shapes are drawn, a pattern is made, and the
rebars on the two extreme beams are marked with it.
After marking the grooves, they are cut with a crosscut saw or a hand-operated
circular saw and chisels are selected with a chisel. At the same time, the beams are cut to the
required length.
Then the beams are laid on the blocks, from which the cap is made at such intervals as
they will be laid on the walls and the floor beams are spread on them to find the places of the
rebars joining the beams with catches. The rebates are made as for the joining of beams and
rafters. Finally, the roofs and ceiling beams are pulled onto the building and the ceiling is
laid.
After checking the arrangement of the beams, the stool frame posts are set, the
intermediate purlin is put on them and stiffened with swords. Until the completion of the full
assembly, the stool frame is temporarily fixed in the plane of the primary girders with boards
nailed diagonally to the frame pillars and tram beams. While stiffening the temporary wall, it
simultaneously checks and aligns the level of the upper surface of the purlin, the vertical
position of the stool wall and an even purlin line.
Next, the lower bar is placed on the beams, aligning its outer edge with the rope. After
checking the gaps between the purlins, rafters are mounted on them, connecting them with
pairs in the peak by taxiing. The surface of the roof slopes is checked with patches, removing
possible inaccuracies by cutting the notches. Nail the rafters to the purlins with nails and puts
on the forceps, connecting them with screws with posts and rafters. after putting on the
forceps, the system is stiff and requires no further assembly protections.
In other frameworks, e.g. hangers, it is more beneficial to merge the entire hanger
assembly on the square, and then suspend it and set it on the roof, which speeds up the work.
However, this method requires the use of lifting equipment and a good stiffening of the raised
and adjusted unit.36
4.8. Roof girders
At present, mostly full-length and mesh beam girders and frames are used. They are
made on the basis of statistical calculations and detailed drawings of the technical design. The
carpenter performs them strictly according to the working drawings of this project.
36 J. Dąbrowski, Cz. Wajdzik, Tradycyjne więźby dachowe, Wrocław 2009, p. 189.

