Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
ROLAND HEERE
in
February 1995
Department of
DE-6 (2/88)
A B S T R A C T
This thesis is about shotcrete as a repair material for concrete dams situated in the moderate
climate of south western British Columbia. Work on the thesis started in summer 1993. The
experimental part was finished by summer 1994. The project was done in cooperation with
A literature analysis focused on shotcrete materials and application techniques for repair
purposes. Some literature was found describing long-time performance of shotcrete repairs.
State of the art in shotcrete repairs includes mixes containing silica fume and steelfibers.Both
the wet-mix and the dry-mix processes are capable of producing durable shotcrete. Latex is
controversial as an admixture for shotcrete. Where shotcrete repairs have failed, that was
BC Hydro has six dams repaired with shotcrete. Four of these dams (Stave Blind Slough,-
Ruskin, Buntzen and Jordan River Diversion Dams) were examined closely. The original
concrete of these dams was of marginal quality and susceptible tofreeze-thaw.Repair shotcrete
was resistant to local environmental situations, although shrinkage cracking and reflective
cracking were observed. Shotcrete on horizontal surfaces and in concave corners had
deteriorated. Most shotcrete did not achieve the specific surface and void spacings
• Use 100 mm thick silica fume shotcrete with steel fibers on vertical surfaces
• Use 250 mm steelfibershotcrete on substrate concrete that will remain water saturated
ii
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Abstract ii
List of Tables xi
Acknowledgments xv
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1
2.1 Materials 2
2.1.1 Water 3
2.1.2 Aggregates : 4
2.1.3 Cement 5
2.1.5 Latex 9
2.1.6.4 Accelerators 14
iii
2.1.7 Fibers 16
2.2.1 General 21
2.2.4 Mixture 28
2.2.4.1 General 28
2.2.5 Spraying 28
2.2.5.1 General 28
2.2.7 Finishing 32
2.2.8 Curing 33
3.1.2 Sounding 39
3.1.4 Coring 40
3.1.6 Carbonation 43
3.2.6 Carbonation 46
3.2.11.1 Scope 52
3.2.11.2 Apparatus 52
3.2.11.3 Specimens 53
3.2.11.4 Procedure 53
3.2.11.5 Calculation 54
v
3.2.11.6 Limitation 54
CHAPTER 4 - INVESTIGATION 60
4.1 Overview 60
4.2.2.3 Sounding 66
4.2.2.4 Coring 67
4.3.2.3 Sounding 76
4.3.2.4 Coring 76
vi
4.3.3 Laboratory Testing 78
4.4.2.3 Sounding 84
4.4.2.4 Coring 84
4.5.2.3 Sounding 93
4.5.2.4 Coring 94
vii
4.5.5 Laboratory Testing, 1970 Shotcrete from Downstream Face 98
viii
6.2.6 Reinforcement 123
ix
6.8 Curing and Protection 143
Table 6: Stave and Ruskin Dam, Frost Events inside the Dam 59
xi
Table 25: Core Samples, Ruskin Dam, Spillway Bay #2 84
Table 39: Laboratory Test Results, Jordan Dam, Upstream Face, 1969 97
Table 40: Laboratory Test Results, Jordan Dam, Upstream Face, 1989 Shotcrete 98
Table 41: Laboratory Test Results, Jordan Dam, Downstream Face, 1970 Shotcrete 99
Table 42: Laboratory Test Results, Jordan Dam, Buttresses, 1990 Shotcrete ...100
Table 46: Shotcrete Quality Assessment, using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 107
Table 50: Typical Remedial Shotcrete Mix Designs, Proportions at the Nozzle in kg/m ..124
3
xii
Table 53: Dry-Mix Shotcrete Performance Requirements 126
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 16: Buntzen Dam, Cracking and Delamination near Intake Structure 75
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I want to thank all those persons who dedicated time and effort to this project. Special thanks to
Nemi Banthia, Dick Brighton, Johann Eilau, Carl Gung, Brian Hirst, Sidney Mindess, Rusty
Morgan, Dave Perry and Yoga Yogendran. Their suggestions and support during experimental
work and while editing these thesis have been of great value.
xv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This thesis is on shotcrete as a repair material for dams in south-western British Columbia.
One objective was to review the literature treating shotcrete as a repair material, its composition,
properties and durability. Site investigations and laboratory tests were planned and carried out to
evaluate shotcrete repairs at BC Hydro dams. The evaluated dams were: La Joie Dam, Stave
Blind Slough Dam (hereafter referred to as Stave Dam), Buntzen Dam, Ruskin Dam, and Jordan
River Diversion Dam (hereafter referred to as Jordan Dam). Recommendations for shotcrete
repairs at dams in south western British Columbia were prepared. They were based on the
1
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter describes the state of the art in shotcrete as a repair material for large concrete
structures. It relies mainly on English language literature available in North America. The
chapter focuses on materials and application techniques. Reports describing problems with
2.1 Materials
Chapter 2 describes the basic materials, additives and admixtures used for shotcrete. Each
2
2.1.1 Water
Water is necessary for hydraulic setting and hardening of cement in a shotcrete mix.
chapter 2.1.3) and forms hydrates such as calcium silicate hydrate, calcium aluminate hydrate and
calcium hydroxide.
Most often the desired water/cement ratio is about 0.3 to 0.4 by mass for dry-mix shotcrete and
0.4 to 0.5 for wet-mix shotcrete. Water is added at the concrete mixer in the wet-mix process or
at the spraying nozzle for the dry-mix process. Potable water is recommended. Local water
quality may be tested as follows: produce concrete cubes with water from a local source and
reference cubes with distilled water. Test all cubes for compressive strength. If the cubes made
with local water reach 90 % or more of the reference cubes' strength, the local water is
A mixture with too low a water content may be hard to pump (wet-mix process), develop
excessive dust during shooting (dry-mix process), or compact poorly upon impact. Too high a
water content may cause segregation during mixing and pumping (wet-mix process), or
sloughing of placed material. Inappropriately high water/cement ratio will result in shotcrete of
3
2.1.2 Aggregates
Concrete aggregates are also used for shotcrete. Typical aggregate minerals are andesite, basalt,
sandstone and syenite [Ref. 4]. The bond between aggregates and cement paste is predominantly
physical in nature. Friction, surface forces, and interlocking contribute to the bond.
ACI 506 gradation #1 (concrete sand) are appropriate for shotcrete layers less then 50 mm deep.
Gradation #2 (maximum 10 mm grain size) is recommended for use in repair work with depths
greater then 50 mm. Gradation #3 aggregates (maximum 20 mm grain size) may be the most
economical choice for downward shooting of thick sections in new construction. [Ref. 94]
Aggregates should conform to ASTM C33 or CAN3-A23.1-M94 [Ref. 88]. Aggregate for
dry-mix material batched on-site should have a moisture content of 4 to 6 % [Ref. 99].
Aggregates may be mixed with cement in batching plants, in transport trucks or on site. A
typical shotcrete mix prior to shooting contains about 80 % aggregate and 20 % cement by mass.
Extremely high or low aggregate content or poor aggregate gradation may cause low strength
shotcrete with poor durability. Aggregate which reacts with the alkaline cement paste or which
has a high potential to shrink or swell may crack and eventually destroy the shotcrete.
4
2.1.3 Cement
Cement serves as a binding material providing the matrix for the composite material concrete.
Cement reacts with water. The reaction products harden over a period of several days to weeks
frequently accompanied by small gains in strength over months and even years. The major
6 C S + 12H
2 -> C S H + 7[Ca(OH) ]
5 6 5 2
C A+26H+3CS
3 -> C ASH
6 3 2
Portland cements, and high alumina cements for applications requiring rapid setting, are
commonly used for shotcrete. Most shotcrete work has been done with CSA type 10, 20 or 30
cements. CSA type 10 cement is appropriate for most dry-mix and wet-mix applications.
Typical mixtures contain 400 to 500 kg/m of cementitious material. In-place* shotcrete tends to
3
5
have higher cement contents, since mainly aggregates rebound during the shooting process.
Usually wet-mix shotcrete has a low rebound (about 5%) and its cement contents remain
relatively constant. Dry-mix shotcrete, on the other hand, has 30 to 40% rebound which leaves
enriched in-place material. This is particularly true for shotcrete close to the substrate. [Ref. 53]
In construction and repair applications, water/cement ratios range between 0.45 and 0.35 [Refs.
53, 70]. Possible results of inappropriate water/cement ratios or aggregate/cement ratios are
High early compressive strengths are possible with a blended cements [Ref. 52]. Good freeze-
thaw durability was found for rapid-set shotcrete (containing calcium sulfoaluminate cement) in
Some high early-strength cements need to be in contact with water for about 10 minutes before
the superplasticizing and water-reducing ingredients become fully active. Advantages of these
cements, hence, can be fully utilized only in the wet-mix process. In the draft Norwegian
shotcrete guidelines sulfate resistant cement is not advised for locations with a risk of chloride
Pozzolans are materials which react with the calcium hydroxide produced during hydration of
cement. The pozzolanic reaction may further density the hydration products resulting in a harder
6
2.1.4.1 Silica Fume
Silica fume is a widely used pozzolanic admixture. Potential advantages of adding it to shotcrete
include:
• possible buildup of greater thickness (reports describe shotcrete layers 400 mm deep
applied overhead in a single pass; 3 m deep horizontal holes filled in one pass, 0.6 m
Silica fume also increases electrical resistance, reduces permeability and slows corrosion of
Silica fume is a by-product of the ferro-silicon industry. It consists of mostly amorphous and
hence reactive silicon dioxide (Si0 ). The particles are spherical with an average diameter of
2
about 0.1 micrometer. Silica fume has a specific surface of about 20,000 nrVkg measured by the
nitrogen adsorption method. This is about two orders of magnitude higher than the specific
surface of ordinary Portland cement. Silica fume is available as dry powder or slurry. It can be
added to the mix in the batch plant, in an on-site mixer or at the nozzle.
7
Silica fume admixtures for construction are often designed to be neutral. This means that they do
not significantly change slump or air content of the concrete mixture they are added to. In other
words, when silica fume is used in the wet-mix process, water reducing admixtures and/or
superplasticizer are recommended in order to reduce the water demand of the mixture. [Refs. 2,
6, 53].
Silica fume reacts with the calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration. The resulting
CSH densities the cement paste, especially in the aggregate-paste transition zone. This improves
Silica fume was first used in the wet-mix process. In recent years, silica fume has been utilized in
dry-mix shotcrete as well [Refs. 2, 6, 53]. The silica fume content in the shotcrete mix should be
Silica fume appears to increase the drying shrinkage slightly. This was shown for wet-mix
shotcrete [Ref. 78]. The same reference did not find a significant increase in drying shrinkage for
silica fume dry-mix shotcrete compared to control mixes. Silicon dioxide dust (especially in
crystalline form, to a lesser degree as amorphous silica) appears to be a carcinogenic poison. The
current US industrial threshold limit value is set at 10 mg/m for dust in the air [Ref. 26].
3
8
• improved sulfate resistance,
• reduced cost.
Fly ash shotcrete of low shrinkage, low chloride permeability and high freeze-thaw resistance
Fly ash is an incombustible residue filtered out of the exhaust gases of coal-burning thermal
power stations. The main constituents in fly ash are SiC>2, AI2O3, Fe203 and CaO. The specific
surface of fly ash varies between 250 m /kg and 1200 m /kg [Ref. 27].
2 2
Typical fly ash particles
are spherical. Their diameters vary between 1 and 150 um. There are two distinct classes of fly
ash. Class F fly ash originates from burning anthracite or bituminous coal. It is low in calcium
and reacts with calcium hydroxide. Class C fly ash is a residue of burning lignite or sub-
bituminous coal. It reacts chemically with water due to its high content of calcium oxide [Ref.
26]. Fly ashes exhibit hydraulic and pozzolanic properties to varying extents.
Fly ash has been successfully used in wet-mix shotcrete. The cementitious part of the mix may
Fly ash may cause slightly retarded strength development in concrete less than 28 days old.
Strength gains at later times superior to plain mixes may offset the earlier retardation. [Ref. 22]
2.1.5 Latex
Latex improves cohesion in freshly applied shotcrete and adhesion of shotcrete to its substrate.
Further, hardened latex-modified shotcrete has reduced water permeability, improved durability
9
Latexes are polymers constituted from an emulsion of water soluble monomers. By producing
polymer chains, latex provides a matrix for the freshly applied shotcrete. It also blocks capillaries
Typical latex dosages are in the order of 10 % by weight of cement. A comparative test [Ref.
42] found the most uniform mix was achieved when an emulsion of about 15 % latex in water
was added at the nozzle of a dry-mix setup. Mixing was inferior with styrene butadiene, but
acceptable with acrylic latex. Latex entrains some air and therefore a defoaming agent was
Dried latex may act as a bond breaker. Bond between shotcrete and substrate or between
shotcrete layers may be inferior if, for example, latex overspray on the substrate dries before it is
mistakes and entrapped water has occurred [Refs. 45, 53, 106]. Thus latex should be avoided for
general shotcrete applications. Fiber reinforced silica-fume shotcrete may substitute for latex-
durability (see Chapter 2.2.4). The air content of non air entrained placed wet-mix shotcretes is
requires air entraining admixtures. Further, highly air-entrained wet-mix material is relatively
easy to pump. Initial air contents between 9 and 12 % in the mixture drop to 5 to 6 % after
placing [Ref. 53]. There is a potential to replace some of the superplasticizing agents by air-
10
entraining agents. While highly air-entrained material could result in good pumpability (low
viscosity) it would exhibit high cohesion (a high yield limit) after placing. Beaupre [Ref. 34]
conducted extensive research on the rheology offreshwet-mix material. He modelled the fresh
mixture as a Bingham fluid. Characteristics of a Bingham fluid are shear strength (yield limit)
resisting static forces and finite viscosity when moved (pumped). For good pumpability the
viscosity should be low. In order to stick to the substrate a high yield limit is beneficial.
