1
A Circuit-based Photovoltaic Array Model for
Power System Studies
Ryan C. Campbell, Student Member, IEEE
Abstract-- Recent interest in distributed generation (DG) due
to the opening of the electricity market and the need for
alternatives to conventional fossil fuel-based electricity
generation has revived interest in grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) systems. Studies need to be performed at the power system
level to examine the impacts of grid-connected PV systems and
several models for PV arrays have been proposed in the
literature for this purpose. However, the complexities of these
models and the difficulties of implementing them in software
programs can be deterrents to their use. This paper proposes a
simple, robust and flexible piecewise linear PV device model for
dynamic and transient power system studies. The circuit-based
nature of the model is beneficial because it facilitates
understanding of the PV device and its behavior in the connected
circuit. Software implementation is straightforward and it can
even be constructed using standard software library components,
as demonstrated using PSCAD/EMTDC.
Index Terms—circuit modeling, circuit simulation, nonlinear
circuits, photovoltaic cells, photovoltaic power systems, piecewise
linear approximation, power system simulation, semiconductor
device modeling.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE opening of the electricity market and the need for
alternatives to conventional fossil fuel based electricity
generation has brought renewed interest in grid-connected
photovoltaic (PV) systems. New studies are being performed
at the power system level to examine the impacts of greater
penetrations of this form of distributed generation (DG), but it
is not uncommon to find that the PV array models used are
oversimplified.
The output of a PV array is highly non-linear, and to
simplify the array to a constant voltage source or a current-
controlled voltage source is often not appropriate. Several
models for PV arrays have been proposed in the literature [1]-
[4]. However, in some cases, the models are not fully
explained and in all cases, their complexity, when coupled
with the difficulties of implementing them in various software
programs, can be a deterrent to their use. Furthermore, the
level of detail inherent in these models may not be necessary
This work was supported by the Power System and Computer Application
Lab (PSCAL), Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, S. Korea.
R. C. Campbell is currently with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA (e-mail:
ryanchasecampbell@hotmail.com).
for system level studies, and it is helpful to have a flexible
model that can be based either on theory or on measured
module/array I-V characteristics. In regards to the latter, PV
module manufacturers often provide measured data points for
their products, available either on their Websites or upon
request. There also exists a useful empirical model with a
database of well over one-hundred commercially available PV
modules and several installed arrays [5].
This paper proposes a PV device model suitable for use
with power electronic inverters in dynamic and transient
power system studies, and reflects the PV array's non-linear
DC characteristics. The model is robust, flexible, and its
implementation in software is straightforward; it can even be
constructed using standard software library components as is
demonstrated in this paper using PSCAD/EMTDC.
II. PV MODEL DEVELOPMENT
A. Background
There are several ways to model a PV cell, module, or
array for simulation. Custom components are often coded by
advanced software users (though the researchers who do this
rarely reveal their code). However, mathematical and software
integration complexities involving software numerical
integration methods and modeling non-linearities at the small
time-steps needed for simulation with power electronic
converters can make this a challenging task. The resulting
model may not be as robust or reliable as desired; trouble-
shooting and debugging can also potentially be time intensive.
Furthermore, modeling the continuous non-linear I-V curve
based on (1) (see Section B) using the compensating current
source method can result in excessive computations which
considerably slow simulation speed [6].
To overcome these problems, this paper presents a PV
array model based on the single-diode model described below,
and implemented directly as an electrical circuit in a way that
avoids the mathematical complexities of the implicit and non-
linear (1). This circuit-based method is advantageous because
it allows the electrical engineer to visualize and better
understand the PV device, and its behavior in the connected
circuit, than if it were simply a black box or in the form of a
complex equation.
 2

B. Theoretical Circuit Equivalent

The ideal solar cell can theoretically be modeled as a 2
current source anti-parallel with a diode, as shown connected
Ideal
by the solid lines in Fig. 1. The DC current, I'sc, generated Shunt R
1.5
when the cell is exposed to light, varies linearly with solar