4.8.1. Beam full girders
Girders full of span 5-12 consist of upper and lower carrying belts, connected with
each other by a wall made of intersecting boards. They have an average height of 1/7 - 1/11
of their span. The height of the girder at the lowest point can not be less than 0.4 average
height. The girder wall is made of 7-25 mm thick boards. The dimensions of strips made of
planks or logs result from statistical calculations.
The material used is planks or logs joined together with nails. The truss can have both
parallel strips, but most often the upper stripe has a slope adjusted to the slope of the roof.
The cross-section of the girder can be I-section or box. The cross-section of the belts can be
increased with overlays, occurring not over the entire length of the belt, but only on sections
with the greatest bending moments.
The walls connecting the belts are stiffened with ribs spaced at distances of 1-1.5 m.
The cross-section of the ribs is half of the belt cross-section. Only the ribs at the support have
a cross-section twice as large as the cross-section of the belt. The girders are spaced 2-5 m
apart and the purlin rests on them. In the longitudinal direction, the structure is stiffened by
struts based on the girders and purlins. Purlins can be placed densely at distances of about 1
m and then the formwork of the foundation is nailed perpendicularly to the eaves or spaced
less frequently, every 3-4 m rafters are laid on them, as in carpentry constructions.
The upper and lower straps are made of planks or logs bonded with nails or bolted to
the wall. Care should be taken that the boards or strips forming the strips are facing the wall
with one side. If this condition is not observed, then the belts will warp when the wood is
drying.
The number and spacing of the nails should be precisely stated in the girder working
figure. The wall is made of two planks of boards positioned at an angle of 30-45 degrees to
the level, connected to nails, the planks of one layer being inclined in one and the other in the
opposite direction.
The width of the boards used on the wall should not be less than 15 cm to reduce the
number of seams in the wall.
The penetration of the wall is carried out in such a way that there are 2-4 horizontal
nail rows at the height between the strands. There should be two nails on each board, and one
nail in the middle, with half of the nails should be stuck from one and half on the other side
of the wall.
The stiffening rib usually consists of a belt thickness spacer and an overlap connected
with straps. In less heavily loaded girders, the overlay is sufficient to stiffen the belt.
In large spans, belt contacts are made. The place of contact should be marked in the
design. Usually the contact is in the middle of the span of the spar.
The style of the compression belt is made on the frontal contact of the log or belt
board with a bumper cover with a cross-sectional area equal to the belt cross-section. The
contacting faces of the boards or balls of the belt should be wiped and carefully adjusted so
that the contact is as close as possible. The length of the insert depends on the number of
connecting bolts or steel bolts.
The contact of the tension belt is made on the tabs and insert. The insert is inserted on
the width of the belt and the length of the connection in place of the cut-out wall. The double-
sided overlays are the same as at the contact of the compression belt. The wall weakened by
the cut is reinforced with a bar nailed horizontally to the wall and vertically to the belts. The
contact should be strengthened with three ribs.
The advantage of I-beams, made of boards, is the ease of making, the possibility of
using boards on the waste walls and a small construction height.
The disadvantages of this type of girders are considerable susceptibility to
deformation due to nail connections, high workload and the need to drive nails in precisely
defined places.
Merging of girders takes place on a foundation made of logs, laid on joists and nailed
to them strongly. Bal contacts are good for groove and tongue to get completely even, do not
squirm the floor surface. On the floor, a spar outline is drawn, taking into account the
assembly arrow given in the design.
The contacts, due to the load, drop slightly. To avoid this, a girder is made with some
bending upwards so that the load aligns the girder and does not bend. Next, eight stiffening
ribs are applied and the corrugators and washers are nailed to the floor.
Crowns are placed on the axes of the ribs, placing spacers between them at intervals
of about 50 cm. At the center contact, crossovers are spaced at distances of 15-20 cm. The
length of the coil should exceed the girder height by 100 mm so that wedges can be driven in.
The wedges are positioned in such a way that their bottom resistance is on the bottom line.
After completing the jumper, the girder is merged as follows:
● on the washers and switches, the boards of the lower and upper belts are laid
strictly at the resistance of the clamps according to the drawn lines, and the
boards of the upper belt are nailed to the washer by short assembly nails,
● according to stacked strips, the boards of the ribs are trimmed and placed on
washers and switches,
● remove the assembly nails from the upper belt and squeeze it in the keystones
with wedges and nails the bottom belt contacts, the first layer of the wall is
laid, checking the thickness of the boards, so that the entire layer is of the
same thickness, after laying the first layer, the second layer is laid,
● a second layer of belts and ribs is laid on the wall, nailing them with nails,
● wedges are inserted, the girder is removed and rotated, laying again on the
floor, nails are inserted into the belts and ribs on the other side of the girder
and drill holes for screws, the girder puts on the tree and puts in the screws,
ready girders are put aside or immediately put into the place of incorporation.
The setting in the construction of a full wall girder consists of the following:
● putting a rope on the girder and hanging it on a crane hook or other transport device,
● lifting and setting the girder on resistances,
● making temporary concentrations to prevent the girade from overturning,
● photos of the lines,
● the position of the girder permanently with other elements of the structure, usually
plates.
Short clamps are placed on the girders in the middle, and long in two places
symmetrically placed in relation to the center. It is not allowed to install the loops in any
places, but strictly in places indicated in the working drawing or by the assembly manager.
The girders visited in two places are lifted by means of a rope connecting the two
ties or with the apomco of a post beam, called a traverse. To the end of the girder, the ropes
are fastened with which the girder hangs on the lifting hook and is lifted in the correct
position.
The girder does not raise the required height immediately, but first 30 cm above the
ground and checks that it has not been deformed. If any defects are noticed in the crane, they
must be removed before installation. Immediately after placing the girder in the correct
position, it is connected with concentrations with girders pre-set. The first girder stiffens or
attaches it to the support or lashings from ropes that are anchored to the masts.
When the girder is stiffened and there is no risk of it falling over or falling, the tethers
are removed. Then, the horizontal and horizontal positioning of the girder is checked and the
defects noticed are corrected, guiding it to the correct position with jacks or poles, if the
girder is light. The temporary concentration is removed after making solid concentrations, i.e.
after the purlins and wind girders have been installed.
The execution of the board girder is very labor-intensive and requires careful selection
of wood material, therefore instead of these girders pre-glued girders are used. In Poland, a
wooden construction system has been developed, called DK - glued wood. According to this
system, the Large Size Planks of Glued Glued Plants in Cierpice produce girders 7, 12, 15,
15.5, 17 to 37 m, gable and hipped with a rectangular cross-section.37
4.8.2. Beam lattice girders
The lattice girders constitute the second group of beam beams. They are used for
larger spans, reaching up to 40 m. These girders are made of planks, logs, and even beams
joined with nails, bolts, on discs or rings. There are also made lattice glued girders and
girders joined on barbed plates. In the construction industry there are many types of lattice
girders. With smaller spans, the upper bracket is used, with larger curves.
The simplest lattice girders include trusses made of planks. They may have a spread
of 7-15 m.
The lattice girders consist of an upper and a lower belt, vertical elements called posts
and diagonal elements called cross-braces.
The straps are made of two boards 150 by 25 mm, cross-braces and posts from
individual boards 150 by 25 mm. The posts and struts are placed between the strips. The
birder's extreme area is completely filled with 25 mm thick boards nailed to the belts. Further
fields are empty. The free spaces between the strips of boards are filled with pieces of boards
25mm thick, nailed to the belts. The truss at the support in the bottom band has a 50 mm deep
depth, provided for supporting the girder on the pivot or supporting bolt.
The girders can be made at the construction site or at the factory.
In order to facilitate transport, the girder is made in halves, leaving the planks of
strips protruding at the point of contact for connection. The embodiment itself is similar to
the full beam described previously. Pay attention to the correct placement of the nails.
Lattice girders made of boards are used in warehouse buildings, barracks and in
temporary buildings.
Lattice girders with larger spans are connected to bolts or rings.
Connecting the lattice girder elements with ring joints can be done in two ways.
The first method requires high professional qualifications of the carpenter and very
careful drawing and making of elements. It consists in the fact that on the carpentry square all
37 Ibidem, p. 190.
the elements are drawn according to the pattern and holes are drilled in them. The finished
elements are transported to the place of assembly. There, on an even platform with a board or
floor, the parts of the grid are superimposed on the assembly bolts, immediately setting the
gear rings in place.
After assembling this way, the truss lightly tightens the nuts of the mounting bolts so
that the rings sink into 3-7 mm in the wood. In this way, the rings are protected against
moving during pressing.
Immediately after assembling the truss, the rings are pressed in. The advantage of this
method is the speed of the truss, but it's easy to make a mistake here. If the hole for the bolt is
drilled in the wrong place, the whole component is unusable.
The safer way is the second way, which consists in making the initial assembly of
the truss, outlining the position of the rings and drilling the holes on the bolts right through
the entire stack of elements. After making the holes, the truss undresses and transports to the
place of assembly. The assembly is done as in the first method.
Currently, very often, the elements stretched in lattice girders are made of steel bars.
Metal elements with wooden ones are combined with special yokes.
The lattice girders with the upper arcuate band are used to cover the span up to 70 m.
They are made of bent or blue boards, squares and joists joined on nails, bolts, rings or
inserts. Joining the girder is carried out in the same way as the girders of the porpzendio
discussed, however, the crowns when joining the upper girder from bent planks should be
spaced densely, at intervals of about 50 cm and strong enough to withstand the pressure of
solid wood. The boards or upper strip boards are bonded to nails or glue.38
4.8.4. Installation of girders
The girders are assembled using cranes. They are set using a self-propelled crawler
crane that lifts them from the floor and sets them on poles. After setting, they are combined
with temporary concentrations with the construction already set. Purlins and planks of primer
are fed to robotic docks with the aid of mounting masts. The assembly method is called the
simultaneous method, as at the same time the purlins are positioned with the truss and nailed
under the cover.
When assembling this method, a ready construction is obtained immediately, but in
the event of any error in the setting it is difficult to remove it. For this reason, the next set-up
method is used more often. It differs from the one previously discussed, that first all the
trusses are set, they are fixed temporarily, and only after checking and adjusting their settings,
the purlin tab, the wind braces and the backing pad.
This system is especially recommended when carpenters are less experienced.
4.8.5. Framework
Often, glued frames and nailed frames are used similarly to full or lattice boards.
They are used primarily in agricultural construction. In terms of construction, they are two or
three-hinged frames.
According to the DK system, three-hinged glued frames are produced and due to the
shape of the elements, they are called hockey sticks.39
5. Roof wall and roof elements in wooden system construction
5.1. General news
In the 1970s, the Central Research and Design Center for Industrial Construction
"Bistip" in Warsaw began work on wooden lattice and railway constructions. The aim of
these works was not only to design designs of such structures, but also various details such as
fasteners. certificates of typical solutions, the quality of the elements was checked so that
they could be used massively.
"Bistip" developed two systems of wooden hall buildings made of glued wood, then
the production of these elements was undertaken by the Enterprise of Large-sized Wooden
Structures in Cierpice near Toruń.
At the beginning of the 1980s, the building system of glued timber was extended to
include an open DK system for erecting public buildings, such as commercial, gastronomic,
cultural, school and sports pavilions. The DK system was developed at the Central Research
and Design Center of General Building in Warsaw.
The earliest modern wooden constructions were used in agricultural construction. The
Central Research and Development Center for Agricultural Construction "Bisprol" in Warsaw
and the Office of Rural Building Studies and Projects in Krakow and the Office of Rural
39 Deskowanie drobnowymiarowe U-Form, deskowanie drobnowymiarowe Stal-form, deskowanie wielko