Common active ingredients in air-entraining admixtures are anionic materials such as sodium salts
of wood resins, lignosulfonic acid, sulfonated hydrocarbons, proteinaceous materials, and fatty
acids. Most of these agents are by-products of the paper, petroleum or fat rendering industries.
More recently a cocoamide diethanolamine has been developed for entraining air bubbles into
Air-entrainers stabilize the air infreshconcrete mix by creating spherical bubbles of about 0.01 to
Air-entrainer dosages in the order of 0.1 £/\00 kg cement achieve 8 to 12 % entrained air in
freshly prepared wet-mix material. This results in about 4 to 6 % air content in applied shotcrete.
In dry-mix shotcrete, air contents of 5 to 6% are frequently achieved without air entraining
admixtures. However air entrainers may be of advantage for dry-mix shotcrete that will be
exposed to severefreeze-thawcycles and deicing chemicals. Typical doses for dry-mix shotcrete
11
2.1.6.2 Water-reducing Admixtures
Water-reducing agents maintain pumpability and workability of wet-mix materials with low
water/cement ratio and reasonably low cement contents. Water-reducing admixtures are
essential for silica fume wet-mix mixtures since they would otherwise develop prohibitively high
water demand.
Water reducers disperse cement particles in water, thereby keeping the viscosity of the fresh
cement paste low. The dispersing effect probably results from like electrical charges imparted to
the cement particles by water-reducing agents. These charges cause the particles to repel each
Typical dosages for water reducers are 0.1 to 0.5 £/l00 kg cement. Water reducers allow the
Water reducers can not be used in dry-mix shotcrete since the contact time between water and
the dry mixture before shooting is very short. Water reducers could activate the water in already
placed shotcrete causing sloughing. Water reducers may also retard the setting of shotcrete.
12
2.1.6.3 Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers)
Like ordinary water reducers, superplasticizers maintain pumpability and workability of wet-mix
material with low water/cement ratio and reasonably low cement content. Superplasticizers are
essential for silica fume wet-mix material since silica fume would otherwise develop a
naphthalene formaldehyde. They act as dispersants for the cement particles in the mix water,
coating the cement particles. This probably results in steric hindrance preventing cement
Typical superplasticizer dosages are 0.2 to 2 £/100 kg cement. Where superplastizicers are used
Superplasticizers can reduce the yield limit (see chapter 2.2.4.3) of fresh mixtures. Thus in-place
cohesion of shotcrete may be reduced. Further drawbacks may include increased drying
13
shrinkage if superplasticizers are used to increase the slump of the mixture without reducing its
water content.
Due to the short contact time between water and dry mixture prior to shooting, superplasticizers
can not be used in dry-mix shotcrete. They would mobilize the fluid in the in-place shotcrete,
2.1.6.4 Accelerators
With the use of accelerating agents, the initial set of a concrete mix may be hastened and/or early
Accelerators are either organic or inorganic. Currently most of the accelerators applied in
construction are inorganic. There are four major types of inorganic accelerators:
• Aluminates. These combine with gypsum and form tricalcium aluminate causing flash set
• Carbonates. These accelerate early strength gain but tend to retard the effect of the
• Calcium salts CaCl , CaBr are assumed to act as catalysts for the hydration of the
2 2
Organic accelerators may contain calcium formate and triethanolamine as active ingredients.
They accelerate the hydration of C3A and the formation of ettringite. Organic accelerators are
assumed to support the dissolution of lime and ettringite which would otherwise precipitate on
the cement clinker particles during hydration. Thus water has better access to the clinker
14
minerals and the cement-water reaction can progress unabated. This mechanism seems not to
significantly reduce the concrete strength at later dates. Organic accelerators may have a
promising future pending reduced prices and more experience with their long term behavior.
Accelerators come as liquids or powders. Liquid agents are usually soluble aluminates (mostly
potassium aluminate) or soluble silicates (waterglass). They can be used in wet-mix and dry-mix
processes. They may be added to the water at about 2 to 3 % of the cement mass. Higher
dosages in the dry-mix process are possible (4.5 to 5 %) if extremely early set and high early
Trade-offs, especially for high dosages of calcium chloride accelerators, are dramatic decreases in
the ultimate compressive strength after 28 days (35% reduction compared to non-accelerated
control mix), increased drying shrinkage, discoloration (darkening), or elevated potential for
Accelerators should not be used unless they are essential to the construction process.
Accelerators have been utilized in some dry-mix shotcretes especially in tunneling. [Refs. 2, 5,
11, 39, 53, 54]. Chloride and Bromide accelerators are moderately toxic and strong irritants to
15
2.1.7 Fibers
Plain shotcrete fails at less than 0.1 % tensile strain. Steel-fiber reinforced shotcrete may endure
tensile strains up to 2 % before failing. Thus, adding steel makes the shotcrete less brittle. Steel
• Increased modulus of rupture, shear strength, torsional strength, and fatigue endurance,
shotcrete, and
Steel fibers are fabricated by cutting and cold drawing wires, by slitting steel sheets or by a
melt-extraction process. The latter process appears to be superior for producing easy-to-handle
fibers [Ref. 2]. According to other sources deformed cold drawnfibersare the best choice for
Optimalfibershave aspect ratios (that is, length/diameter ratio) of about 60 and lengths in the
order of 30 mm. According to Banthia [Ref. 32] a low specific projected area (that is, ratio of
fiber surface to fiber mass, about 200 to 300 mm/g) may reduce fiber rebound. Fiber shape
2
influences the amount of rebound during shooting and the properties of hardened shotcrete.
Banthia et al described a direct correlation between "specific projected area" (ratio of fiber
projected area to fiber mass) and fiber rebound. The authors conducted tests with 5 different
fiber types in dry-mix shotcrete. Between 35 % (fibers with 224 mm/g specific projected area)
2
and 78 % (fibers with 581 mm/g specific projected area) of the fibers reboundedfromthe
2
substrate. Other tests involving wet-mix shotcrete could not establish a correlation between fiber
16
geometry andfiberrebound [Ref. 33]. In the wet-mix process thefiberrebound was 12 to 18 %. -
This was significantly lower than in the dry-mix process. Fiber rebound in dry-mix shotcrete can
be reduced by premoisturizing the mix. Morgan [Ref. 57] mentions about 25 to 45 % fiber
rebound for wet-mix shotcrete, and 30 to 70 % for dry-mix shotcrete. Hooked fiber ends
enhance the bond between fibers and concrete. Good results have been achieved using cold
Steelfibersappear to increase the bond between shotcrete and substrate. This is assumed to be
due to a more controlled shrinkage cracking in fiber reinforced shotcrete compared to plain
shotcrete. Crack control, ductility and load bearing capacity tend to improve with increasing
fiber content, and with reducedfiberlength but higher aspect ratios. [Refs. 41,71].
between wire mesh and steelfiberreinforced shotcrete in Scandinavia [Ref 60] favor steel fiber
reinforcement. Shotcrete plates were reinforced with either 75 kg/m steelfibers(25 mm long)
3
author). All samples exhibited similar ultimate bending strength. However, thefiberreinforced
samples had greater toughness and higher load-bearing capacity under large deflections.
Concrete reinforced with steel fibers has similar modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio,
compressive strength, creep and electrical conductivity to plain concrete [Ref. 77]. Modulus of
rupture, shear strength, torsional strength and fatigue endurance can double however; resistance
to abrasion and erosion can increase by a factor of 1.4. Impact energies can risefive-foldbefore
damaging the concrete. These results were drawn from specimens made of concrete mixtures
shotcrete.
17
Corrosion of steelfibersappears to be insignificant for crack widths less than 0.08 mm and seems
This proved to result in high energy absorption and good load-bearing capacity after cracking.
Banthia et al [Ref. 33] achieved 5 to 23 % increases in the flexural and compressive strength of
for crack widths less than 0.3 mm [Ref. 67]. Generally steelfibersare added at about 50 to 80
kg/m of shotcrete mix. Fiber-reinforced wet-mix shotcrete should have a slump between 40 and
3
80 mm for optimal pumpability. [Refs. 8, 13, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48, 53, 54, 57].
are 30 to 38 mm long and have aspect ratios of 40 to 60. They are added at rates of 50 to 80
kg/m. Good post-peak load-carrying capacity were found for a mix with 98 kg/m fibercontent.
3 3
Steelfiberspreferentially align parallel to the shotcreted surface, thereby causing the shotcrete to
be somewhat anisotropic [Ref. 136]. However, Skarendahl [Ref. 71] describes a Swedish gun
where steelfibersare cut from a reel of 0.5 mm wire and fed continuously to the nozzle. Fiber
lengths of 200 mm could be handled. These fibers tended to align perpendicular to the
shotcreted plane thereby reducing rebound. Earlier problems with balling offibershave been
overcome by usingfiberswith aspect ratios of,60 to 75. Fibers are delivered in glued bundles.
The glue dissolves in the concrete mixer setting free thefibers.Steelfibersincrease wear on
18
2.1.7.2 Glass Fibers
Glass fibers may be used to reinforce shotcrete. They behave much like steel fibers, increasing
Schradef reported the use of glass fibers in shotcrete repairs at the freeze-thaw damaged Lower
Monumental Navigation Lock Wall [Ref. 64]. Several authors [Refs. 43, 61] discussed the use
of fiberglass for shotcrete in tunnels. Uchida [Ref. 75] characterized glass fiber reinforced
Glass fiber reinforcements for shotcrete are usually made of chopped alkali-resistant glass fiber
strands. Chopped strands are 30 to 50 mm long and contain several hundred microfibers. These
individual glass fibers have 0.5 to 15 urn diameter and are about 25 mm long. Special glass is
required to resist the high alkalinity of the cement paste, typically AR-glass or Cemfil. Table 2
compares the chemical composition of common E-glass and C-glass to AR-glass and Cemfil.
The modulus of elasticity offiberglassis about 70 GPa, strain to rupture varies between 1.5 and
3.5 %.
19
Glassfibersare added to the shotcrete mixture at a rate of 3 to 5 % by mass.
Shotcrete with glass fiber reinforcement becomes more brittle with increasing compressive
strength. Glassfibersdeteriorate slowly when exposed to water. Fibers with low resistance to
alkalinity may also deteriorate within the concrete, eventually rendering it quasi-unreinforced.
This problem can be overcome by using low alkaline type cements. [Refs. 18, 19]
Synthetic fibers may enhance the cohesion of freshly applied shotcrete and control shrinkage
Synthetic fibers are usually 10 to 30 mm long. They provide the cement paste with a
Mixes with about 1 kg/m polypropylenefibersprovide some "green-strength" for freshly applied
3
shotcrete. They also reduce plastic shrinkage cracking. Shotcrete with fiber contents of 4 to 7
kg/m develops a pseudo-ductile behavior with reduced cracking potential. [Refs. 46, 53, 146].
3
back of a ready-mix concrete truck and sprayed without changes to the wet-mix equipment. No
more than 4 kg/m of the longerfiberscould be handled with the same ease. Polypropylene
3
fibers seemed to have no significant influence on rebound. Due to increased water demand, the
fiber-reinforced shotcrete had slightly reduced compressive and tensile strengths and increased
20
porosity according to ASTM C642. Increased dosages of fibers provided post-cracking residual
fibers failed due tofiberpull-out. Specimens with 57-mm-fibers failed due tofiberrupture.
Metcalf and Lattin [Ref. 46] tested three polypropylene fiber brands and one polyester fiber
brand as reinforcement for shotcrete in a channel lining over a period of 2 years. The fiber
content of the shotcrete mix was about 1 kg/m The reference states that thefibershad no great
3
influence on toughness and crack control. However, the longest fibers (40 mm) tended to
2.2.1 General
volume air flow. The velocity of the mixture during spraying is 50 to 100 m/s [Ref. 40]. The
mixture is usually produced with conventional batching equipment and applied from a hand-held
applicators have been designed for high volume applications or at dangerous locations. [Ref. 31]
Dry-mix shotcrete is produced by pneumatically conveying a dry concrete mix through a hose
towards a spraying nozzle. There the mix water is added and the shotcrete mixture is projected
21
Compressor
• High flexibility,
Disadvantages are:
Dry-mix shotcrete is preferred over wet-mix in North America and the UK [Refs. 54, 69]. Dry-
mix shotcretes can be durable. Poston et al mentions 40 years old shotcrete still in good
Wet-mix shotcrete is produced by pumping a wet concrete mixture through a hose into the
spraying nozzle. There high pressure air is added which accelerates the material toward the
substrate.
22
Pump
Compressor
• Accurate batching,
• thorough mixing,
• reduced rebound,
Disadvantages are:
• lower flexibility,
Shaw [Ref. 69] claims wet-mix shotcrete is advantageous where less experienced operators apply
high-quality material. The wet-mix process appears to give a more uniform, denser in-place
shotcrete than the dry-mix process. Wet-mix shotcrete also exhibits slightly higher drying
shrinkage than dry-mix shotcrete. That is probably due to the generally higher water/cement
23
2.2.2 Surface Preparation
Careful surface preparation is essential for a good bond between shotcrete and the substrate
concrete.
Underlying concrete must be free of "... spalled, severely cracked, deteriorated, loose, and
unsound ... material and ... dirt, grease, oil, or other substances that could interfere with the
bond of the newly placed shotcrete" [Ref 3]. Hydrodemolition (high pressure water blasting) or
jackhammering with subsequent sandblasting are preferred methods for initial surface
preparation. Large aggregate in the surface should be exposed but not undercut by the
preparation process. A rough substrate surface is essential for good bond with the shotcrete.
Prior to shooting, the substrate should be moistened. Very porous material should be soaked for
an extended period. Immediately before shooting the substrate surface should be in a saturated-
surface-dry (SSD) condition. Free moisture on the substrate surface at the time of the shotcrete
Insufficiently treated surfaces of the substrate may result in a weak interface. Under freeze-thaw
action delamination may occur at such an interface. Thin shotcrete layers exposed to frequent
water penetration are more easily damaged byfreeze-thawcycles than thick layers with the same
exposure.