Current (A)
irradiance. Refinement of the PV cell model includes the
effects of series and shunt resistance, as shown connected by 1
Series R
the dashed lines. A second diode can also be included [7], [8],
[1], as it provides an even more accurate I-V curve that 0.5
accounts for the difference in current flow at low current
values due to charge recombination in the semiconductor's
0
depletion region. Note that in this paper, only the single diode 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
model is used. Voltage (V)

Fig. 2. I-V Curves for DC PV Cell Models (Single Diode Model)

D. Piecewise Linear (PWL) Model

It is challenging to obtain a good fit to the non-linear curve
of Fig. 2 with power system simulation programs using
standard software library components due to the simplification
of diode representation: in most circuit simulators that utilize
the trapezoidal integration solution method, diodes are
modeled piecewise linear (PWL) as voltage controlled
resistors with two states: on and off resulting in low and high
resistance values, respectively. Using a PWL diode, the circuit
Fig. 1. PV Cell Equivalent Circuit Model model for the non-linear response is shown in Fig. 3 along
with the resulting two-segment I-V curve. Since many
Since a PV module is composed primarily of series- software programs provide parameters for the diode's turn-on
connected cells, and a PV array is composed of series- and voltage and on-resistance, a PV cell, module, or even an entire
parallel-connected modules, the single cell circuit can array can be modeled with this simple circuit by setting the
theoretically be scaled up to represent any series/parallel diode voltage near the cell/module/array open-circuit voltage,
combination. setting the diode on-resistance to give the appropriate slope,
and adjusting the current source to the desired value of light-
dependent short-circuit current.
C. Theoretical Equation
The equation for the single-diode model, including series 3.50
+y
and shunt resistances, is given by (1) (adapted from [7]): PWL
3.00
q(V+IR s )
(V + I R s ) 2.50
I = I'sc − I o1 (e kT
− 1) − (1)
Current, (A)

R sh 2.00
Ideal
1.50
where
1.00
I'sc is the light-generated current (short-circuit value
assuming no series/shunt resistance) 0.50
Io1 is the dark saturation current -x +x
0.00
q is the charge of an electron (coul)
k is the Boltzman constant (j/K) -0.50
-y
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
T is the cell temperature (K)
Voltage, (V)
I, V, Rs, Rsh are cell current (A), voltage (V), series and
Fig. 3. Two-segment PWL Circuit & I-V Curve
shunt resistance (Ohms) as indicated in Fig. 1.
While this approximation may be sufficient for some
Fig. 2 illustrates the I-V characteristics of the single diode
studies, it is not a very good match to the ideal curve and will
model, showing the ideal curve and illustrating the effects of
clearly over-estimate the maximum power point (MPP) of the
series and shunt resistances.
PV array, which is located at the knee of the curve. It will also
be problematic for MPP tracking controls, since the slope of
 3

the curve changes so abruptly - in reality, the MPP is not
nearly so sharp so it is far easier for the power electronics to
control the operating point. Some improvement could be made
in these respects by aligning the MPP's, but this would require
exaggerated series and shunt resistances, which would reduce
the overall curve fitting accuracy.
A much better fit to the non-linear curve can be achieved
using three series diodes and two low valued bypass resistors,
as shown in Fig. 4. In fact, the curve can be fit to any degree
of desired accuracy in this way by simply adding more bypass
resistor and diode pairs. Methods for determining the
appropriate values for the resistors and diode voltages will be
discussed in the next section.
3.50
+y
Ideal
3.00
1
2
2.50
3
Current, (A)
E. Calculation of PWL Model Parameters
Methods for determining the vertex points and calculating
the values of the bypass resistors and diode turn-on voltages
are thus needed, and several are presented below:
- The values of bypass resistors and diode turn-on
voltages can be selected iteratively by trial-and-error to
fit any reference curve available (such as the ideal curve
of Fig. 2).
- PV module manufacturers often provide measured data
for their products, either on their Websites, or upon
request. Depending on the data quality, an appropriate
PWL-type curve fitting technique, such as the MDL
(minimum descriptor length) method in [9] or [10], can
be used to fit the data. Low quality data sets may benefit
from pre-fitting using a PV-specific method (e.g., [11]).
- Another option is to use the Sandia National
Laboratories model and database [5], which is based on
real module and array data. The Sandia model can be
used to generate the vertices of the PWL curve based on