wymiarowe ścienne, deskowania stolikowe, Wrocław 1970, p. 102.
Construction Projects in Rzeszów have developed BHD-1 and BHD-2 systems, mesh truss
NB and systems Puko, Bieszczady 75 and Rzeszów 77 .
All of these systems achieve significant wood savings compared to traditional
construction and apply wood protection against fire and biological corrosion. In hall
solutions, wood consumption indices of around 3 sq m per 100 sq m of usable area of the hall
were achieved.40
5.2. DK systems
The DK construction and assembly systems contain glued elements, which can be
built, as in BHD, one-storey halls. The DK-1 system provides for the construction of single
and multi-nave galleries, girder and column.
The DK-2 system, however, is limited to single-aisle halls with a frame construction.
Elements of both systems are produced in Cierpice. Halls can be used as production, storage
in industrial plants, especially where there is a fear of creating an aggressive environment, in
public utility buildings as trade pavilions, market halls and warehouses, in agricultural
construction as livestock buildings, fodder processing, machine service stations, etc.
Hale rises on a modular grid of 300 cm. For vertical axes, a 50 cm height module was
adopted. The posts are placed on concrete monolithic foundation alloys. The steel poles will
have concrete in the goblets, the wooden poles are joined rigidly with steel anchors or Geka
rings. Roof girders after laying on walls and combined with poles and roof bracing combined
with roof girders.
5.3. DK system
The development of DK systems is developed for the construction of DK systems.