A large number of water tanks in the US have been successfully repaired with shotcrete. The
surface preparation consisted of mechanical removal of scaled material, sandblasting and saw
Different surface preparation techniques have been compared by Schrader in [Ref 65]. Best
shotcrete bond to the substrate was achieved by water-jetting the old concrete surface. Sand
24
blasting achieved similar results. Bush hammering and subsequent washing resulted in inferior
surface preparation, probably due to microcracking of the substrate as a result of the violent
hammer impacts. Talbot [Ref. 73] describes similar results for her comparative study of surface
precede the sandblasting, while hydrodemolition does not require complementary chipping.
Schrader also suggests wetting the surface, then letting it dry prior to shotcreting. Applying
shotcrete to an air-dried concrete surface may yield higher bond strengths than applying shotcrete
to moist surfaces. Air-dry substrate would attract water from the freshly applied shotcrete, thus
reducing its water/cement ratio near the interface. Shotcrete with reduced water/cement ratio
Delivery: Pre-mixed and pre-bagged or site-mixed material is delivered to the shotcrete gun.
Premixed materials usually come in 1100 kg or 1700 kg bulkbin bags. The material is discharged
into a hopper on top of the gun [Ref. 53]. The hopper may be equipped with a vibrating sieve to
content. The premoisturizer delivers the mix to the gun. Premoisturizers are widely used to
Gun: Two types of guns are in use: single chamber guns and double chamber guns (with
rotating agitator, feed wheel, rotary barrel or rotary-feed bowl). In a single chamber gun the
25
concrete mix is carried into the chamber, then the chamber is closed and pressurized before the
mixture can be discharged into the delivery hose. The double chamber gun allows for continuous
material delivery to the nozzle since at all times one or both chambers can be kept pressurized
and material can be discharged into the delivery hose. [Ref 31]
Hoses: The shotcrete mix is conveyed through a delivery hose to the nozzle. In dry-mix
applications the hose diameter should be chosen to suit the application rate:
Dry-mix material can be conveyed horizontally for more than 200 m through hoses. Delivery
heights of about 70 m can be achieved easily. These numbers should be reduced for wet-mix
material.
Nozzles: Common nozzle diameters are 38 to 64 mm. Using a small nozzle diameter seems to
enhance the compressive strength of shotcrete [Ref. 40]. Standard nozzle lengths are about 600
mm. In the dry-mix process longer nozzles ("hydromix" nozzles, about 600 to 900 mm long) and
special extensions to improve wetting ("long" nozzle with about 2 to 6 m mixing extension) are
sometimes used. Dispensing units for adding silica fume slurry with or without accelerator at the
nozzle are available. Polymer latex can be added through the waterringat the nozzle. [Refs. 31,
94, 144]
Compressor: The compressor capacity for dry-mix application should be about 21 m /min at 0.7
3
MPa for spraying with a 51 mm hose. Spraying with 64 mm hose requires about 28 m /min at3
Crew: Reference [Ref. 8] describes shotcreting crews and recommends qualification levels for
crew members.
26
2.2.3.2 Wet-Mix Shotcrete
Mixing/Delivery: Material may either be plant, transit, or site-mixed. Water and admixtures
(except accelerators) are added in the desired amount prior to discharge into the shotcrete pump.
The hopper on top of the pump is filled with the mix [Ref. 53]. Several authors describe a trend
towards using pre-bagged mixes which require only water addition at the construction site.
Pump: Mechanical pumps convey the mix from the reservoir through a hose to the nozzle.
Squeeze pumps with a set of rotating rollers induce a peristaltic-like effect on a flexible hose
forcing the mixture inside the hose to move towards the nozzle. Positive displacement pumps
(usually piston pumps) work as reciprocating pumps, la pneumatic guns the mix is pushed to the
material feed valve by paddles. Alternating slugs of concrete mix and compressed air in the
Hoses: One hose is required to connect the pump with the nozzle. A second hose delivers
Nozzles: Wet-mix nozzles are usually made of rubber or plastic. They have an air ring through
which pressurized air is added to the concrete mix. The compressed air propels the concrete
towards the substrate. Liquid accelerator may be added to the mixture at the nozzle.
Compressor: The required air flow for wet-mix shooting is lower than for the dry-mix process.
Air pressure of at least 0.7 MPa should be maintained at the nozzle during operation. [Refs. 8,
31,94]
Crew: Reference [Ref. 11] describes shotcreting crews and specifies recommended qualification
27
2.2.4 Mixture
2.2.4.1 General
All material should be screened for oversized particles before its discharge into the gun. If the
shotcrete mix is prepared on site, materials should be preferably batched by weight. Batching by
Aggregates for dry-mix shotcrete (site-mixing) should have a moisture content of about 4 to 6 %.
The complete mix should have a moisture content of 3 to 6 % before gunning. Premoisturizing
may be required [Ref. 57]. For more details see chapters 6.2 to 6.4.
Wet-mix material should have a slump of 40 to 75 mm [Ref. 94]. When air-entraining is required
an air content of 9 to 12 % before pumping is recommended. For more details see chapters 6.2
to 6.4.
2.2.5 Spraying
2.2.5.1 General
Before applying shotcrete, the material flow from the nozzle should be steady, at the desired
consistency.
28
Shotcrete should be sprayed perpendicular to the application surface. An appropriate distance
between nozzle and substrate is 0.6 to 1.8 m. A circular motion of the nozzle during spraying
produces more uniform in-place shotcrete. When spraying on vertical faces, the work should
The distance between the nozzle and substrate influences the shotcrete quality. Too great a
distance may cause shadowing behind reinforcement and inferior consolidation. Incorrect impact
angle between shotcrete jet and substrate may cause excessive voids and increased rebound.
Rebound contains less cementitious material and more aggregate than the initial mix. Therefore
rebound should not be reused for shotcreting. Further, the substrate should be cleaned of all
Overspray is shotcrete built up unintentionally away from the planned area. Overspray may be
left in place and covered in another pass as long as it remains plastic. Hardened overspray must
The temperature offreshin-place shotcrete should be kept above 5°C, otherwise setting and
Dry-mix shotcrete should be applied at the "wettest stable consistency", meaning any increased
water content would lead to sagging. Too low a water content leads to excessive rebound and
1
inclusion of sand lenses in the shotcrete. Up to 80 mm of plain dry-mix shotcrete can be built up
29
In the dry-mix process, the nozzleman can control the amount of water added to the mixture, the
distance and the angle between nozzle and substrate and the amount of material conveyed
Extensive work has been done at the University of Bochum [Ref. 12] to study the influence of
nozzle position and aiming on shotcrete quality. Tests were conducted for dry-mix shotcrete
• Nozzle distance: Highest compressive strengths were achieved when the nozzle was 1.5
to 2.0 m from the substrate. Rebound was minimum at this distance. Dust development
• Nozzle movement: Faster nozzle movement parallel to the substrate improved shotcrete
uniformity and reduced rebound and dust development. The influence on compressive
strength, however, was small. Optimal results were achieved with the nozzle moving
across the surface at about 0.25 m/s. A superimposed circular rotation of the nozzle
(with the nozzle axis still perpendicular to the substrate surface) at 50 to 200 mm radius
and with repetition frequency from 6 to 3 Hz respectively further improved the results.
In the wet-mix process the nozzleman, can control the amount of air added at the nozzle, and
distance and angle between the nozzle and substrate. The nozzleman indirectly controls the
30
The consistency of wet-mix shotcrete is largely influenced by its water content. Maximum
acceptable water content is exceeded when the shotcrete starts to sag and slough. If the mixture
is too dry, problems conveying the material through the hose may occur. Too dry a mix may also
consolidate poorly.
Wet-mix shotcretes with slumps between 20 and 150 mm have been sprayed. The preferred
slump range is 40 to 80 mm. For overhead application, low slumps are advised.
2.2.6 Reinforcement/Anchors
Shotcrete has been successfully reinforced with both conventional rebar and welded wire mesh
fabric. Chicken wire mesh and chain link mesh are not recommended. [Ref. 53] These meshes
may deform under the impact of shotcrete or have too small a grid causing excessive shadowing.
the substrate. For vertical applications [Ref. 2] recommends a maximum anchor spacing of 600
mm. Anchors may be connected directly to reinforcing mesh. In fiber reinforced shotcrete the
anchor head may hold a small grid of heavy reinforcement or an anchor plate to be embedded in
shotcrete. Alternatively, fiber reinforced shotcrete may be clamped between the substrate and an
exposed head plate. [Refs. 2, 39, 41]. Figure 4 shows how to embed a typical shotcrete anchor.
31
1 - Set Anchor Bar 2 - Apply Shotcrete 3 - Attach Anchor Head 4 - Embed Head in Shotcrete
Into Substrate
2.2.7 Finishing
Shotcrete may be left without mechanical finishing. If afinishis required, a flash coat (thin layer
of shotcrete with 5 mm maximum grain size sand, applied fairly wet from 2.4 to 3.6 m distance)
is appropriate. Such a layer may be mechanically treated. Flash layers are desirable, for example,
to cover the surface of steel-fiber reinforced shotcrete. However, afreshshotcrete surface can
32
2.2.8 Curing
Young shotcrete should be kept moist, and above 5 °C, for 7 days. Curing compounds may be
applied. Shotcrete should be protected from freezing until it reaches about 3.5 MPa compressive
strength. [Ref. 2]
measuring pins or shooting wires on the substrate surface prior to shooting. [Ref. 41]
Ryan [Ref. 13] suggests a minimum bond strength of 1 MPa between substrate and shotcrete.
acceptable. Water percolation may be tested by exposing one side of a 50 mm thick shotcrete
layer to 700 kPa of water pressure and observing the opposite side of the specimen.
Testing in-situ shotcrete with the Schmidt hammer is considered acceptable. However the
shotcrete surface must be smooth over the areas to be tested. [Ref. 13]
The compressive strength of shotcrete cores should be tested in accordance with ASTM C39 or
CAN/CSA A23.2-94. Results obtained from cores with different slenderness, may be
compared if the following formula [Ref. 2] is applied to calculate the corrected strength f2
f
2 = 2 - X, - f, / (1 +1.5-X,) (2-1)
where: f
2 = strength of standard core with X = 2
33
fi = strength measured at a sample with X > 1.
Correction charts as in CAN/CSA A23.2-94 [Ref. 90] may be used in lieu of formula (2-1).
According to Lewandowski [Ref. 2], a slight reduction in strength occurs when test cores have
strength tests for wet and dry specimens. Specimens are considered wet when stored under
water for 3 days. Specimens are defined as dry when stored for 7 days in air with a relative
humidity between 40 and 60 %. All specimens should be tested dry unless the in-situ concrete
will be more than superficially wet in service. Placed shotcrete should be tested for compressive
strength at 7 days and 28 days. Non-destructive test methods may supply additional information.
• inclusion of rebound.
• insufficient curing.
3) Uncommon reasons:
• poor materials,
34
Durand et al [Ref. 37] suggest dry-mix shotcrete of more than 69 MPa compressive strength is
At the start of large projects, test panels may be shot. Samples can be cored from these panels
and tested.
During construction, the surface preparation, mix proportioning, shooting equipment, shooting
Only limited information was found in the literature on long-term durability of shotcrete repairs.
However, an extensive study on shotcrete repairs to 61 bridges was performed by Morgan et al.
[Ref. 113]. The findings are documented in the report of the Canadian Strategic Highway
Research Program - C-SHRP, 1991/92. The scope of this study was to evaluate the performance
of shotcrete repairs on highway bridges across Canada, based on field testing. These tests
included visual examination, sounding, and limited coring. The study concluded that the
shotcrete repairs on highway bridges generally performed well. Shotcrete failed in only 2 of 61
bridges studied. In one case very poorly consolidated wet-mix shotcrete was placed on top of a
bridge abutment in Nova Scotia. The shotcrete was probably projected from the wrong angle. A
defective joint behind the repair kept the substrate water saturated, and the shotcrete acted as a
moisture trap. During winter,frostaction turned the shotcrete into rubble. In the other case, a
30-year-old dry-mix shotcrete spalled off bridge piers in Alberta. Shotcrete had been applied to
the vertical faces of the piers without anchoring. Failure occurred in the substrate concrete due
tofrostaction.
35
Morgan [Ref. 144] reported a latex-modified shotcrete failure at a US marine structure. This
failure was attributed to the presence of dried overspray containing latex on the substrate surface
before the shotcrete was applied. The overspray acted as a bond breaker, resulting in extensive
Poston et al [Ref. 62] describes long-term experience with shotcrete construction. High-quality
dry-mix shotcrete walls and domes of concrete tanks performed well over 40 years and hundreds
poor shooting practices, oversanded mixes and entrapped rebound, especially in horizontal
planes.
McDonald of the US Corps of Engineers analyzed shotcrete repairs of concrete lock walls.
About one third of these structures were more than 40 years old, andfreeze-thawsusceptible.