2.00
PWL the five key points of the I-V curve shown in Fig. 5.
4
1.50 Note that compared to the previous figures, which gave
curves for individual cells, Fig. 5 gives a curve for a
1.00
module composed of series-connected cells. This
0.50 method is also suitable for entire arrays, and the Sandia
-x +x model does provide data for several arrays.
0.00
-y
-0.50
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
Voltage, (V)
Fig. 4. Four-segment PWL Circuit & I-V Curve

Since a PV device's operating point is determined by the

equivalent resistance of its load, I-V curves such as those
above can be generated using a variable resistor that sweeps
from zero to infinite resistance. Operation of the circuit in Fig.
4 can thus be explained as follows:

1) When the load resistance is small, all diodes are off, and
the bypass resistors provide a path for voltage to build
up across the bottom diode, resulting in the first segment
Fig. 5. PWL Vertex Determination via the Sandia Model [5]
of the curve in the constant-current region.
2) As the load resistance increases, voltage builds up across
The Sandia model or any curve for which the appropriate
the bottom diode until its turn-on voltage is reached, at
data points are available (i.e., Ix and Ixx as shown in Fig. 5)
which point more current is drawn through the branch
can then be used to determine the resistor and diode voltage
(though limited by the bypass resistors) resulting in the
values of the proposed model according to the following
second PWL segment.
procedure:
3) If the value of the middle resistor is greater than that of
the top resistor, then the middle diode will turn on next,
1) Choose diode on resistances to be very small (e.g., 0.001
resulting in operation in the third PWL segment.
Ohm), depending on the software limitations;
4) Finally, the top diode switches on and the device
2) Choose diode off resistances to be very large (e.g., 1E6
operates in the (nearly) constant voltage region of the
Ohm);
PWL curve. The slope of this segment is determined by
3) Calculate Rsh and Rs from (2) and (3), which give the
the equivalent resistance of the branch comprised of 3
slopes of the first and forth segments, respectively, as
diode on-resistances and 2 bypass resistors.
defined by Fig. 4 or Fig. 5:
 4

0.5Voc − Vsc
R sh = R1 = (2)
Isc − I x F. Accounting for Changes in Cell Temperature or Incident
Irradiance
Voc − 0.5(Voc + Vmp ) As mentioned in Section B, PV device I-V characteristics
R s = R4 = (3) are temperature dependent; however, for many studies, such
(I xx − I oc ) as for transient analyses, changes in cell temperature are not of
much interest and can often be assumed zero. Solar cell
4) Calculate the top and middle bypass resistor values (Rtop temperature varies with incident sunlight, ambient temperature
and Rmid, respectively) from the simultaneous solution of and wind, but these effects can not change the temperature of
(4) and (5), in which the values of diode on and off a PV module very quickly, thus the assumption of constant
resistances suggested in steps 1 and 2 are used for temperature is often reasonable. However, in some cases, it
clarity: may be necessary to examine a scenario at one temperature
and then change the cell temperature and re-run the
simulation. It may also be necessary to account for the small
⎛ 1E6 R mid 1E6 R top ⎞
variation in open-circuit voltage produced by changes in
R sh ⎜ 0.001+ + ⎟
⎝ 1E6 + R mid 1E6 + R top ⎠ incident sunlight. Rather than re-calculating the diode voltages
R2 = R s + (4) and bypass resistors based on a curve at another temperature
1E6 R mid 1E6 R top
R sh + + or photo-current, an easy modification of the proposed model
1E6 + R mid 1E6 + R top is to insert an inverted ideal DC voltage-source into the diode
branch below the bottom diode, as shown in Fig. 6.
⎛ 0.001 R mid 1E6 R top ⎞
R sh ⎜ 0.001+ + ⎟
⎝ 0.001 + R mid 1E6 + R top ⎠
R3 = R s + (5)
0.001 R mid 1E6 R top
R sh + +
0.001 + R mid 1E6 + R top