The elements of this system are commercial, gastronomic, cultural, school and sports
facilities. Wooden elements of the cover can be based on steel, wooden or reinforced concrete
poles and combined with elements of steel and reinforced concrete construction systems.
Buildings in the DK system can be as simple as previous systems or with a varied body and
individual features. The buildings also rise on a modular grid and with a 50 cm height
module.
40 System konstrukcyjno-montażowy DK-1 budynków halowych, volumes 1,2,3, Centralny Ośrodek Badawczo -
Projektowy Budownictwa Uprzemysłowionego “Bistyp”, Warszawa 1976, p. 114.
The basic element are glued girders, purlins and bolts, also glued and wooden, steel
and reinforced concrete poles. Column connections with girders and bolts are the same as in
the DK system. There are also skylights in the roofs to illuminate large buildings in
daylight.41
5.4. Curtain walls and lightweight shelters
Hall walls can be made of brick or aerated concrete blocks or assembled from
profiled Vitrolit glass panels. However, most often walls and flat roofs are made of light PW
or Stolbud boards. Walls and flat roofs are also used, encased with folded sheet with or
without insulation. Zakład Produkcji Lekkiej Obudów in Oborniki Wielkopolskie develops
layered PW / B-U1 and PW / B-U2.
They are fastened to wooden or steel bolts with angle bars bolted or welded to bolts
and special fasteners. between the bolt and the plate, a tape made of PVC foil, 0.5 mm thick
and 120 mm wide, is inserted.
From the outside, the panel contacts are sealed with foam polyurethane strips and
covered with contact strips made of galvanized steel sheet. From the outside, the contacts are
filled with permanently plastic putty. The length of the boards should be equal to the height of
the wall. The same plates are applied to the flat roof.
Rainwater gathers from the roof gutters and drains to the downpipes, spaced every 12
m. Skylights rest directly on the cover plates, in the bands where the boards can be suspended
by cantilever.
In addition to these elements in the casing there are adapted to the door panels, doors
and fixed and opened or from cold-formed steel sections, galvanized with glazed Terminal
double glazed units with sealed permanently plastic joints or plastic gaskets. T
he housing is also made of folded sheet metal, fastened with screws for wooden bolts,
screwed into each fold at the ends of sheets and in every second fold for intermediate bolts.
Vertical plants are joined by one-sided rivets. The insulation consists of two layers of mineral
wool. The plates are placed between the bolts and connected with spiral screws of 4 pieces
per square meter.
If the spacing of transoms is greater than 120 cm, an additional, thin-walled steel
section is inserted between the plates, which is prepared for the corrugated sheet. From the
inside, the panels are fastened to the transoms with strips of a 30 by 30 mm cross-section,
41 Ibidem, p. 116.
which are at the same time a support for internal fibreboard, particleboard or particleboard
filling panels.
Sheepwood, dry plaster and others are also used. The inner plates are held by
triangular strips, obtained from the intersection of the 30 by 30 mm strip.
The folded sheet roofs are made similarly. The sheet is screwed to the purlins, the
longitudinal contacts are riveted to the length of the sheet and connected to a 20 cm wide
overlap, which should fall on the purlins. Insulation is made of mineral hard wool, to which 3
layers of roofing paper are glued directly.
If there is a lack of hard mineral wool and mineral wool is used, as for insulating
walls, a hard fibreboard or fibrous board is laid under the felt. Special elements made by the
Bistip Sheet Processing Plant in Legionowo serve to finish the roof.
The gates, doors, windows and skylights are the same as for the PW / B enclosure.
Stolbud's solutions differ from the above-described wider use of wood-based
materials, especially particleboard and chipboard laminated boards, as well as plywood and
honeycomb plate hc, which are replaced with sheet metal.42
5.5. Securing buildings against moisture
Modern wooden buildings require much more careful protection against moisture, fire
and biological corrosion than traditional buildings, because the cross-sections of wooden
elements are smaller.
Moisture in the element can arise from atmospheric precipitation of ground moisture,
condensation on the building envelope, the use of excessively moist wood in places where it
can not naturally dry out plant leaks, dampness arising during cleaning, eg floors, wet
production processes e.t.c.
Before moistening with atmospheric precipitation, it protects roofing and the invoice
layer of the facade of the building. Plating of boards or boards made of wood materials is
protected against soaking with atmospheric humidity by painting or varnishing with paint or
water-resistant lacquer. The groundwater is pulled up by masonry or concrete foundation
walls. For this reason, all wooden elements in direct contact with the wall or concrete must be
insulated with roofing felt and protected with fungicides.
Condensation of water vapor from the air takes place in places where the temperature
of the element is lower than the ambient temperature. Therefore, contacts with metal or
42 Ibidem, p. 117.
concrete elements forming thermal bridges are avoided, i.e. intersecting the building envelope
and exposed to low temperatures. If a steel or reinforced concrete element is exposed to low
temperatures at one end, it all cools and water vapor condenses on the inside of the partition.
Wooden elements should be provided with a constant supply of air that dries them. If
this is not possible, e.g. in joints, they can not be used for making sun-dried wood.
Wood used in places exposed to frequent dampness can not occur in elements on
which water stagnates are formed.
It also avoids the use of glued elements in rooms whose air humidity exceeds 50
percent. The water vapor pressure of the outside air is approximately 1, 5 hPa, while the air
inside the heated rooms to 17-20 degrees C and 55-70 per cent relative humidity contains
steam with a pressure of 11-14 hPa. This pressure difference causes the steam to move
through the outer building partitions. When the couple encounters a low temperature
impermeable layer, it condenses on it, becoming a source of moisture.43
5.6. Transport, storage and assembly
Wall panels attached to the posts and transoms should transfer the self-weight and the
wind, which when calculating them took 450 N per square meter. Similarly, the roof panels,
in addition to their own weight, are calculated to transfer the snow load to 700 N per square
meter. they have some strength and stiffness that make it easier to manipulate the boards
during transport, storage and assembly.
The transport of elements takes place by rail or cars.
12-meter long girders are transported on two-axle trailers by truck tractors. Other
elements are transported using standard box trucks or on railway platforms. For transport, all
elements should be wrapped in a factory with foil wrap, which is only taken before assembly.
PW / B boards are transported in packets, transposed with packing paper.
Elements on the construction site should be stored on washers, so that you can easily
attach the tethers to the assembly.
The storage yard should be well dehydrated. It is advisable to cover the elements with
roofs, especially when stored for a long time.
Assembly of the elements is carried out using wheeled cranes with a lifting capacity
of 5-10 kN. Spans of up to 7 m are also assembled with ZB-1, 5B Pionier cranes. The crane is
moved by hand on the concrete floor of the hall.
Hooks ZK101 Lech or similar are used to assemble halls larger spans. The crane
moves along the longitudinal axis of the nave when installing the pillars and girders, along
the transverse axis while the purlins and cover plates are installed. Dahust girders are
suspended from of paricane belt handles for beam slings. The girders' pairs, after setting them
on the poles, are concentrated with purlins and wind braces to prevent the girder from
overturning.
The installation of a wall enclosure made of corrugated sheets requires a free-standing
scaffolding to be moved from the outside and inside walls. The sheet should be fixed at all
levels at the same time so that the wind does not bend it. The installation of flat roofs can be
done without scaffolding.
6. Carpentry works related to the development of the construction site
6.1. General news
The erection of each building requires a construction site, which should include
production, administration, social and material storage facilities. In addition to the already
mentioned devices, on the construction site there are roads for internal communication,
mainly of the material duct, tracks of cranes assembling heavy construction elements, vertical
transport equipment and, in addition, this square should be fenced. On every construction
there is also an electrical installation necessary to illuminate and power electric motors,
machines and mechanical tools as well as water supply installations. Sometimes, other types
of installations are still installed, such as lightning protection, compressed air, etc.
Most of the construction site equipment is made of wood. The carpenter is one of the
first workers to leave the construction site and the last to leave it.
The carpenters perform many different works while managing the construction site.
They set up fences, erect temporary buildings, scaffolding, windshield cranes, make small
equipment, etc.
All of these devices absorb a lot of wood. If you want to save wood, you have to
replace as far as possible the formwork of buildings, especially the internal ones, fibreboards,
chip-cement and reed, etc.
All construction site equipment should be selected based on the calculation of their
single cost, which includes transport, setting, demolition and disposal as well as depreciation
costs of the device, which depends on the time of operation of the device on a given
construction site and general durability of the device.
For example, the most expensive ones are crewmen, but when only a few months are
used on a given construction site, this construction will be charged with a small depreciation
cost, and the one-off cost of the crewman is small. If the truck car had to be operated for a
long time on one construction site, its cost would be much larger than a permanent building.
Until recently, buildings and non-removable buildings made of non-inventoried
elements should be replaced with buildings and devices made of ready-made inventory
elements, assembled in such a way that they are easy to demolish without destroying the
material. Also, auxiliary equipment made by carpenters for bricklayers, plasterers, kicker and
other workers should be inventoried and used on subsequent construction sites.44
6.2. Equipment and auxiliary equipment
For carpenters and plasterers, carpenters make floats, crates, lime lime boxes, blanks
for drawn plasters.
Mortar boxes are made of boards, not planed from soft wood. A chest is used to
reinforce the sections with thin flat bars.
The lime extinguishing box and the manual preparation of lime mortar are also made
from unploughed softwood boards. It has a bottom and is set on a leveled sand bed. From the
bottom of the lime the chest has a hole closed by a bolt and covered by a metal mesh. The
lime pit in loose soils is secured with bottomless formwork.
The blanks for drawn plasters are cut from a 20 mm thick board, to which a profiled
sheet like the board is nailed. The blank in the board should be withdrawn from the sheet
metal by a few mm. The pattern is fastened with braces to the frames, which the plasterer
moves over the guide, i.e. the usual patch nailed to the wall. The patch should be planed and
saturated with oil.
For transporting concrete, carpenters put wooden piers.
To set the foundations of the building, wire benches are set up, on which a wire
stretches along the outline of the building.
44 W. Prządka, J. Szczuka, Technologia. Kierunek drzewny, Warszawa 1977, p. 91.