[Ref 106] evaluated shotcrete as a structurally adequate and durable material, ... capable of
excellent bond with concrete and other construction material. Even shotcrete with low air
content wasfreeze-thawresistant due to its low water permeability. Shotcrete could rarely
become critically saturated (i.e. about 90 %) which greatly reduced frost damage. Shotcrete
could protect the underlying concrete by keeping it below critical water saturation. Where the
substrate became saturated and shotcrete slowed drying while frost penetrated the substrate,
36
CHAPTER 3
TESTING METHODS
Field testing was carried out at Stave, Buntzen, Ruskin and Jordan Dams from September 1993
• taking core samples (about 94 mm in diameter, usually 250 mm to 300 mm long), and
The test program had to be varied, depending upon accessibility and other constraints at the
Laboratory tests were conducted on core samples from Stave, Buntzen, Ruskin and Jordan
• measuring cement paste content, air content, and spacing factor of shotcrete samples
37
according to ASTM C457 (linear traverse method),
Dam surfaces were inspected visually depending upon accessibility. The inspection was based on
During the visual inspection, surface quality, cracking, efflorescence, discolouration, scaling,
erosion and other signs of attack or deterioration were observed. Visual inspection revealed
3.1.2 Sounding
Shotcrete was tapped with 500 g and 1000 g hammers to detect delamination. The tapping
pattern was a grid of about 300 mm by 300 mm. Delaminations ring with a pitch different from
Sites without major delamination indicate repair work was successful. Large delaminations may
indicate bond between shotcrete and substrate was inferior. The shape and location of
The Schmidt hammer is a rebound hammer. To conduct a test the hammer tip is pressed against
the surface to be probed. Inside the hammer case a spring loaded mass strikes a steel bar. The
impact energy is transmitted via the hammer tip to the test surface. A mechanical sled measures
39
the rebound energy and displays a rebound number. The rebound number is correlated to the
Schmidt hammer tests were conducted with a calibrated PROCEQ type N-34 hammer. Nine to
twelve readings were taken from each testing area but the highest and the lowest readings were
discarded. An average value was calculated from the remaining data and then transformed into
Schmidt hammer tests are of limited accuracy because they measure elastic behavior of the tested
material rather than its compressive strength. Thin or delaminated sections, local anomalies in
the material and surface effects may introduce substantial bias to the results. Schmidt hammer
The Schmidt hammer used in the field had been calibrated before tests started. A recalibration
was done during the testing program. At the time of recalibration the hammer readings were
10 % low.
3.1.4 Coring
Six to thirteen core samples were taken at each site. In each case diamond coring with water
lubrication was applied to extract the samples. The drill bits were 100 mm external diameter and
about 360 mm long. Core samples were about 94 mm diameter and usually 250 to 300 mm long.
The samples from Jordan Dam upstream face were about 200 mm long.
After extracting the core samples andfinishingultrasonic pulse velocity measurements (chapter
40
3.1.5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)
The UPV test depends on the different sound propagation velocities of materials with different
acoustic impedance (approximately the square root of the product of modulus of elasticity and
specific gravity). Concretes of different densities and elastic moduli therefore have different
sound velocities. The characteristic sound velocity of a concrete is determined by sending short
pulses of ultrasound across a specimen. Dividing the path length by the pulse travel time yields
UPV tests are a reliable measure of the uniformity of concrete since the pulse velocity is
dependent on pore, aggregate and paste composition, their distribution, concrete density and
elastic behavior.
The testing was conducted in accordance with the equipment manufacturer's instructions [Ref.
134] and ASTM 597 [Ref. 104]. UPV measurements were conducted using a PUNDIT and two
cylindrical transducers (50 kHz) of 50 mm outside diameter. The equipment was properly
calibrated. A water-based gel was used for effective acoustic coupling. Two tests were executed
for each location . The lower measurement of each test pair was used for calculating the UPV.
Tests were conducted in direct and semi-direct modes. These modes are shown in Figure 6
1 I ~
. ' .„ concrete \ L _ " N sound path,
transmitter I
receiver transmitter c o n c r e t e
41
The tests at Stave and Buntzen Dam were conducted in semi-direct mode. The transmitter was
inserted into a core hole and the receiver was positioned on the dam surface. The transmitter
was fitted with a convex aluminum shoe to improve contact. The convex part of the shoe had a
radius equal to the concave radius of the core hole (i.e. 50 mm, see Figure 7).
Tests at Ruskin and Jordan Dam were conducted in semi-direct and direct transmission modes.
For direct transmission both transducers were fitted with shoes and inserted into adjacent core
holes.
Table 3 correlates the velocity of longitudinal ultrasound waves to concrete quality [Ref 16].
The correlation was used for evaluating concrete and shotcrete in chapter 5.
42
3.1.6 Carbonation
Carbonation tests were conducted with a solution of about 5 g phenolphthalein in 100 g methanol
sprayed on the core samples. The cement paste was considered carbonated where no colour
The carbonation depth depends on the pore structure of the shotcrete, its exposure to air,
moisture, climate, and other factors. Deep carbonation (10's of mm) may indicate a porous
shotcrete. Other variables held constant, carbonation progresses most rapidly in concrete at 40
Carbonation does not adversely influence shotcrete strength. However, steel embedded in
Concrete and shotcrete core samples at Buntzen, Ruskin and Jordan Dam were tested for
carbonation. Carbonated concrete in the samples from Jordan Dam was stained yellow and
thereby easily distinguishable from non-carbonated concrete even without using the test solution.
All core samples were visually inspected in the laboratory. The inspection focused on the quality
of the cement paste (voids, cracks), shape and gradation of the aggregates, transition zone
between shotcrete and substrate, deposits, and evidence of errors during shotcreting. Calcium
43
3.2.2 Stereo Microscope
Selected samples were inspected under a Zeiss stereo microscope at 8 to 63 times magnification.
To aid in detecting microcracking, some samples were dyed with blue epoxy resin and polished,
Sample preparation and testing was done to ASTM C457 [Ref. 103].
This test determines the proportion of air pores, cement paste and aggregates in concrete. The
method involves scanning a polished shotcrete surface with a microscope cross hair (see Figure
8). The cumulative lengths of air voids, cement paste and aggregates traversed by the cross hair
are noted. The traversed air voids are counted. Values characterizing air, paste and aggregate
content as well as pore size and pore distribution can be calculated from the test results.
The results may indicate whether the concrete or shotcrete tested isfrost-resistantand durable.
Morgan [Ref. 54] reported dry-mix shotcrete with a spacing factor of 0.31 mm being freeze-thaw
44
Crosshair Path for Linear Traverse Method
Sample preparation and testing was done to ASTM C642 [Ref. 105].
This test determines the fraction of permeable voids in concrete. Sound specimens weighing at
least 800 g each are dried in an oven at 105 °C until the mass change is less than 0.5 % per 24
hours. The specimens are then cooled in a desiccator. After weighing they are stored submerged
in water until mass once again becomes constant (mass change less than 0.5 % per 24 hours).
Subsequently, the samples are weighed and boiled for at least 5 hours. After cooling, the samples
are weighed again. Permeable voids and boiled absorption numbers can be calculated from the
test results.
The results are related to the porosity of the material and indicate if a given shotcrete is frost
resistant and durable. Morgan suggested using boiled absorption numbers for the evaluation of
silica fume shotcrete [Ref. 51]. Table 4 shows the suggested correlation.
45
Table 4: Evaluation of Silica Fume Shotcrete
Boiled Absorption [%] Permeable Voids [%] Evaluation
<6 <14 excellent
6-8 14-17 good
8-9 17-19 fair
>9 >19 marginal
Sample preparation and testing were done according to A S T M C597 [Ref. 104]. The testing
outside diameter. A water-based gel was used to accomplish acoustic coupling between the
3.2.6 Carbonation
Sawn and broken samples were tested for carbonation as described in chapter 3.1.6.
The tensile bond strength between shotcrete and substrate concrete should be high to prevent
separation in service. The bond is dependent on substrate and shotcrete quality and on surface
preparation.
46
Tensile Bond Test
Tensile Force
Glued
Connection
Original Concrete
Glued
Connection
Tensile Force
The tensile bond strength developed between shotcrete and substrate was tested on core samples.
Both end faces of the specimen were ground parallel and glued to end caps with Sikadur 32 high
modulus epoxy resin (see Figure 9). The end caps were cylindrical steel plates 100 mm in
diameter and 20 mm deep. A nut was welded to the center of each end cap to connect the
sample to the adapter rods of the testing machine. Tests were conducted on a Tinius-Olsen 400
Tensile strength of the substrate or the shotcrete may be a limiting factor for the bond strength
developed between the two. Tensile bond stresses transmissible between shotcrete and substrate
Tensile strength tests were conducted on selected shotcrete or substrate samples. The tests were
47
similar in principle to those described in chapter 3.2.7.
specify a repair material with strength equal to or greater than the original material to fully
Generally, compressive strength tests on concrete and shotcrete are conducted on cylinders or
cubes. A specimen is prepared with opposite faces smooth and parallel. The specimen is then
placed in a hydraulic press with the parallel faces in contact with the press end-plates. Pressure is
applied at a denned rate until the sample breaks. Ultimate load and shape of the fracture are
recorded. Then a corrected ultimate compressive strength is calculated using the specimen's
Compressive strength tests were conducted according to ASTM C39 [Ref. 101], using a Forney
Dynamic modulus of shotcrete is closely related to its static modulus of elasticity and
characterizes the quality of the material. Different concretes or shotcretes may be compared
using their dynamic moduli. It is reasonable to specify that a repair material have a similar
modulus to the original material. This helps avoid attracting major stresses toward or away from
a repaired section.
48
Selected samples were tested for dynamic modulus of elasticity following a modified ASTM
C215 test [Ref. 102]. A Geotest Sonometer model 2622 [Ref. 127] testing machine with
piezoelectric pickup was used for the tests. The geometry of the samples required a reduction of
their natural frequencies in order to measure them reliably with the equipment available. The
tuning was done by attaching additional masses to the samples' ends, thereby reducing the
Steel cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 10.15 kg mass were glued with Sikadur 32 high modulus
epoxy resin to each end face of a sample to reduce the natural frequency. After 24 hours the
samples were excited in the longitudinal direction. The natural frequency of the system was
recorded.
The vibrating system is symmetrical about a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
concrete sample (see Figure 10). For such a half system the longitudinal oscillation is described
by [Ref. 21]:
( ^ ) = ( ^ . t a n ( | ^ ) 0 . 5 ( 3. 1 }
W Eg Eg
g = 9.81 m/s 2
49
- Control Unit
Steel Cylinders
The samples were prepared as described in Chapter 3.2.10.1. Additionally, two 15 g aluminum
extrusions about 70 mm long were glued tangent to the steel cylinders at their mid points. The
exciter was aligned with one of the aluminum extrusions inducing a torsional vibration in the
steel-concrete-steel system.
The vibrating system is symmetrical about a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
concrete sample (see Figure 11). For such a half system the torsional oscillation is approximately
f - i l i (3
- 2)
50
, %d G
A
, T WD 2
ing k .and / =
* 32/ ' 8g
g = 9.81 m/s 2
v = Poison's ratio.
yields E (3-3)
The model neglects the mass of the concrete sample in the system. Therefore the actual dynamic
specimen is usually less than 10 % of the combined mass of the two steel cylinders attached, the
51
3.2.11 Sorptivity Tests
3.2.11.1 Scope
The method determines the rate of water absorption across a plane concrete surface. This rate
may indicate differences in the structure of interconnected pores in samples madefromthe same
batch of concrete or shotcrete and prepared identically for the test. A high sorptivity rate may
indicate high porosity in the sample. Porosity increases in concrete affected by freeze-thaw
attack.
3.2.11.2 Apparatus
The equipment for the test consisted of a scale (maximum load 3 kg, resolution 0.01 g), a
Plexiglas container (internal dimensions: 145 mm x 145 mm x 400 mm height) with removable lid
and 2 mm diameter hole in the center of the lid, stop watch, high strength steel wire, hose
clamps and electrical tape. A rigid test stand was essential for accurate measurements.
52
3.2.11.3 Specimens
Test samples were ground on both ends and subsequently dried at about 105 °C until further
drying yielded a mass change less than 0.5 % per day. Subsequently the samples were cooled to
room temperature in a desiccator. The cylinder walls of the samples were wrapped in electrical
tape. Steel wire was clamped to each sample using a hose clamp so it could be suspended in an
upright position.
3.2.11.4 Procedure
The Plexiglas container was placed on the scale and filled with about 500 g distilled Water at
room temperature. The specimen was suspended from a stiffframeso that its lower face was
submerged about 3 mm (see Figure 12). A stop watch was started and scale readings were taken
Support
53
3.2.11.5 Calculation
The sorptivity rate is the slope of the plot of absorbed water mass per area of submerged
concrete versus square root of time. The absorbed water mass can be calculated as:
™w - r — : (3-4)
I+ A s
3.2.11.6 Limitation
The drying procedure influences the sorptivity rate. In order to avoid errors resulting from
The sorptivity rate at the two ends of a given sample may be compared as long as both faces are
54
3.2.12.1 Exposed Material
Weather data were provided by BC Hydro's Burnaby Mountain Weather Office. The following
• for Jordan Dam: Bear Creek Station 1983 - 1992. [Ref. 139]
The total number offrostevents experienced by each shotcrete repair or substrate concrete was
calculated by multiplying its age (in years) by the estimated annual number offrostevents.
Scope
No qualified guess was possible to estimate how manyfreeze-thawcycles had reached the
shotcrete-substrate interface. The number was important to evaluate the influence of the
shotcrete cover on thefreeze-thawdurability of the interface and the underlying original concrete
under field conditions. Therefore a model was developed to estimate this number.
Model
A one-dimensional model was devised to calculate the temperature distribution in a dam. The
model is based on the method of finite differences described in [Ref. 20]. A concrete body of
infinite length and height and two meters thickness was assumed. The body was divided into 40
55
parallel slices of 50 mm width each. A node number was assigned to each interior slice center.
The left and right boundary slices (#0 and #40 respectively) are only half of the width of interior
slices. These boundary slices have their nodes on the boundary of the body. Mass and heat
capacity of each slice was lumped along the center line between adjacent nodes. The thermal
conductivity of concrete was assigned to the space between the nodes. For simplicity the
temperature of a dam surface (Node 0) was defined to be equal to the air temperature T . The a
temperature at the node right of the innermost slice (Node 40) has a constant temperature which
can be chosen freely and should be about the average seasonal air temperature Tj,.