where R2 and R3 are given by (6) and (7) as the slopes of

the second and third segments, respectively, of Fig. 4 or
Fig. 5:

Vmp − 0.5Voc
R2 = (6) Fig. 6. Addition of Voltage Source to Account for Open-circuit Voltage
I x − I mp Variation

The value of the offset voltage needed to account for the

0.5(Voc + Vmp ) − Vmp voltage dependence at the new value of temperature or photo-
R3 = (7) current can be calculated as follows:
I mp − I xx
1) since output current equals zero at open-circuit, the IRs
term in (1) is zero and (1) can be solved for the new
5) Finally, calculate the values of diode forward voltage open-circuit voltage, Voc,new as given by (11):
drop from Equations 8, 9 and 10, in which the values of
diode on and off resistances suggested in steps 1 and 2
are again used for clarity:
⎛ qVoc
⎞
Voc,new = R sh ⎜ I'sc − Io ( e kT
− 1) ⎟ (11)
⎝ ⎠
(0.5Voc − Vsc ) + I x R s
Vbot = (8)
R top + R mid 2) The difference between the original array voltage, Voc,old
1+ and Voc,new is then equal to the DC voltage offset, Voc,adj,
1E6
as given by (12):
⎛ R top + 0.001 ⎞
( )
Vmid = Vmp − 0.5Voc + R s (I mp − I x ) ⎜ 1 − ⎟
R top + R mid + 0.001 ⎠
(9) Voc,adj = Voc,old − Voc,new (12)
⎝

Vtop = Voc − Vbot − Vmid (10)

 5

III. CONCLUSIONS VI. BIOGRAPHY

This paper proposed a PV device model suitable for use
with power electronic converters in dynamic and transient
power system studies. The model accounts for the important
non-linear DC response of PV devices, and is simple, robust
and flexible. For power system level studies, existing models
suffer from unnecessary complexities and from
implementation difficulties in various software programs. The
proposed model, however, is simple and implementation is
straightforward: it can even be constructed using standard
software library components as demonstrated in this paper
using PSCAD/EMTDC. Furthermore, compared to black-box
PV device models, the model’s circuit-based nature enables
the electrical engineer to better visualize and understand the
PV device and its behavior in the connected circuit.
Ryan C. Campbell (SM’2006) was born in Ft.
Collins, Colorado, USA, where he earned his B.S. in
engineering science with a concentration in
environmental engineering from Colorado State
University (CSU) in 2001. He then followed an
international path through the Baha’i World Centre in
Haifa, Israel, and ended up back in academia at
Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU) in Seoul/Suwon,
S. Korea, where he earned his M.S. degree in
electrical engineering in 2006. He is now working on
his PhD. in electrical engineering at the University of Washington (UW) in
Seattle, Washington, USA, where he been awarded a second year of graduate
fellowship support under the Grainger Power Engineering Program.
His employment experience includes management in the mid-level retail
sector, and engineering/technician work in the commercial sector. In addition
to his studies, he now works as the lead student at the University of
Washington’s new Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored Industrial
Assessment Center (IAC).

IV. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the advice and
encouragement of Professor Myong-Chul Shin of the
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, S. Korea and Dr. Hak-
man Kim of the Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute
(KERI), Uiwang City, Gyeong-gi Province, S. Korea. The
author also wishes to thank Mr. Chang-Dae Yoon and the
members of the Power System and Computer Application Lab
(PSCAL) for their assistance and support.

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