The wire benches are set after the surveyors have delimited the outline of the
buildings before proceeding with the excavation. They are set at a distance of not less than 50
cm from the edge of the future excavation. The bench consists of stakes digging into the
ground and protruding 80-130 cm above the terrain and planks horizontally attached to
stakes, on which the wires are stretched, defining the outline of the foundations and walls of
the building.
Corner and intermediate benches have to be arranged in such a way that all the walls
of the building can be determined.
Temporary construction site buildings are equipped with factory-made equipment, the
same as used in permanent buildings. Exceptionally only carpenters make simple equipment
from boards planed on one side only on the face surfaces. Joints are made on nails, less often
on straight staples or nails with nails reinforcement. Such benches, tables, tables and shelves
are found.
The bench consists of a wide uniform board 40-50 mm thick, arranged on four legs
made of patches. The legs are stiffened with connectors, they are connected to the seat board
with wedge-shaped studs, used to strengthen the connection.
The table consists of two crosses that are connected by a joint, with which they are
connected to wedge-shaped journals. On the crosswords, put the plate covered with overlays.
Stools are a more complex skeleton-rack construction. Four legs are joined to the spigots with
lower and upper meadows inserted into them. The boards forming the box are nailed to the
contact or the clearance of the seat board.
Wall shelves or standing racks are usually made in the raw state. The boards of the
shelf are supported either on strips nailed to the sides, or they are flush to the sides with a
normal or slanted pivot, this type of connection provides a durable construction.45
6.3. Fences
The boards are nailed to the posts of round logs, most often old stamps, which are
buried every 200-300 cm in the ground to a depth of 60-80 cm. The posts are sunburnt or
impregnated at the height to be buried so that they do not rot. Corner posts are stiffened with
braces or wire lashings to ensure greater stability of the fence.
The height of the fence should be 150-200 cm.
45 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, volume 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 82.

