HAIDER JALAL

There are four main states of matter: solids, liquids, gases and plasma.
Solids – have definite shapes and definite volumes and are not compressible to any extent. There are two main
categories of solids, crystalline solids and amorphous solids. Molecules are held close together in an orderly
fashion with little freedom of motion.
Liquids – have no definite shape but have a definite volume, and they are not easily compressible. Molecules are
close together, but are not held so rigidly in position and can move past one another.
Gases – a gas has no definite shape, it takes the shape of the container that holds it. Gases are easily
compressible. Molecules are separated by distances that are large compared with the size of the molecules.
Plasma - This state of matter makes up 99% of the visible universe.
Each of these states is also known as a phase. Phase describes a physical state of matter. The key word is
physical, because things only move from one phase to another by physical means. We speak of physical changes
if energy is added (like increasing the temperature or increasing pressure) or if energy is taken away (like
freezing something or decreasing pressure). These kinds of forces change states of matter.
Phase changes
Melt (or Fusion) – a substance fuses or melts when it turns from a solid state into a liquid state.
Vaporization (or Evaporation) – a substance vaporizes when it turns from a liquid state into a gaseous state.
Sublimation – a substance sublimes when it turns from a solid state into a gaseous state.
Condensation – a substance condenses when it turns from a gaseous state into a liquid state or when it turns
from a gaseous state into a solid state.
Solidification – a substance solidifies when it turns from a liquid state into a solid state.

A chemical reaction is a process leading to chemical change in matter, it usually involves the making and /
or breaking of chemical bonds. It is the process by which one or more substances are changed into one or
more new substances, for example when compounds are broken down into elements or other compounds. In any
chemical reaction, the original substances are known as the reactants and the resulting substances are known
as the products. According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of reactants must equal the total
mass of products for any given chemical reaction. Some reactions occur only under certain conditions (e.g.,
supply of heat; presence of light or electricity). Some reactions are accompanied by certain external indications
(e.g., colour change; evolution of gas, heat or light).
A chemical equation represents, with symbols and formulae, the identities and relative molecular or molar
amounts of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. It is a shorthand description of a chemical
reaction. It can be read in several ways, for example: 2 C + O2 → 2 CO
Carbon combines with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide.
Carbon and / plus oxygen react to yield carbon monoxide.
Carbon reacts with / interacts with oxygen to yield / produce / form carbon monoxide.
The reactants carbon and oxygen yield the product carbon monoxide.

What types of chemical reactions do you know? -synthesis, decomposition, simple and double displacements

Atom is the smallest possible units of a substance (elements or compounds). Each element is made from its own
type of atom. Although there are many different types of atom, they all have some important features in
common:
Atoms have a small centre called a nucleus. The nucleus contains two types of particles, positively charged
particles called protons and neutral particles called neutrons.
Atoms have particles called electrons which move around the nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge. The
electrons in an atom are arranged in atomic orbitals. Each orbital represents a different energy level/ shell.
The way an atom reacts depends on the number of electrons in its valence layer.
Atoms in pure elements are electrically neutral; it means an atom must always contain the same number of
protons and electrons. Protons and electrons have equal and opposite electric charges. The number of neutrons
in atoms of a specific element varies somewhat from atom to atom. Atoms of the same element but with
different number of neutrons are called isotopes. In nature, elements are found as mixtures of isotopes.
The neutrons and protons have essentially the same mass, 1.67 x 10 -24 g . This is equivalent to 1 amu (atomic
mass unit). The electron mass is much smaller: 9.11 x 10 -28 g, or 0.00055 amu.
An atom of one element is distinguished from an atom of another element by its number of protons. The atomic
number Z (or proton number) of an element is the number of protons in the atomic nucleus. For instance, the
atomic number of oxygen is 8, therefore all oxygen atoms contain eight protons and eight electrons.
The total mass of an atom is determined almost entirely by the number of protons and neutrons. In many cases
the mass of the electrons can be discounted because it is so much smaller. The mass number A is the same as
the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus.

The 3 isotopes of oxygen found in nature are oxygen 16, 17, and 18. Write their isotopic symbols. How many
neutrons are present in the nucleus of each of these oxygen isotopes? (8,9,10/atomic number 8)
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Atoms are made of particles with a positive and negative electrical charge. Unlike electrical charges attract
each other. These facts provide an explanation for all bonding.
When an atom has a full outer shell, it is stable and unreactive. However, most atoms do not have a full outer
shell. When atoms react they take part in changes which give them a stable arrangement of electrons. They
either transfer electrons, which we call ionic bonding, or share electrons, which we call covalent bonding.

In ionic bonding the atoms involved lose or gain electrons. So for example, if sodium Na 1s 22s22p63s1 loses one
electron, it is left with the stable electronic structure Na+ 1s22s22p6. The sodium atom has now become a
positively charged particle called a sodium ion [Na+]. When sodium reacts with chlorine, sodium loses an electron
and chlorine gains that electron so they both form stable ions.
Ionic compounds are usually formed when metals reacts with non-metals. Ionic bonds produce giant ionic
structures. Groups 1 & 2 and 6 & 7 of the periodic table of elements are the most likely to form ions. Groups
1 and 2 elements lose electrons to form cations. Groups 6 and 7 elements gain electrons to form anions. When
cations react with the anions, they form ionic bonds. The ionic bond is an electrostatic force of attraction,
which acts in all directions.