The thermal energy in node m at time t' is calculated from the initial thermal energy in the node at
the time t and the net heat exchange with the nodes m-l and m+1 in the time interval t' -1.
j
Ax
j | j
Node: 0 m 40
The rate of heat transfer per unit areafromnode m-l and m+1 into node m is:
(T -\ — Tm) (T +1 — T„)
m m
q =k- (3-5)
Ax Ax
No significant changes in the temperature of the nodes occur during sufficiently short time
56
intervals At. Hence the thermal energy transferred into node m is:
(Tm - 1 T ) (T + l — Tm)
—
m m
E = k-
th
•At (3-6)
Ax Ax
The change of thermal energy in a node due to a temperature changefromT m toT is:
m
Setting equations (3-6) and (3-7) equal arid solving for the new node temperature T m yields:
Tm= *' ! A
2[Tm-\-2-T m + Tm + l]+T m (3-8)
p-Cp-Axr
The time resolution of the model was 12 minutes. The model was implemented in an EXCEL
The daily minimum and maximum temperatures were provided by Burnaby Mountain Weather
Office [Ref. 139]. They were given without reference to time of day. For simplicity it was
assumed maximum and minimum temperatures were always 12 hours apart and the temperature
Effects offreezingpore water on thefrostpenetration depth were neglected. The heat of fusion
of water is about 334 kWs/kg. The formation of ice in moist concrete would generate a
57
significant amount of heat, rendering the assumptions for the computer model conservative.
Climate Data
The estimation offrostevents in the shotcrete-substrate interface was based on the climatic data
referred to in chapter 3.2.12.1. The climate data received from the weather station were used to
model typicalfrostevents. These events are listed in Appendix A. They were used to calculate
thefrostpenetration depth.
Results
(typical depth of the shotcrete-substrate interface) this number drops to about 70 cycles per 10
years.
About 383freeze-thawcycles occur at Stave and Ruskin during 10 years. At about 200 mm
depth (typical depth of the shotcrete-substrate interface) this number drops to about 90 cycles
per 10 years.
58
Table 6: Stave and Ruskin Dam. Frost Events inside the Dam
Number of Freeze-Thaw Cycles per 10 years
Frost Event @ Surface @ 10 cm Depth @ 15 cm Depth @ 20 cm Depth @ 30 cm Depth
SR2 6 6 4 0 0
SR3 15 15 10 0 0
SR5 39 39 0 0 0
SR6 80 80 48 32 16
SR7 4 4 0 0 0
SR8 21 21 7 7 7
SR9 65 65 0 0 0
SR10 18 18 18 18 6
SR11 32 32 32 32 24
SR12 103 0 0 0 0
Total 383 143 119 89 53
Jordan River dam. The climate data available were insufficient for further calculations.
59
CHAPTER 4
INVESTIGATION
This chapter provides an overview of the dam sites chosen for examination and summarizes field
Of the five dam sites with extensive shotcrete repairs, four were selected for inspection. These
dams were between 60 and 80 years old. The seven distinguishable shotcrete repairs at the 4
sites range in age from 3 to 30 years. The field inspections revealed that shotcrete was typically
sound and in good condition. However, large delaminated areas were found at some sites.
Exposed original concrete was deteriorated in some cases. The laboratory tests showed
significant differences in composition and durability between shotcrete and substrate. Most
shotcrete was strong and only superficially attacked by the environment. Substrate concrete was
4.1 Overview
The five dam sites investigated range in age from 60 to 80 years. Concrete used for their
construction was generally of low quality by current standards. Their average compressive
strengths are below 30 MPa. The concretes have porous cement pastes and poor aggregate
gradation. All sites are in areas with an average annual precipitation of about 3000 mm and 40 to
50freeze-thawcycles.
60
Information on shotcrete repairs at BC Hydro dams was retrieved from the BC Hydro
Information Center and the Civil and Transmission Group archives. It was found that five dams
had extensive shotcrete repairs:
• La Joie Dam,
• Stave Dam,
• Buntzen Dam,
• Ruskin Dam,
• Jordan Dam.
The last four of these dams were selected for evaluating the performance of shotcrete repairs,
based primarily on accessibility. La Joie Dam was omitted from the list because of its distance
from Vancouver.
All but one shotcrete repair was made using the dry-mix process. Silica fume modified shotcrete
was used at two sites on three occasions. Steelfiberswere added to two silica fume dry-mix
shotcretes. Surface preparation prior to the shotcreting ranged from poor to sufficient.
Table 7 represents a summary of data related to the dams and shotcrete repairs.
61
Table 7: Dam Descriptions
Site Stave v Buntzen Ruskin Jordan
Dam Type concrete gravity concrete gravity concrete overflow Ambursen type
gravity buttress
1969 - 1990
Shotcrete Type dry-mix, silica conventional dry- conventional dry- dry-mix / dry-mix
fume, steel fiber mix mix with silica fume
and steel fibers /
wet-mix with
silica fume
4.2 Stave Blind Slough Dam
Upstream Side
^ Pier 3 Pier 1
Water Level, Upstream Face
Stave Blind Slough Dam is a concrete gravity dam situated in the Lower Fraser Valley. The dam
is about 70 years old. More details are given in the following tables.
63
Table 9: Substrate Materials. Stave Dam
Mix aggregates from nearby quarry
sand and gravel washed and screened
mass concrete mixture =1:2.5:5
(cement:sand:gravel)
reinforced concrete mixture for beams, parapet,
deck = 1:2.5:4
Concrete Properties estimated water-cement ratio = 0.7 - 0.9
average compressive strength about 28 MPa
Concrete Placing about 150 m per shift
3
Data were takenfroma 1924 construction report [Ref. 126] and a 1985 test report [Ref. 118].
Accessible shotcreted areas on the upstream face of the dam were inspected. These areas include
the dam between Piers 1 to 3 and the parapet wall west of Pier 1. There are about 200 m 2
shotcrete in these areas. Site visits were conducted on 6 days in September and October 1993.
64
4.2.2.2 Visual Inspection
Exposed original concrete at Stave Dam varied in quality. Most of the original concrete had a
smooth surface showing the texture of formwork. Concrete was damaged to a depth of 20 to 40
mm near seeping cracks and in areas frequently soaked by water. Concrete in other areas seemed
to be sound. Piers were sound in areas protected from rain. Sand particles and white
efflorescence could be brushed from surfaces which were exposed to rain or runoff water.
Severe cracking was found in the parapet and in piers. Concrete adjacent to these cracks had
deteriorated. Some efflorescence leached out of small cracks in the piers. Efflorescence also
Shotcrete
The gun finished shotcrete between piers 1 to 3 was of grey color and uneven. The exposed
surface was pock-marked. Such surface patterns are typical of aggregate rebound during
shooting or aggregate pop-outs due tofrostattack. The shotcrete surfaces were dusting. Steel
fibers on the surface were either corroded or had disappeared. Moss was growing on the surface
of the retaining wall's western part. About 5 % of the shotcrete was severely damaged as a result
offrostaction in the horizontal areas on top of the retaining wall (Appendix C, Photograph 2).
Shotcrete did not spall from vertical areas between Piers 1 to 3. Spalling of thin shotcrete
sections, however, occurred near the parapet. There a total of about one square meter had
spalled off.
Cracks wider than 0.1 mm occurred at a rate of about 1 m crack length per 10 m 2
shotcrete.
Isolated cracks with widths between 0 and 0.3 mm were found in the shotcrete between Piers 1
and 3. More cracking had occurred west of Pier 1 in the retaining wall. About half of this wall
65
had cracked at some place. The wall's northern top corner was cracked horizontally. Horizontal
cracks also were found along the lower edges of delaminated shotcrete sections. Cracking
occurred also in shotcreted areas which were delaminated and visibly bulged. White and yellow
efflorescence was deposited along the horizontal cracks below the delaminated areas (Appendix
C, Photograph 2).
No contraction joints had been installed. Pier 1 was equipped with about 20 drain pipes.
4.2.2.3 Sounding
Original concrete was sounded for delamination at the parapet wall. Delaminated sections were
Shotcrete
All shotcreted areas between Pier 3 and the west end of the retaining wall above water level were
sounded with a hammer. The delaminated areas were marked with white chalk and
Substantial delamination occurred in the shotcrete above cracked old concrete, along the upper
corner of the retaining wall, and at Pier 1. The thin horizontal shotcrete layer on top of the
retaining wall was completely delaminated. Delaminated areas seemed to have experienced
frequent water saturation of the substrate. This was indicated by their geometry, efflorescence
around wide deep cracks and the drain pipes inserted into Pier 1 (Appendix C, Photograph 1).
Construction drawings from 1985 [Ref. 116] showed 2 to 4 mm wide cracks had traversed the
retaining wall in areas which are now delaminated. Parts of these cracks were visible in and
below the parapet. No indications were found that these cracks were properly sealed before
66
shotcreting.
Coring revealed deteriorated substrate concrete with minimal cohesion near the interface with the
shotcrete (Appendix C, Photograph 3). Shotcrete could not bond to the parapet wall across such
deteriorated material. Shotcrete also delaminated at featheredged zones of large and deep
shotcrete layers. However, about half of the thin shotcrete layers had bonded well.
4.2.2.4 Coring
Ten cores were taken from the parapet wall, Pier 1, Pier 2 and from the wall between Pier 2 and
3. The core samples were 110 to 270 mm long and 93 to 94 mm in diameter. Sample SI was
taken from exposed substrate (ordinary concrete). It consisted of one piece. Shotcrete samples
Bl, B3, and B4 emerged bonded to their substrate. Samples D1A, D2, D3, D4, and B4A were
After extracting the core samples andfinishingthe ultrasonic pulse velocity-measurements, the
67
4.2.2.5 Test Results
Substrate
Ultrasonic pulse velocities were measured on exposed and shotcrete covered substrate concrete.
Variations in pulse velocity correlated with frost attack to the concrete rather than with
application of shotcrete. Schmidt hammer tests were conducted on sound exposed concrete
only.
Shotcrete
No reproducible ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement could be conducted due to the rather thin
shotcrete layer (< 60 mm deep). Shotcrete was tested with the Schmidt hammer at 9 locations.
The mean value of the apparent compressive strength was about 32 MPa. One test was
conducted on delaminated shotcrete. There the apparent compressive strength was 16 MPa.
This low value was probably an artifact. Delamination may have caused the erroneous reading.
A thin delaminated shotcrete shell would have responded "softer" to the impact of the rebound
hammer than a shotcrete layer of comparable quality and depth well bonded to the substrate
68
4.2.3 Laboratory Testing
Original Concrete
The substrate concrete from Stave Dam consisted of light grey paste and compact aggregates
with rounded edges. Densely packed aggregates smaller then 10 mm were observed. The large
aggregates were usually less than 40 mm diameter. However, isolated aggregates of about 50
mm diameter were also observed. The fraction of mid-sized aggregates between 10 and 20 mm
The substrate concrete was generally sound except forfreeze-thawdamaged layers in samples
from the parapet wall. The deterioration affected the concrete underlying the interface with
shotcrete to a depth of 30 mm. The cement paste contained elongated compaction voids up to
10 mm long and spherical air voids of 1 to 3 mm diameter. Cracking and microcracking in the
White deposits of calcium hydroxide and, where in contact with air, calcium carbonate had
between cement paste and larger aggregate and resembled plate shaped crystals. Deposits were
also found in cracks and around debonded large aggregate. Original concrete close to well-
The cement paste of the substrate in core D4 near the shotcrete was pale grey. A delamination
zone close to the shotcrete layer ran solely through the paste and the paste-aggregate interfaces.
No aggregate wasfractured.The face where the core sample D4 was taken out of the dam was
69
close to the shotcrete-substrate interface.
Interfaces with the shotcrete were usually rough, indicating good surface preparation prior to
shooting.
Shotcrete
The shotcrete from Stave Dam was sound. The shotcrete layers were 10 to 80 mm thick except
Maximum observed aggregate size was less than 10 mm. The aggregates were compact and
rounded. The cement paste was medium grey. Shotcrete on exposed surfaces was somewhat
darker than subsurface shotcrete. The top face of the shotcrete was firm and very rough due to
its gunfinish.Some pits were up to 20 mm deep, probably caused by aggregate rebound or pop-
out. The paste contained air voids typical of dry-mix shotcrete, and isolated zones of inferior
consolidation. The shotcrete contained Dramix steel fibers. Steelfiberscorroded only where
to the shotcrete.
Heavy white deposits were found in delaminated zones at the interface between shotcrete and
substrate. These deposits were calcium carbonate resulting from the carbonation of calcium
hydroxide leached out of the substrate. No indications were found that these deposits had
70
4.2.3.2 Test Results
Table 14 lists concrete and shotcrete data. Appendix B contains more detailed data.
71
4.3 Buntzen Dam
llll TUTfl
| llll
: 1
Buntzen Dam is a concrete gravity dam situated east of Indian Arm. The dam is about 80 years
old. More details are given in the following tables (see also Appendix C, Photograph 4).
72
Table 16: Substrate Materials. Buntzen Dam
Mix aggregates: Fraser river sand, crushed granite
mixture 1:2.5:5.5 (cement:sandxoarse aggregate)
poor gradation of aggregates
Concrete Properties compressive strength 25 to 28 MPa (3 cores)
specific gravity 2320 kg/m3
[Ref. 132]
[Ref. 132].
The complete downstream face and the walkway atop the dam were inspected. These areas were
completely shotcreted and covered about 400 m . Site visits were conducted on five days in
2
73
4.3.2.2 Visual Inspection
Earlier Inspections
The upstream face was inspected in 1985 [Ref. 115]. Shotcrete was in fair to satisfactory
condition. A crack was found between the gravity section and the parapet.
Small areas of original concrete were accessible only in the upper northern corner of the
downstream face and in some locations close to the ground. There concrete had a light grey
Shotcrete
The upstream face of the dam could not be inspected due to a high water level.
The shotcrete on the downstream face of the dam was sound. All shotcrete on the walkway and
the downstream face was gun finished and dark colored. Moss grew on about 5 % of the
downstream face. The shotcrete beneath the moss showed some discoloration. Fine aggregates
could be brushed off the surface in these areas. The horizontal surfaces of walkways were in fair
condition showing surface scaling on about 50 % of their area. The walkway had no side-slope.
Several isolated spalls occurred on the surface of the shotcrete layer. Their development was
associated with ice pressure built up in a leaking crack. Corroding reinforcement was found
under one spall. The shotcrete surface in spalled areas looked leached and unstable. The total
Cracks wider than 0.1 mm occurred at a rate of about 1 m crack length per 10 m shotcrete.