In cities with high pedestrian traffic, the fence is made of wood. Similarly to the
previous type of fences, bollards with a diameter of 16 cm, length 170-280 cm are buried at
intervals of 200-300 cm. Bolts are nailed to the posts with nails. They may be nailed to the
roughly hewn surface of the post or recessed into a post in the post.
The bolts are made either from half-rounded logs with a diameter of 15 cm, or from 8
edges to 8 - 12 by 12 cm. The bolts are nailed vertically to the boards tightly to the forehead
or with leaving gaps. Smooth fences only overlap around construction sites, to which the
view from the outside should be difficult.
In order to reduce the consumption of wood, fences are made of pre-made discs made
of planks and fixed to posts for non-destructive wood joints.
The corner posts are stiffened and the wickets are made like shields. They are
suspended on hinges. The posts, on which the gate leaves hang, should be thicker and
supported by braces and protected by deflectors against vehicle wheels. Gates and wickets
intended for short use are simply attached with a wire. The gates can be closed either with a
spindle or a pole and a span. The gates are closed with chest locks, but most often they are
locked.
It is very important to properly make the gates and gates. The gates should be placed
in accordance with the design of the construction site and have a width enabling free passage
of vehicles, i.e. at least 300 cm. There should be two gates or more, with one of them a gate
width of 80-100 cm is made for the crew.
Wooden fences are now replaced with metal openwork discs made of steel rods or full
plates made of corrugated metal, fastened to steel or reinforced concrete pillars.
6.4. Temporary buildings
Temporary buildings can be used for human stays or for storage of materials and
equipment.
In buildings where people will be present, ie in the offices of the management of
works, hand-held workshops, packamers, canteens, club rooms, workers' rooms, it is
necessary to finish the interior in such a way that they comply with fire regulations and health
and safety regulations, i.e. they should be dry, bright, easy to air and clean.
On buildings that last a few or a dozen years, solid buildings are built in ceilings and
wooden roofs. When the construction is planned for a period of up to 5 years, buildings
constructed from containers, i.e. spatial elements with a mostly metal skeleton, are used in a
building of any size.
On the construction sites lasting a few years, office buildings or wooden, non-
removable, with skeletal walls are usually built. Enterprises, whose work on the site lasts
several months, use barracks. Warehouse buildings are made either as sheds closed with walls
on all four sides or as shelters.
Warehouse buildings are also made of portable metal structures covered with folded
sheet metal or plastic reinforced with glass fiber. In the absence of this type of buildings,
wooden buildings are used. which the view from outside should be difficult.
In order to reduce the consumption of wood, fences are made of pre-made discs made
of planks and fixed to posts for non-destructive wood joints.
If you set up tight fences over several dozen meters, the wind may turn them over.
Therefore, every 300 to 500 cm supports the post from the inside with a brace nailed strongly
to the post and based on a dowel driven into the ground.
The walls of wooden temporary buildings, if they are not assembled from ready-made
elements, are made as skeletal. In the walls of such poles, struts, bolts are made of boards 25,
32 or 38mm, and only the foundation and the cap of the square logs. elements are connected
with nails.
External formwork usually takes place in the cover or instead of the formwork, the
shell is covered with reed boards. In heated buildings, there are also internal formwork made
of plank boards joined to the rebate or hardboard or chipboard, which should be plastered or
polished, reed, gypsum and plaster boards, etc. The thermal backfill is used the same as in
skeletal walls permanent buildings. Partitions are made of boards or boards.
Some temporary buildings rise as bunks. They are used especially on very small
construction sites, where there is no space for erecting one-story buildings. The ceilings in
multi-storey buildings are made of wooden, plank or sometimes, in buildings with masonry
walls, of steel beams. There are no refractory plates between the beams, but on the lower
shelf they are supported by a blind ceiling made of boarded mounds, on which the joists are
laid, most often also from planks set on a tree. Joints are applied to the joists. Such a ceiling
can easily be dismantled and transferred to another construction.
Raccoon walls are made of poles buried in the ground to a depth of 80cm, like fences
poles, in the backwoods: for formwork horizontal 100-150 cm, for sexing a pin 200-300 cm.
Horizontal formwork is made from cork boards into the cover and vertical, depending on the
required wall tightness - from cork boards nailed to the bolts alternately with the right and left
sides or only the right side.
In order to obtain completely airtight walls, the formwork is nailed with the left side
to the bolts, and the cover is covered with the second layer of the desk, crossed by the right
side in the direction of the bolts.
Buildings erected for a longer time or insulated are sealed up vertically or
horizontally, like permanent buildings. Bolts are spaced depending on the length of the pins at
100-150 cm intervals. The poles are made of logs with a diameter of 15-20 cm, and the bolts
are made of half-rounded logs of the same diameter, or of blocks with dimensions of 8 by 10,
10 by 14 cm.
The bolts are nailed to a leveled ax of the pole surface or connected to a single-sided
wrist, made in a column to a depth equal to ⅓ to ½ of the thickness of the bolt. The poles are
connected at the top with a cap made most often from a board 25-40 mm thick, nailed to the
pole on a one-sided wrist.
The construction of roofs in temporary buildings should be made so that it is
sufficiently rigid and durable, and at the same time easy to assemble and dismantle. these
conditions are met by nailed girders.
The roofs are usually covered with tar paper. Sometimes, smooth or corrugated
asbestos cement boards are used, which can be used, so use several times.
The roof construction of large storage sheds is also made of dexter girders. In sheds of
a small width, 3-4 m, or in larger ones with rows of posts supporting the roof structure from
the inside, the roof skins are laid on rafters based on the girders of pillars.
The rafters are usually made of 25-40 mm thick boards, placed on the hollow by
sticking them to the post protruding above the eye cap. The rafters resting on the pole
between the posts do not require stiffening, because they are sufficiently bound by the roof
sheeting.
Floors in buildings intended for people's stay as well as in food and cement storages
should be made of wood, boards made of wood, and in other buildings wooden grates are
made of boards laid with rpzleswit up to 4 cm.
Joists placed on mason poles should be insulated with tar paper. In the storage of
materials insensitive to moisture, the floors can be made of compacted clay.
The simplest types of doors and windows are used. The windows are mostly loom,
and the doors are made of patches or boards. The structure of the gate, the method of closing
and hanging are the same as in the fences, with the decoing made from the boards clad tight
to the forehead.
When making temporary buildings, all fire safety regulations must be observed. On
all construction sites, there are plaques with fire-fighting equipment hanging next to a barrel
of water and boxes of sand. You can not block access to this equipment with materials or
construction elements prepared for assembly. On the carpentry fields, wood is not allowed to
smoke outside the places designated by the management of the works.
The order in which the construction works are carried out is the same as for
permanent buildings. First, the place of the building on the ground should be drawn according
to the design of the construction site. After marking out, you start to bury the wooden poles.
The posts are positioned along wires or cords stretched on wire benches. In rigid soils,
the posts can be sharpened and driven with hand-operated rams, and there is no need to set up
benches. After burial or piling, the posts are cut at the appropriate level. A foundation is laid
on the posts and fastened to them with carpentry clasps. After erection of the walls, the stakes
were plated into the overlay. The poles of the shed are buried like posts under the foundation
and cut at the height of the cap.
Paragraphs on toes that have a sewage system should be connected to a sewerage
network. The building should have insulated walls and roofs, preferably with centrifuge-
cement boards and be heated with an oven, otherwise the entire winter installation may freeze
and be destroyed. Arrested outlets are built on dry squares, located above the pits.
Due to the contamination of the ground, the toilet drains should be walled. Only on
construction sites run far away from human settlements and wells from which drinking water
can be extracted, dry pits can not be built. They are then made just like lime pits.
The logs are arranged across the bottom, with a diameter of at least 20 cm, on which
the foundation is laid, and on it, sets the walls of the building and the ponds. Paragraphs
above unpolluted pits are set on round logs in order to be easily moved to another place when
the bottom is full. Each mesh should be partitioned with a transverse wall.
There are built-in sections with one row of eyelets and two rows of eyelets. In
double-row sections, the two rows should be partitioned with a wall. The transverse walls and
partition walls only rise to a height of 200 cm from the floor.
The passages should be covered with a roof made of the rafters' data, just like the
roofs of small, based on wall caps and equipped with vents. They are assembled from boards
in the shape of a rectangular prism with a minimum cross-section of 15 by 15 cm, covered
with a roof above. The vent should reach below the logs, and the top should be led above the
roof at least 30 cm from the entrance side, the roof should have a hood 30-50 cm wide.
There are passages closed with doors to each eye or with entrance to the corridor
running in front of the eyes. You can also make open spaces, i.e. having only 3 walls, with an
entrance covered by a fence with a height of at least 2 m.46
6.5. Warm casings
These are warm casings that protect against wind, snow and frost, enabling works in
any season of the year in conditions similar to summer ones. The warm casings can cover the
entire erected building or only part of it. Materials and machines are then outside its space
and should be covered with additional hothouse. When the hothouse covering all or part of
the building proves to be too expensive, then partial, lifted or portable hot houses are used.
The lift pod is built to the height of one storey and as the building is raised, it raises
up. The portable pool is built over a part of the building and after it is carried, it moves to
its further parts. This type of hothouse is best suited for buildings with repetitive elements.
Currently, hothouse of all types have a light metal casing with a plastic foil or are
pneumatic constructions. Sometimes wooden hothouses are used. These are skeletal
buildings. Wall formwork can be insulated with straw mats, tarpaulins, tarpaulins or instead
of boards, warming boards are used.
Stands, especially portable ones, should be light or complex, made according to
working drawings, which should be attached to the design of works in the winter. Simple
platters, especially those protecting concrete mixers, mixers, reinforcement preparation site,
etc., are made just like wooden sheds, with wall formwork and roof covering insulated with
roofing felt, insulation boards, straw mats, etc.
6.6. Storage of building materials
Most materials and construction products are in open space. Materials that are
subject to the harmful effects of atmospheric precipitation, such as gas pipes, reinforcing steel
in coils, etc., are stored under the shelters.
In closed warehouses small and sensitive materials are stored for atms extenze factors,
such as electrotechnical, tools, machine parts, cement, quicklime, gypsum, etc. Storage of
46 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, volume 3, Warszawa 1967, p. 71.