A covalent bond is a strong bond between two non-metal atoms. It consists of a shared pair of electrons. The
atoms of non-metals generally need to gain electrons to achieve stable outer energy levels. When they react
together, neither atom can give away electrons, so they share them. A covalent bond can be represented by a
straight line.
Hydrogen and chlorine can each form one covalent bond, oxygen two bonds, nitrogen three, while carbon can
form four bonds. Important examples of covalent bonds are hydrogen H 2, chlorine Cl2, hydrogen chlorine HCl,
ammonia NH3, methane CH4 and water H2O.

1. Chemistry - a science that deals with the structure and properties of substances and their reactions, it
studies matter and energy
2. Organic chemistry – the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of carbon and living
organisms
3. Analytical chemistry – the branch of chemistry that studies the properties of materials and analyzes
materials
4. Matter - the thing that forms physical objects and occupies space, it exists in four main states as
solids, liquids, gases and plasma
5. Solid – a substance that has a definite shape and a definite volume, it is not compressible
6. Liquid – a substance (state of matter) which has an indefinite shape and a definite volume, not easily
compressible
7. Gas – a substance with an indefinite shape and volume, easily compressible
8. Melting point – the temperature at which solids turn into liquid
9. Condensation – the phase change when gas forms a liquid
10. Sublimation – the phase change when a solid state changes into a gaseous state
11. Evaporation – the phase change when a substance changes from a liquid state into a gaseous state
12. Atom – the smallest unit of matter which has all the chemical properties of a particular element
13. Molecule - the smallest possible amount of a particular substance that has all the characteristics of
that substance
14. Neutron - a particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has the same mass as a proton but no charge
15. Element – a substance that consists only of one type of atom
16. Compound – a chemical substance that consists of two or more elements that together form a molecule
17. Mixture - a material system made up of two or more different substances which are mixed but are not
combined chemically
18. Solvent - A liquid in which a substance dissolves.
19. Acid - a chemical with a sour taste that forms a salt when mixed with a base
20. Base - a chemical that reacts with an acid to form a salt, it has a pH higher than 7
21. Atomic number – the number of protons in an atom¨
22. Mass number – the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in one atom
23. Bond - a force that holds together the atoms in a molecule, an attraction between atoms or molecules
24. Ion - an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative electric charge from losing or gaining
one or more electrons
25. Covalent bond – a type of bond between non-metal atoms, consists of a shared pair of electrons
26. Shell/ orbital – region a of space around the nucleus of an atom where an electron is likely to be found
27. Reactant – an original substance that changes when it is combined with another substance in a chemical
reaction
28. Product – resulting substance of a chemical reaction
29. Mole - A formula mass expressed in grams
30. Chem.equation – a shorthand representation of a chemical reaction with formulas of reactants to the
left of an arrow and the formulas of the products to the right of an arrow
31. Catalyst – a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
32. Enzyme - A biological catalyst.
33. Combination (synthesis) reaction – chemical change in which two or more substances react to form a
single (one) new substance
34. Period - A horizontal row in the periodic table.
35. Beaker - a wide glass with a lip for pouring that is used for holding and measuring liquids
36. Test tube - a glass container that is shaped like a tube which is closed at one end and that is used
especially in science experiments
37. Funnel - a device shaped like a hollow cone with a tube extending from the point which is used for
pouring something (such as a liquid) into a narrow opening
38. Flask - a glass bottle used in scientific laboratories that is used to carry liquids
39. Thermometer - an instrument used for measuring temperature
40. Condenser - a device used for changing a gas into a liquid
41. Forceps /tweezers - a tool that is used for grasping or holding little things
42. Spatula - a tool that has a long handle which is bent upward and a wide, thin blade used for lifting and
turning chemicals
43. Bunsen burner - a piece of equipment that produces a hot flame and that is used in scientific
experiments
44. Dropper - a glass or plastic tube that is used to measure out liquids by drops
45. Tongs - a tool used for lifting or holding objects that is made of two long pieces connected in the
middle
46. Crucible - a pot in which metals or other substances are heated to a very high temperature or melted
47. Clamp - a device that holds or presses parts tightly together
48. Petri dish - a small, shallow dish that has a loose cover and that is is used in scientific experiments
especially for growing bacteria
49. Analytical balance - a device that measures weight and shows how heavy things are.
50. fume hood - a piece of laboratory equipment designed to limit exposure to dangerous fumes
Task: Match the terme with their definitions:
solution A homogeneous mixture of two or more components
mixture two or more substances which have been combined such that each substance retains its own
chemical identity
element A substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means. It is defined by the number of
protons it possesses
base a chemical substance that donates electrons or hydroxide ions or that accepts protons
a chemical substance that is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically, with
compound covalent or ionic bonds
the property of matter which reflects the quantity of energy of motion of the component
temperature particles. There are several scales used to measure this value (e.g., Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit).

a) Compounds which have the same molecular formula but different

structural formulae.
b) A horizontal row in the periodic table.
1. alkali
c) A particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It has the same mass as a
2. electrode
proton but no charge.
3. neutron
d) A substance which dissolves in water to give a solution with a pH
4. polymer
greater than 7.
5. mole
e) A biological catalyst.
6. period
f) A conductor which is used to pass electricity into and out of solutions
7. solvent
or melts.
8. pollutant
g) A very large molecule which is formed by the joining together of many
9. isomers
smaller molecules.
10. enzyme
h) A liquid in which a substance dissolves.
i) A formula mass expressed in grams.
j) Something that harms the environment.