2
Several cracks, mostly less than 1 mm wide and in the order of meters long, were distributed over
74
the downstream face (Appendix C, Photograph 5). About 5 cracks were slightly moist due to
seepage. White and yellow efflorescence was found on these cracks. One seepage zone in the
southern part of the dam had formed a substantial calcium carbonate deposit. There the
shotcrete surface had deteriorated.
The shotcrete layer south of the intake structure beneath the flight of stairs had delaminated over
a length of about 2.5 m (Appendix C, Photograph 7).
© -
__<8)
®
• -A )
c
A<
Figure 16: Buntzen Dam. Cracking and Delamination near Intake Structure
Cracks occurred predominantly in delaminated shotcrete. Two vertical cracks opened beside the
intake structure (see Figure 16, item 4, and also Appendix C, Photograph 6). These cracks had
probably started at the corners of the intake structure and developed downwards. One crack
showed no sign of leakage water or efflorescence. The other crack had a small amount of white
7.5
deposit along parts of its edges. A gap had opened at the corner between shotcrete and concrete
of the stairs (see Figure 16, item 7). There were also vertical gaps between the shotcrete and the
adjacent walls of the intake structure (see Figure 16, item 8). No expansion joints had been
installed.
4.3.2.3 Sounding
The complete downstream face of the dam was sounded with a hammer. Delaminated areas were
marked with white chalk and photographed. About 30 % of the downstream face was
delaminated. Large delaminations often contained cracks (Appendix C, Photograph 5). There
was a delaminated strip about 100 to 300 mm wide along the upper edge of the downstream face.
4.3.2.4 Coring
Six cores were taken from the shotcreted areas of the downstream face. The core samples were
of a shotcrete part, several parts of substrate, debris and entrapped soil. All other samples
76
4.3.2.5 Test Results
Substrate
In all tests the ultrasound signal traversed some shotcrete and the poor interface between
shotcrete and substrate. Therefore consider the values in Table 19 as estimates only. No
Schmidt hammer tests were conducted since no exposed concrete was accessible.
Shotcrete
All ultrasonic pulse velocity tests were conducted in the semi-direct mode with the transmitter
positioned in the core hole just below the shotcrete-substrate interface. The ultrasound pulse
velocity in sound shotcrete was about 4.2 km/s. The velocity dropped by about 25 % in a
delaminated area nearby. Only two Schmidt hammer tests were conducted due to difficult
surface preparation.
77
4.3.3 Laboratory Testing
Old Concrete
Substrate concrete at Buntzen Dam was of poor quality. The cement paste contained air voids
several millimeter in diameter. The gradation of the aggregates seemed to be poor. Two samples
consisted of distinctly better concrete, presumably a more recent conventional repair material. A
150 mm thick pocket of soil was buried behind the shotcrete of one sample. The substrate-
shotcrete interface of another sample was stained with organic material. Obviously the surface
Shotcrete:
Shotcrete layers were 80 to 130 mm deep and were generally sound. Shotcrete was reinforced
with 4 mm steel wire mesh. The mesh was arranged 20 to 40 mm below the outer surface.
The cement paste was light grey. Exposed shotcrete was darker than sub-surface shotcrete. The
exposed shotcrete surface was sound and of natural finish. The largest aggregate size observed
was 7 mm. The aggregates were compact and rounded. Air voids characteristic of dry-mix
shotcrete were enclosed in the cement paste as well as isolated zones of inferior consolidation.
Lines of porous, poorly bonded material were located immediately above and below the
reinforcing wire mesh. Zones of poorly bonded, porous paste with interconnected air voids were
found in several samples, especially behind larger aggregate. Most delamination occurred in or
78
4.3.3.2 Test Results
Table 21 presents concrete and shotcrete data. Appendix B contains more detailed data.
79
4.4 Ruskin Dam
h
-
^ F3J
StepWal Spillway
Tallwater Level
Spillway
Bay#1 Bay #3 Bay m Bay #5 Bay #6 Bay #7
StepWal
Ruskin Dam is an overflow gravity dam situated at the northern rim of the Fraser Valley
(Appendix C, Photograph 8). The dam is about 65 years old. More details are given in the
following tables.
80
Table 23: Substrate Materials. Ruskin Dam
Mix aggregate from a bar in the river,
mixture 1:3:2.7:2.3:1.8
(cement : sand : agg. 6 to 37 mm : agg. 37 to 75
mm : agg. 75 to 150 mm)
Concrete Properties compressive strength about 14 MPa at 28 days
Concrete Placing poured
[Ref. 119]
The complete step wall and Spillway Bay #2 were closely inspected. Other parts of the
downstream face of the dam were visually inspected from the tailwater bridge only. Shotcrete
covered about 5000 m of the spillways and the step wall. The upstream face could not be
2
inspected due to the high water level. Site investigations were conducted on two days in
December 1993 (spillway) and one day in January 1994 (step wall).
Original concrete was exposed at the top of the piers between the spillways and at the training
wall. There, the concrete seemed to be in good condition. Isolated cracks and efflorescence
appeared in the piers between the spillway gates. Some of these cracks were filled with white
deposits.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete was pale grey color with an uneven, very rough gun finish. The shotcrete in the ogee-
section of the spillway was trowel finished. Limited spalling and cracking was found in the
spillways. The shotcrete surface was rough and appeared eroded in Spillway Bay #3 at about
tailwater level. This was probably caused byfrostattacking a local flaw in the shotcrete.
The shotcrete in the step walls had surface scaling on about 20 % of its horizontal area. Erosion
and spalling due to the impact of water and trash was found in the step wall. Spalling was
82
Shotcrete was superficially eroded in corners between horizontal and vertical parts of the steps
Section
(7) original concrete
(T) shotcrete
\
J
Figure 18: Ruskin Dam. Step Wall. Surface Defects
Shotcrete had spalled off in isolated areas of Spillway Bay #2. At a corner of Pier #2, some
featheredged shotcrete had spalled off. Below Pier #2 was minor surface spalling. Isolated
spalling was found at edges along a horizontal crack in Spillway Bay #2. All surface damage in
the spillways was limited to small areas in the order of a square meter or less. There were several
Visible cracks occurred at a rate of about 1 m crack length per 10 m shotcrete in the spillway
2
and at a rate of about 1 m per 1 m in the step wall. The featheredged zones around Pier #2 were
2
cracked. There was also a vertical crack below Pier #2 and one horizontal crack below this
vertical crack. Another horizontal crack was found in Spillway Bay #2 at a higher elevation.
Vertical cracks had developed over the length of the spillways in line with the edges of two piers.
83
The cracks generally followed a plumb line extended from the pier corners. Reflective cracks
were reported by Kemp [Ref 145]. They had opened over vertical construction joints in the dam
structure. No expansion joints were installed. Irregular cracking occurred in the step wall. Most
cracks occurred in the horizontal areas and the corners of the step wall. Deposits in and at these
cracks in the step wall ranged in colorfromwhite to yellow to pale red to brown.
4.4.2.3 Sounding
Parts of Spillway Bay #2 were sounded with a hammer. No delamination was detected. The
4.4.2.4 Coring
Eight cores were taken from the step wall at different elevations. In all, 3 cores were taken from
Spillway Bay #2. They were taken from Pier #2 from areas near cracks. Core samples were 240
to 360 mm long and 93 to 94 mm in diameter. Sample RD3 consisted of one piece, and all other
samples consisted of at least two parts each. Severed samples were delaminated at or close to
84
Table 26: Core Samples. Ruskin Dam. Step Wall
Specimen Material Core Fragments Shotcrete-Substrate Interface
RD1 original concrete + shotcrete 2 delaminated
RW1 original concrete + shotcrete 2 delaminated
RBI original concrete + shotcrete 2 bonded
R4 original concrete + shotcrete 2 delaminated
R5 original concrete + shotcrete 2 partly bonded
R6 original concrete + shotcrete 2 partly bonded
R7 original concrete + shotcrete 3 delaminated
R8 original concrete + shotcrete 3 delaminated
Substrate
Shotcrete
Ultrasound testing was done in both the semi-direct transmission mode and the direct
transmission mode. Average pulse velocity of shotcrete in the step wall was 3.9 km/s. Some
tests yielded significantly lower values, probably due to the semi-direct test method used in the
step wall. These low results could not be reproduced on samples in the laboratory. Shotcrete
was tested with the Schmidt hammer in the step wall close to core holes. The test results varied
over a wide range, probably due to the rough surface and delaminations. Twenty locations were
tested. The apparent average compressive strength of the shotcrete was 42 MPa, the sample
85
4.4.3 Laboratory Testing .
Original Concrete
The concrete consisted of pale grey paste and aggregates of maximum 80 mm diameter.
Aggregates appeared to be loosely packed in the concrete of the step wall. The paste had some
air voids, most less than 2 mm, but in isolated cases up to 4 mm diameter. Air voids occurred
Freeze-thaw damage was found in the old concrete beneath the shotcrete in the step walls. Frost
damage was concentrated in a 20 mm thick layer immediately behind the shotcrete interface.
Cracking and microcracking was observed in the cement paste. Fractures occurred within 30 mm
Calcium carbonate deposits collected on delaminated faces, around large aggregates and in
cracks (Appendix C, Photograph 11). Some cracks had partly skirted large aggregate. Cracks
completely filled with white deposit were located close to the substrate-shotcrete interface. Such
deposits were most extensive between cement paste and loosened large aggregate.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete from the downstream face of the dam was 160 to 260 mm thick. Shotcrete thickness
The shotcrete was reinforced with 5 mm diameter steel wire mesh. At the downstream dam face
the mesh was spaced 20 to 110 mm above the substrate, and 110 to 190 mm beneath the
86
shotcrete surface. Spacings in the wing wall were 30 to 70 mm, and 45 to 90 mm, respectively.
Two layers of wire mesh overlapped in some areas. Embedded wire mesh did not corrode.
The cement paste was medium grey. Shotcrete on exposed surfaces was darker than sub-surface
shotcrete, rarely showed dusting and had a natural finish. Horizontal surfaces in the step wall
appeared to have eroded. The paste seemed to have a moderate air void content with a 3 mm
maximum air void diameter. Most spraying shadows and layering were located close to
reinforcing wire mesh (Appendix C, Photograph 12). Occurring in small areas, sand pockets,
shadows and layering had a limited influence on the overall durability of the shotcrete repair.
Aggregate size was less than 8 mm. The aggregates were compact and blunt. There was
evidence of some aggregate pop-outs in the surface of samples from the wing wall.
Delamination occurred generally close to the shotcrete-substrate interface. In sample RD2 the
shotcrete broke perpendicular to the core sample axis about 35 mm beneath the surface.
Table 28 presents concrete and shotcrete data . Appendix B contains more detailed data.
87
4.5 Jordan Dam
T — D — a — I T
-°—ir-=iF=D—n—D—ia—D r
Spillway
Walkway ^^Deck
11
Buttress #28
-Buttress #39
Jordan Dam is an Ambursen type buttress dam situated in the southern part of Vancouver Island.
The dam is about 80 years old. More details are given in the following tables (see also Appendix
88
Table 29: Structure and Site. Jordan Dam
Dam Type Ambursen type buttress dam
dam slab inclined
downstream faces south
spillway section at east
Year Built 1912-1913
Height [m] 40
Width [ml slab 0.4 (top) -1.4 (bottom) thick
Length [m] 232
Dam Location southern Vancouver Island
dam crest approximately 390 m above sea level
Local Climate annual precipitation- 3500 mm
about 40 annual freeze-thaw cycles
The upstream face near the southern end of the spillway and the downstream areas accessible
from the ground or from the walkway were closely inspected. Other parts of the upstream and
downstream face of the dam were visually inspected from reservoir and river banks only.
Shotcrete covered the upstream face of the slab, about half of the downstream face of the slab
and about half of the buttresses. Site visits were conducted on five days in December 1993.
91
4.5.2.2 Visual Inspection
Exposed original concrete was found on top of the dam and at parts of the buttresses. No
original concrete was exposed at the upstream face of the slab. The old concrete was sound
where protected from moisture saturation. Frost attack was visible where the original concrete
concrete was found under the discharge end of a rainwater pipe. Three metres long cracks were
found in Buttress #40 about 3 to 5 m above the outlet pipe. The cracks were surrounded by
white efflorescence.
An extensive seismic upgrade was completed about 5 years ago. Concrete placed during that
Shotcrete
All shotcrete was gun finished. The shotcrete at the upstream face (1969 and 1989 repairs) was
sound and medium grey. Fiber reinforced shotcrete coincided with strips around contraction
joints and at the position of the buttresses. Exposed steel fibers were corroded. The shotcrete at
the downstream face of the slab (1970 repair) appeared to be a sprayed mortar. It was dark grey
and smooth. The shotcrete at the flanks of the spillway buttresses was similar to the shotcrete at
the downstream face of the slab. The shotcrete at the heads of the buttresses (1990 repair) was
No spalling of shotcrete was observed on the upstream and downstream faces of the slab.
Featheredged shotcrete spalled in isolated areas of Buttresses #35 and #36, however.
One vertical crack was found at the upstream face near the joint between two slab plates in the
1989 shotcrete. There, a contraction joint in the shotcrete had been omitted. Apparently,
92
movement in the structure beneath the crack exceeded the strain limits of the shotcrete. The
crack was 0.3 to 0.5 mm wide and stretchedfromthe top of the spillway to below the water line.
Similar cracking in the 1969 shotcrete had caused local delamination and required the 1989 repair
[Ref 144].
The downstream face of the slab and the spillway showed extensive pattern cracking between
Buttresses #14 and #27 (Appendix C, Photographs 19, 20). Visible cracks occurred at a rate of
about 1 m crack length per 1 m shotcrete on the downstream face of the slab. The pattern
2
cracking in the shotcrete was typical of shrinkage cracking. Moisture fringes around some of the
cracks indicated seepage and frost action could have been a cause for crack growth. About half
of the cracks had efflorescence deposited along their edges. Deposits were associated with the
movement of reservoir water through the slab and the joints. The dark coloration of some
deposits may indicate corrosion of steel in the path of the seepage water.