materials should meet many technical requirements, aimed at facilitating and safety of the
crew and preventing destruction of materials. The storage area should be leveled and
evacuated with open ditches, and when the area is canalised - through street inlets.
In order to facilitate the work of storage buildings should be equipped with such
governance as baffles, racks, shelves, light hand cars and ladders. Flammable materials are
stored in specially protected places, where the smoking ban must be observed.
Proper storage of wood materials is very important. Valuable materials and elements,
such as doors and windows for barracks, baroque panels, especially with thermal insulation,
etc., which deteriorate when exposed to rain or snow, should be stored in closed sheds, or at
least under roofs. The remaining material should be placed near the carpentry, from the
windward side, i.e. the wind from which the wind usually winds.
Each wood assortment should be stacked in a separate pile.
On construction sites, the lumber is stacked in such a way that the direction of laying
the lumber layer changes in subsequent layers and the insert is not placed. Likewise, arranged
in logs piles, so that the layer of me creates an inclined surface. Stacks should be covered
with roofs that protect them against rain and sun. A plate should be hung on each stack giving
the dimensions, its class, the number of pieces and the type of wood. In the stack, the material
should be placed in the feet, i.e., equally with the foreheads on one side.
This also applies to the material obtained from demolition of formwork or
scaffolding. Wood waste, i.e. wood destroyed due to repeated use in scaffolding or formwork
as well as burrs formed during the alignment of various material lengths and elements being
made, should be returned to the company's warehouse.
Materials from demolished formwork, scaffolding and buildings are reused, but they
must first be cleaned of mortar, concrete and nails. It cleans itself with the old ax, but it is
tedious and inefficient work, especially since the strongly attached concrete has to be
bounced once and twice. Cleaning can be made much easier by laying boards on the ground
and scraping them with concrete using a scraper placed on a stick.47
47 S. Olszak, W. Jędrejek, W. Wiater., Poradnik cieśli wiejskiego. Roboty ciesielskie, stolarskie dekarskie,
6.7. Operation of the construction site
The development of the construction site and related devices are part of the
technological equipment of the construction. The development of the construction site can
change in its individual phases, as it is adapted to the ongoing works.
On the construction site, the most important task is proper storage of materials and
products from which the building is assembled. Compositions are organized in such a way as
to minimize the internal carriage. All construction site equipment should be ready before the
start of the relevant works on the construction site.
The basic occupational health and safety regulations regarding the construction site
management relate to the method of storing materials, marking hazardous zones and
conducting electric power cables for the equipment. They define the conditions that the fence
and lighting of the construction site should meet.
Also, the storage conditions for materials and products should be in accordance with
OSH and fire safety regulations.
Danger zone is an area located, for example, within the range of a crane, increased by
10 m. In this zone it is not possible to build any temporary objects or install machines that
require servicing during crane operation.
Electric cables should be protected against damage and all electrical devices should be
grounded.
Access and communication routes on the construction site as well as locker rooms and
washrooms should be illuminated with an intensity of 20-40 lux. The workplace of the
carpenter is illuminated with the intensity of 40-80 lux, and when the carpenter uses hand-
held mechanized tools or supports a 100-150 lux machine.
If daylight is insufficient, artificial lighting should be provided. The construction site
is also equipped with hydrants and canopies with fire-fighting equipment.48
Summary
The complex carpentry process is called the entirety of works that the carpenter must
perform to obtain, for example, a rack scaffolding, reinforced concrete slab formwork, etc.
This process is therefore called complex, that it includes a number of working processes, i.e.
works. For example, the execution of reinforced concrete floor formwork consists of the
following works: preparation of formwork elements, discs and stands, transfer of finished
48 Ibidem, p. 73.
elements to the formwork installation site, indexing settings, its demolition with material
segregation and material reference to the place of storage.
A complex process is usually included in one item of a detailed cost estimate,
developed to determine the cost of an erected building, and work is the order items issued to a
team or a group of robots. the work can be divided into activities.
For example, when setting the reinforced concrete ceiling formwork, the following
steps are taken: determining the locations of the columns, setting the frames under the
formwork columns, breaking columns and setting them, putting the discs on the bottom of the
binders and supporting their stands, putting on the side shields of the trains and supporting
their stands, putting on side shields of trains, placing and supporting discs on the bottoms of
ribs, setting formwork for slabs, finally - putting yokes on pole formwork.
In the old ways of performing works, all activities included in a given work were
performed by one craftsman. Such a way of performing works was called handicraft. It was
an irrational way, because a lot of simple activities, which the skilled worker did not need
more skills to do, they lose their time.
This delayed the execution of the work and raised the cost, because the qualified
worker for the time spent on performing simple activities took payment at the rates provided
for his group.
The proper organization of the works consists in entrusting simple movements and
activities to unskilled workers. A worker with higher qualifications only performs movements
and more difficult tasks, requiring his skills.
Bibliography
1. Bajkowski J., Bieniek S., Duchnowski K., Obrabiarki i urządzenia w stolarstwie,

Warszawa 1970.
2. Budownictwo betonowe, tom 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa
1968.
3. Dąbrowski J., Wajdzik Cz., Tradycyjne więźby dachowe, Wrocław 2009.
4. Deskowanie drobnowymiarowe U-Form, deskowanie drobnowymiarowe Stal-form,
deskowanie wielko wymiarowe ścienne, deskowania stolikowe, Wrocław 1970.
5. Jakubowski A., Otoczyński Z., Montaż i eksploatacja stojakowych rusztowań
rurowych, Warszawa 1973.
6. Kopkowicz F., Ciesielstwo polskie, Warszawa 1985.
7. Krzysik F., Nauka o drewnie, Warszawa 1975.
8. Michalczyk S., Lenkiewicz W., Roboty ciesielskie w budownictwie, Warszawa 1954.
9. Michniewicz W., Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985.
10. Olszak S., Jędrejek W., Wiater W., Poradnik cieśli wiejskiego. Roboty ciesielskie,
stolarskie dekarskie, Warszawa 1966.
11. Otwarty system szkieletowy z drewna klejonego dla budownictwa ogólnego, Centralny
Ośrodek Badawczy Budownictwa Ogólnego, Warszawa 1980.
12. Praca zbiorowa, Maszyny budowlane, Warszawa 1974.
13. Praca zbiorowa, Rusztowania budowlano-montażowe, Warszawa 1979.
14. Prażmo J., Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, cz. 1, Warszawa 1976.
15. Prządka W., Technologia meblarstwa, cz. 1, Warszawa 1979.
16. Prządka W., Szczuka J, Technologia. Kierunek drzewny, Warszawa 1977.
17. System konstrukcyjno-montażowy DK-1 budynków halowych, tomy 1,2,3, Centralny
Ośrodek Badawczo - Projektowy Budownictwa Uprzemysłowionego “Bistyp”,
Warszawa 1976.
18. Żenczykowski W., Budownictwo Ogólne, tom 1, Warszawa 1976.
19. Żenczykowski W., Budownictwo Ogólne, tom 3, Warszawa 1967.

Carpentry in Poland in The Past and Today

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Carpentry in Poland in The Past and Today

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Introduction 4

1.1 Scope of carpentry works

1.2 Outline of the history of carpentry

1 F. Krzysik, Nauka o drewnie, Warszawa 1975, p. 42.

2. Breakdown and general characteristics of building materials

2.1 Types of building materials

Building materials can be classified according to the following criteria: Breakdown by

2.2. Properties of building materials

2.2.1 General information

2.2.2. Density, tightness, porosity

2 Budownictwo betonowe, vol 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa 1968, p. 23.

2.2.3 Absorption, sorption, hygroscopicity and permeability

2.2.4 Thermal properties

Temperature changes are caused by material movements called thermal movements:

5 W. Michniewicz , Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985, p. 41.

2.2.5 Gas permeability

2.2.6. Sound absorption and sound conductivity

2.2.7. Mechanical properties

The most important group of characteristics of construction materials is their

3. Wooden walls and ceilings

3.1 General information

9 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 112.

3.2 Tie-beam walls

3.3 Framework walls

3.3.1 General information

Framework walls consist of a frame, formwork and an insulating filling.

10 Deskowanie drobnowymiarowe U-Form, deskowanie drobnowymiarowe Stal-form, deskowanie wielko

3.3.2 Vertical-post log walls

11 F. Kopkowicz, Ciesielstwo polskie, Warszawa 1985, p. 201.

3.3.3. Timber framing

3.3.4 Beam walls

12 S. Michalczyk, W. Lenkiewicz, Roboty ciesielskie w budownictwie, Warszawa 1954, p. 82.

13 W. Michniewicz, Konstrukcje drewniane, Warszawa 1985, p. 34.

15 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 122.

3.3.7 Insulation fillings

The framework walls of heated cavities should be insulated, which is achieved by

3.4. Partition walls

According to the technical and construction conditions, partition walls should be

3.5. Wooden ceilings

3.5.1. Positioning of floor beams

18 Budownictwo betonowe, Vol 5, Zbrojenie,deskowanie i formy do betonu, Warszawa 1968, p. 108.

3.5.2. Backing the floor beams against the walls

A wooden ceiling beam, supported by a masonry or concrete wall, should be insulated

19 W. Żenczykowski, Budownictwo Ogólne, Vol 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 24.

3.5.4. Types of wooden ceilings

20 J. Prażmo, Technologia i materiałoznawstwo dla stolarzy, Vol. 1, Warszawa 1976, p. 181.

3.6 Installation of walls and ceilings

3.6.1 General information

21 F. Kopkowicz, Ciesielstwo polskie, Warszawa 1985, p. 34.

Installation of the walls is preceded by laying the anti-dampening insulation in the

3. 6.3. Floor installation

3.6.4 Laying floors

3.6.5 Installation of partition walls

4. Girders and beams

4.1 Roof Components

23 W. Prządka, J. Szczuka, Technologia. Kierunek drzewny, Warszawa 1977, p. 66.

4.2. Multi-compartment roof trusses

4.2.1. Types of girders

24 J. Dąbrowski, Cz. Wajdzik, Tradycyjne więźby dachowe, Wrocław 2009, p. 221.

4.2.2. Rafter system

4.2.3 Collar system

4.2.4. Rafter-purlin system

4.2.5 Hanging beams