The 1990 shotcrete at the buttresses was virtually crack-free except for isolated cracking in
featheredged areas.
Conventional Patching
Conventional patch repairs done at some buttresses were cracked and delaminated. One piece of
patchworkfroma buttress (sample J9) was closely inspected (Appendix C, Photograph 22). The
4.5.2.3 Sounding
The southern part of the upstream face of the spillway was sounded with a hammer. No
delaminations were detected. Delaminated shotcrete was found in isolated areas between
Buttresses #24 and #25 and between Buttresses #26 and #27 on the downstream slab side.
93
Sounding revealed delaminated shotcrete in areas near the walkway at Buttresses #16, #19, #20,
Almost all of the shotcrete delamination on the downstream face including that on the buttresses
occurred in the dark, mortar-like material from 1970. Delamination was usually accompanied by
pattern cracking and efflorescence. Delamination in uncracked shotcrete occurred along some of
4.5.2.4 Coring
In total 13 core holes were drilled and 12 samples could be extracted. Four 1969 shotcrete
samples were taken from the upstream face of the dam (see Figure 19, Upstream Elevation).
Four core samples were taken from the 1990 shotcrete at Buttress #39 and 1 sample from each
of Buttresses #35 and #31. One core sample of 1970 shotcrete was extracted from each of
Buttresses #19 and #17. The core samples were 110 to 300 mm long and had diameters of 93 to
94 mm. While attempting to extract a core (J9) from conventional patchwork at Buttress #27,
the already-cracked repair material turned to rubble. No core samples were taken from the 1989
shotcrete. This material was placed where coring could have interfered with the main slab
reinforcement. For the same reason no samples were taken from the downstream face of the
slab.
94
Table 36: Core Samples. Jordan Dam, Buttresses
Specimen Material Parts Shotcrete-Substrate Interface
Jl original concrete + 1990 shotcrete 1 bonded
J2 original concrete + 1990 shotcrete 1 bonded
J3 original concrete + 1990 shotcrete 1 bonded
J4 original concrete 1 N/A
JIO original concrete + 1990 shotcrete 1 bonded
Jll original concrete + 1990 shotcrete 1 bonded
J12 original concrete + 1970 shotcrete 2 delaminated
J13 original concrete + 1970 shotcrete 1 bonded
(J9) original concrete + conventional many fractions delaminated
patching mortar
Substrate
No exposed original concrete was tested for ultrasonic pulse velocity or with the Schmidt
hammer.
Shotcrete
On the upstream face the shotcrete was tested between core holes in direct transmission mode.
The mean value of the pulse velocity from 5 test paths was 4.4 km/s with a standard deviation of
0.3 km/s. Schmidt hammer testing at the upstream face was abandoned due to the difficult
surface condition.
The shotcrete in the buttresses was also tested in direct transmission mode. There the average
pulse velocity was 4.5 km/s and the standard deviation was 0.2 km/s. The Schmidt hammer
95
Table 37: Field Test Results. Jordan Dam. Upstream Face
Property [Unif| Value Comment
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity fkm/s] 3.8-4.6 1969 shotcrete
Original Concrete
The substrate concrete at Jordan was sound but contained large air voids up to 4 mm in diameter.
Elongated compaction voids were observed in some samples (Appendix C, Photograph 15).
Aggregates were poorly graded. Substrate concrete at the perimeter of cores consisted of light
grey paste and sharp-edged, irregularly shaped aggregates. The largest aggregate observed was
about 30 mm in diameter.
Shotcrete
The shotcrete layers were 95 to 100 mm deep. Intact steel wire mesh of 4 mm diameter was
located 60 to 80 mm beneath the shotcrete surface. The cement paste was medium grey. All
observed aggregate was smaller than 9 mm. The shotcrete contained sand pockets and isolated
air voids smaller than 2 mm. Microcracking was found in isolated regions of one sample close to
the surface only (Appendix C, Photograph 16). This cracking was probably caused by freeze-
thaw damage. There were no other signs offrostaction in the shotcrete itself. Shotcrete seemed
96
4.5.3.2 Test Results
Table 39 presents results of numerical tests. Appendix B contains more detailed data.
Table 39: Laboratory Test Results. Jordan Dam. Upstream Face. 1969
Test Substrate Shotcrete
Paste Content - ASTM C457 [%] - 37.6
Air Content - ASTM C457 [%1 - 1.9
Specific Surface - ASTM C457 [mm-'l - 8.5
Spacing - ASTM C457 [mm] - 1.0
Permeable Voids - ASTM C642 [%] 20.5 to 22 15.8
Absorption - ASTM C642 [%1 8.9 to 9.8 6.8
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity [km/s] 3.8 to 4.6 3.9 to 4.3
Carbonation Depth [mm] 30 Oto.l
Tensile Bond Strength [MPa] 0.4 to 1.3
Tensile Strength [MPa] 1.8 [Ref. 123] 0.7 to 1.3
Compressive Strength - ASTM C39 [MPa] 6 to 39 [Ref. 1421 33 [Ref. 1421
Static Modulus [GPa] 11 to 30 [Ref. 1231
Sorptivity Outside / Sorptivity Inside [%\ 70
The construction documentation provided some information. Table 40 presents data for the
shotcrete. The substrate is the same as described in Chapter 4.5.3. For it refer to Table 39.
97
Table 40: Laboratory Test Results. Jordan Dam. Upstream Face. 1989 Shotcrete
Test Shotcrete
Air Voids - ASTM C642 \%] 15.2 [Ref. 121]
Absorption - ASTM C642 [%1 6.7 [Ref. 121]
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity [km/s] 3.8 to 5 [Ref. 1231
Tensile Bond Strength [MPa] 1.8 [Ref. 1211
Compressive Strength - ASTM C39 [MPa] 48 [Ref. 121]
Original Concrete
The substrate concrete was similar to that described in chapter 4.5.3. It was remarkable for the
large number of air voids. Often the space between large aggregate particles lacked cement
paste. The substrate concrete was carbonated to about 20 mm depth (Appendix C, Photograph
21).
Shotcrete
The shotcrete layers were 20 to 30 mm thick, and had a rough gunfinish.The cement paste was
dark grey and contained isolated air voids. Observed aggregate was smaller than 5 mm. One
sample fractured through about 20 % substrate - shotcrete interface and 80 % substrate close to
the interface.
Table 41 presents test results for the shotcrete. For the substrate concrete refer to Table 39.
98
Test Shotcrete
Paste Content - ASTM C457 [%1 39.0
Air Content - ASTM C457 [%1 2.6
Specific Surface - ASTM C457 [mm" ]
1
29.5
Spacing - ASTM C457 [mm] 0.26
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity [km/s] 4.6
Carbonation Depth [mm] Otol
Tensile Bond Strength [MPa] 0.5 to 1.3 [Ref. 1291
Tensile Strength [MPal 1.3 [Ref. 1291
Compressive Strength - ASTM C39 [MPa] 21 to 64 [Ref. 1291
Original Concrete
The original concrete was sound and similar to that described in chapter 4.5.3. There were a
Shotcrete
The shotcrete was 10 to 100 mm deep, sound, and with a very rough gun finish. The cement
paste was dark grey. Maximum observed aggregate size was 7 mm. Most air voids were smaller
than 1 mm. Voids of elongated shape with diameters less than 4 mm were limited to isolated
areas. The shotcrete seemed to have bonded well to the substrate. One sample contained steel
wire mesh with 5 mm diameter. The mesh was situated about 30 mm below the exposed
shotcrete surface. A 15M rebar was exposed in the perimeter of one sample.
99
4.5.6.2 Test Results
Table 42 presents test results for the shotcrete. For the substrate concrete refer to Table 39.
Table 42: Laboratory Test Results. Jordan Dam. Buttresses. 1990 Shotcrete
Test Shotcrete
Paste Content - ASTM C457 [%1 35
Air Content - ASTM C457 [%1 4.0
Specific Surface - ASTM C457 [mm" ] 1
35.7
Spacing - ASTM C457 [mml 0.17
Permeable Voids - ASTM C642 \%\ 13.4
Absorption - ASTM C642 \%] 5.6
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity [km/s] 4.1 to 4.5
Carbonation Depth [mm] Oto 1
Tensile Bond Strength [MPa] 0.5 to 1.1
Compressive Strength - ASTM C39 [MPa] 51 [Ref. 1331
Sorptivity Outside / Sorptivity Inside [%] 70
La Joie Dam is a sluiced rockfill dam lined with concrete, in the central interior of British
Columbia. It is about 40 years old. More details are given in the following tables.
100
Table 44: Substrate Materials. La Joie Dam
Mix concrete, no information available
Concrete Properties severely honeycombed
Concrete Placing poured
The table is based on data from 1971/72 construction testing [Refs. 124, 143].
No field investigation was conducted. No core samples were obtained. Some spalling, lifting,
and cracking is mentioned in BC Hydro inspection reports. Most damage occurred at about
elevation 730. This coincides approximately with the average water level. Slightly increased
101
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the performance of shotcrete repairs on Hydro dams. The discussion is
mainly based onfindingsfromfieldvisits and laboratory tests. The literature review and site
information also contribute to the discussion. This chapter provides an overview of the lessons
Shotcrete proved to be a durable repair material for dams. Well-designed shotcrete repairs may
protect the underlying concrete. Shotcrete does not stop deterioration of substrate when it is
5.1 Substrate
Old substrate concrete was generally of marginal to fair quality, as indicated by its compressive
strength. The high standard deviation of the ultrasonic pulse velocities suggests a rather non-
uniform concrete. Ultrasonic pulse velocities of concrete samples tested in the laboratory were
often very high. The length of these sound paths were usually in the order of 100 mm while the
maximum aggregate size was most often 50 to 80 mm. Therefore the test results probably reflect
the acoustic properties of the large aggregate particles rather than those of bulk concrete.
Ultrasonic pulse velocities for many aggregates are higher than for cement paste or concrete.
A lack of mid-sized aggregates was probably another reason for the marginal quality of some
102
substrate concretes. Shape and gradation of aggregate often resulted in less than optimum
compaction, causing inferior concrete strength. Large voids also indicate insufficient compaction
Frost attack on moist concrete surfaces was the probable reason for dusting and scaling.
However, exposed concrete in vertical sections was generally sound. Concrete of unprotected
sloped or horizontal surfaces wasfrost-damaged.Frost had also attacked the substrate concrete
beneath the shotcrete layer at two sites. There the cement paste was visibly damaged for a 30
mm thickness beyond the substrate-shotcrete interface. The damage was clearly related to
Deep penetrating cracks were probably caused by thermal stresses aggravated by ice pressure.
Deposits in and around cracks appear to be of calcium hydroxide. Where calcium hydroxide
deposits were exposed to air they carbonated and turned into calcium carbonate. Carbonated
Surface preparation before shotcreting had been good at all but one site. Exposed concrete
aggregates in delaminated interfaces indicate substrate surfaces were prepared using abrasive
Data from the boiled absorption tests indicate good quality concrete at Stave Dam. The data
The estimate of temperature distribution showed substrate concrete had been exposed to a
significant number offreeze-thawcycles at all sites. However,frostdid not destroy the substrate
because it was probably not completely water saturated and because leachates in the voids
103
probably lowered thefreezingpoint. This mechanism is discussed in Chapter 5.4.
5.2 Shotcrete
Shotcrete surfaces were sound. The surface at Stave Dam was dusting, however. This indicates
the cement paste was damaged by frost attack. However, since the surface still showed the
Moss attacked the vertical shotcrete surface at Buntzen Dam. The depth of deterioration was
minimal. The moss was no threat to the shotcrete's function as a protective cover for original
concrete.
<
Erosion marks in the corners of the Ruskin step wall (see Figure 18) indicate that shotcrete in
Featheredged concrete at Stave and Ruskin Dam delaminated and cracked. Featheredged
Dry-mix shotcrete was rather non-uniform. Sand lenses indicate insufficient mixing and wetting
of the shotcrete material. Porosity and layering were due to a variable water/cement ratio and/or
inconsistent shooting distances and spraying angles deviatingfrom90 degrees. Layering did not
unduly reduce the overall strength of shotcrete. However, it caused local spalling. Spraying
shadows behind wire mesh occurred probably due to inappropriate nozzle distance and/or air
pressure. This would influence velocity and turbulence of the material jet, both essential for good
104
encasing of reinforcement during spraying.
Corrosion did not affect steel fibers embedded in shotcrete. Even exposed steel fibers corrode
relatively slowly. Due to their small size they rarely provide sufficient electric potential
difference for rapid corrosion. Isolated corrosion of reinforcement was a result of cracks
The shotcrete on the upstream face of Jordan Dam was slightly water permeable, as indicated by
The downstream face of the slab at Jordan Dam had cracked extensively. The shotcrete there
was probably prone to extreme shrinkage strains due to its mortar-like composition and high
cement content. The shotcrete was applied as a thin layer to an overhanging surface. Because
the substrate probably could not be saturated before shooting and the shotcrete moistened during
Thermal stresses probably caused vertical gaps and cracks in the shotcrete beside the intake
structure of Buntzen Dam. The scarcity or absence of signs of leakage and the position of the
cracks and gaps made frost action less likely cause. Under extreme ambient temperatures the
large shotcrete surfaces beside the intake structure would have come under significant thermal
stresses. Pre-existing delamination in the substrate would have reduced heat exchange with the
interior of the dam resulting in more extreme peak temperatures in the shotcrete layer.
Further shear forces could not be transmitted across a delamination and into the substrate
concrete. Thus, all thermal strains had to be restrained at the edges of the delaminated zones.
The necessary restraining stresses probably exceeded the bond between the shotcrete and the
walls of the intake structure causing a gap to open. The cracks likely started at the top of the
dam and grew downwards. Expansion joints between shotcrete and the Buntzen intake structure
105
might have prevented this cracking. Lack of an expansion joint at the upstream face of Jordan
Dam caused thatfiber-reinforcedshotcrete layer to crack. The lack of expansion joints in the
Ice pressure and thermal stresses were probably the reasons for some of the cracks in shotcrete at
Buntzen and at Jordan before the 1989 repair. Expansion of corroding reinforcement would have
Long horizontal cracks with efflorescence indicate that moisture played an important role in the
cracking process at Stave and Buntzen Dam. Moisture probably saturated the substrate which
subsequently deteriorated during frost periods. The resulting porous material allowed the
accumulation of even larger amounts of water. Formation of ice could have overstressed the
shotcrete in subsequent frost episodes. This could have resulted in shotcrete cracking and
Local spalling in the Ruskin spillway was probably due to frost attacking layering in the
shotcrete. Sand lenses and layering also caused local delamination inside the shotcrete
Horizontal shotcrete surfaces such as walkways were deteriorating because rainwater could
collect there in puddles. Shotcrete under these puddles would be completely water saturated and
surfaces is more likely to entrap rebound. Rebound increases permeability and freeze-thaw
susceptibility. The shallow scaled zones indicate that horizontal shotcrete was deteriorating
slowly.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements indicate shotcrete was generally good quality (Table 46).
106
Table 46: Shotcrete Quality Assessment, using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Site, Shotcrete Repair Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Correlated Quality
[km/s] [after Ref. 16]
Field Laboratory
Stave Dam, 1985 N/A 4,2 good
Buntzen Dam, 1965 3.5-4.3 3.4-3.5 fair to good
Ruskin Dam, Spillway, 1973 N/A 4.4 - 4.7 good to excellent
Ruskin Dam, Step Wall, 1973 3.0-4.6 4.0 - 4.7 questionable to excellent
Jordan Dam, u/s-side, 1969 3.8-4.6 3.9-4.6 good
Jordan Dam, d/s-side, 1970 N/A 4.6 good
Jordan Dam, Buttresses, 1990 4.3-4.7 3.8-4.6 good to excellent
Schmidt hammer tests and ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements indicate shotcrete was
Visible large air voids, layering and porous zones indicate most of the dry-mix shotcretes were of
The cement paste content of shotcrete was high but acceptable. Air contents were satisfactory
except for two older dry-mix shotcretes. The spacing factors of the air voids were frequently
several times higher than recommended by Morgan [Ref 51] forfreeze-thawresistant shotcrete.
The specific surface of most shotcretes was significantly lower than the 16 to 32 mm' suggested
1
in that reference. This indicates most shotcrete had too few air voids. Moreover, the existing
voids were rather large, and were spaced too widely. The wet-mix shotcrete and to a lesser
degree the 1970 dry mix shotcrete from Jordan Dam matched the recommendations for freeze-
The boiled absorption tests show that shotcretes rangefromexcellent (Ruskin Dam, Jordan Dam,
wet-mix) to fair (Stave Dam). Figure 20 provides an overview of shotcrete quality in terms of its
107
Evaluation of Shotcrete with Respect to its Boiled Absorption and Permeable
Voids Numbers [after Ref. 49], Tested Accordingly ASTM C642
A
Stave
° Buntzen
* Ruskin
* Jordan Buttr.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Volume of Permeable Voids [%)
The dynamic modulus of the shotcrete from Ruskin was rather low but within acceptable limits.
A low modulus of elasticity appears to be of advantage for shotcrete resurfacing. It would result
in only moderate stresses being induced in the shotcrete repairs due to deformations or thermal
loads.
Based on its relative sorptivity the porosity of exposed shotcrete was marginally lower than the
porosity of shotcrete close to the interface with the substrate. It is not clear whether this
difference was significant. Test results indicate the shotcrete is not severely affected by the
environment.
Shotcrete has been exposed to a large number offreeze-thawcycles at all sites. The shotcrete
has not been significantly frost damaged. No core sample from any site showed signs of
108
Conventional patching mortar at Jordan Dam is susceptible to the local climate conditions and
has deteriorated.
Sounding indicates that significant areas of shotcrete have delaminated at Stave Dam, Buntzen
Dam and in the step wall at Ruskin Dam. Core samples from Stave and Ruskin Dams reveal
separation usually took place due to frost attack on substrate concrete rather than in the
substrate-shotcrete interface. There the bond between shotcrete and sound substrate appeared to
be good.
Thermal stresses, ice pressure or mechanical impacts could have caused delamination.
One sample from Stave Dam delaminated at the interface between substrate and shotcrete. The
delamination was apparently due to isolated sand lenses and high porosity shotcrete. The
shotcrete was probably applied too dry or rebound had been trapped. That prevented
The high incidence of delamination at Stave Dam warns of more delamination to come.
The visual inspection and tensile bond strength tests indicate satisfactory to good bond at all sites
except for Buntzen Dam. Large delaminated zones exist on the downstream face of Buntzen
Dam. Coring indicates the substrate surface preparation was poor or non-existent. This results
in a weak bond between shotcrete and original concrete. Delamination was probably initiated by
freezing seepage water entrapped between shotcrete and original concrete. Ice pressure would
have expanded the delamination zone. Thermal strains in delaminated shotcrete could have
109
caused the bonded perimeter of a delamination to fail in shear. This would have resulted in a
growth of the delamination. However, in spite of the poor surface preparation the shotcrete had
adhered to its substrate for 30 years and will probably remain in place for the foreseeable future.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity slowed significantly when the sound crossed the shotcrete-substrate
boundary in tests at Buntzen Dam. This also suggests the bond between shotcrete and substrate
there is disturbed.
Intact samples from Ruskin Dam have good bond between shotcrete and substrate concrete.
the interface with the shotcrete. Frequently substrate aggregates adhered to the shotcrete and
Delamination of shotcrete on the downstream face of Jordan Dam was probably related to
shrinkage. The underlying substrate was undamaged. Shrinking of the mortar-like shotcrete
probably caused high shear stresses in the interface with the substrate.
Freeze-thaw susceptible concrete often remained intact after exposure to significant numbers of
freeze-thaw cycles. Sincefrostdamage to concrete is related to its moisture content, this section
110
Moisture Saturation and Self-Desiccation: The vapor pressure over ice at 0°C is lower than the
vapor pressure over liquid water at the same temperature. Hence liquid water in concrete will
migrate towards a zone containingfrozenwater. Such a zone may be the exposed (shotcreted)
outside of a dam. Concrete inside the dam may self-desiccate towards the (frozen) outside, if
drops below 100 %, its frost susceptibility decreases dramatically. Concrete with about 85 %
moisture saturation will only experience mildfrostattacks. Further, water in partially saturated
concrete seems tofreezeat temperatures below 0°C. Litvan has shown that significant ice build-
up in cement paste with 84 % moisture saturation occurs at about -8°C [Ref. 25]. Adsorption
Freezing Point and Solvents: Where water migrates through a massive concrete structure, it may
dissolve metal hydroxides, metal oxides and salts. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide in
Slow migration of reservoir water with low carbon dioxide content over several meters might
allow the water to dissolve significant ion concentrations. Only negligible concentrations of
metal ions dissolve where water traverses concrete along a short path at relatively high velocity.
A high content of dissolved carbon dioxide, as in rain water, may also reduce the rate of solution
rate of metal salts and hydroxides. Low ion concentrations in the water result in minimal
depression of thefreezingpoint.
Ill
5.5 Evaluation of Shotcrete Repairs
Surface preparation of the original concrete varied from poor, at Buntzen Dam, to excellent, at
By and large shotcrete repairs were durable at all sites. Boiled absorption results showed that
shotcrete varied from excellent to marginal quality. Most shotcretes tested had air contents
appropriate for good frost resistance. The 1969 and 1970 shotcretes from Jordan had
significantly lower air contents. Only two shotcretes had specific surfaces and spacing factors
within the limits forfreeze-thawresistance according to the literature. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
measurements indicated shotcrete has good or better quality except for samples from Buntzen
Dam and from the Ruskin step wall. No significant carbonation was found in the sound shotcrete
of any sample. All shotcrete has sufficient compressive strength. Sorptivity tests showed that
Shotcrete was deteriorating at a moderate pace on horizontal surfaces at Stave and Buntzen
Dams.
Tensile bond strength varied from poor to high. The main cause of delamination was freeze-thaw
damage to the substrate concrete. Poor surface treatment of the original concrete prior to
shooting, unstable shotcrete mix, spraying mistakes and incomplete repair work also caused
debonding. The initially weak shotcrete-substrate interface in samples from Buntzen probably
112
Table 47: Evaluation of Shotcrete Repairs
Site Shotcrete Repair Durability of Protection of Value of Overall
Shotcrete under Substrate Repair
local conditions
Stave Dam dry-mix, 1985 fair failed locally questionable
Buntzen Dam dry-mix, 1965 fair good good
Ruskin Dam, dry-mix, 1973 good fair good
Spillway
Ruskin Dam, Step dry-mix 1973 fair failed locally marginal
Wall
Jordan Dam, u/s dry-mix, 1969 good good very good
Jordan Dam, u/s dry-mix, 1989 good N/A very good*
Jordan Dam, d/s dry-mix, 1970 fair good * fair
Jordan Dam, wet-mix, 1990 good good very good**
Buttresses
* = limited data available
** = repair too new for final evaluation
5.6 Conclusions
Sand pockets, layering and spraying shadows may reduce the bond between shotcrete and its
substrate and accelerate local damage. Since such flaws are local, they may be tolerable. They
do not necessarily cause widespread failure of the repairs. If water and frost access these flaws
the bond between shotcrete and substrate may be jeopardized over a wide and propagating area.
Even where air void spacing factors often exceed the upper limit suggested in [Ref. 54], this does
not necessarily result in extensive microcracking and deterioration of the shotcrete. Shotcrete on
vertical faces which escapes moisture saturation due to standing water is sufficiently frost
resistant even where it significantly exceeds recommended ranges for air void spacing and
specific surface. Such shotcrete deteriorates at the surface and at a low rate. Shotcrete with
more than 0.45 mm air void spacing and less than 20 mm" 1
specific surface is not durable on
113
exposed horizontal surfaces.
Delamination occurs where large deep shotcreted areas are featheredged. Thermal or shrinkage
stresses may crack large, deep shotcrete layers in the absence of control joints. Shotcrete may
Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete has improved toughness and strain-to-failure. However, fiber
Good surface preparation is essential for good bond between shotcrete and substrate. However,
Cracks in shotcrete layers may occur where the repair failed to fill leaking cracks in the substrate.
Such a failure to prevent moisture saturation of substrate concrete may result infrostdamage.
Thermal stresses may cause delamination. Thermal shear stresses may arise at the shotcrete-
substrate interface. These stresses may exceed the bond strength between shotcrete and
Apparently shotcrete has a relatively low modulus of elasticity resulting from its high paste
content. Leaner substrate concrete may have a high modulus in relation to its lower compressive
strength. If the moduli of shotcrete and substrate concrete match, stresses due to loading will be
similar in both materials. Excessive stress peaks near the interface between shotcrete and
114
Shotcrete may protect the underlying concrete where:
Shotcrete may not protect the substrate, and may accelerate deterioration where:
• shotcrete traps moisture in the underlying concrete yet permits the substrate to freeze,
6.0 Introduction
This chapter summarizes recommendations for shotcrete repair of dam structures situated in the
temperate climate zones of south-western British Columbia. The chapter is based on the
"Recommended Practice for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges" published by the Canadian
Strategic Highway Research Program [Ref. 114]. However, these guidelines are adapted for
shotcrete repair of BC Hydro dams. Italic font characterizes unchanged or minimally modified
. CSAG164-M1981 (6.2.6)
• CSAG30.18-M1992 (6.2.6)
116
• ASTM CI 116-89 (6.2.6)
• AASHTO-T277-89 (6.3.2)
• CAN3-A23.3-M84 (6.5.2)
6.2 Materials
6.2.1 Cement
General
20, 30 or 50, CAN/CSA-A362-M88, Blended Hydraulic Cement, Type 10, 10S, 10F, 10FM,
20SF.
Comments
The engineer selects an appropriate cement type. For most applications cement type 10 is
satisfactory. Cement type 50 may be required where the shotcrete will be exposed to water or
soil containing sulfates. Chloride ions penetrate shotcrete with type 50 cement with relative ease.
117
6.2.2 Pozzolans
General
• Fly ash should conform to the requirements of CAN/CSA A23.5-M86, Type F or Type C.
• Silica fume should conform to the requirements of CAN/CSA A23.5-M86, Type U and
silicon.
Comments
The engineer should specify which pozzolans to use, if any. Fly ash may enhance pumpability,
adhesion and cohesion of wet-mix material, or reduce heat of hydration and permeability of the
cement paste.
Silica fume may be used for both dry-mix and wet-mix shotcrete. Silica fume improves adhesion
of the shotcrete to the substrate and cohesion within the shotcrete, allowing build-up of thick
shotcrete layers in one pass. Silica fume in the mixture substantially reduces rebound. Hardened
silica fume shotcrete increases compressive and flexural strength, reduces permeability and
improves resistance to chemical attack and erosion. Typical addition rates are 8 to 15 % of the
cement mass.
Silica fume reduces water permeability substantially, and thus may trap moisture in an underlying
substrate.
The dry-mix process may cause high silica fume concentrations in the air. This may pose a health
118
6.2.3 Water
General
• In shotcrete production, use only drinking water. The water should be free of oil,
chemical or organic impurities, and should comply with CAN/CSA A23.1-M90, Section 4,
• Water used for water blasting, cleaning, predampening of the substrate, and for curin
6.2.4 Aggregates
General
M90. Use only hard, dense, and durable aggregates. They should conform to limits f
• Use aggregates which do not react with alkalis in the cement to an extent that results
Appendix B.
The as-batched gradation of the specified aggregate should conform to the gradation
119
Table 48: Gradation Limits for 10 mm and 5 mm Aggregate Shotcretes
Metric Sieve Size Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size,
Total Passing Each Sieve, [%] by Mass
5 mm 10 mm
14 mm 100 100
10 mm 100 90 to 100
5 mm 95 to 100 70 to 85
2.5 mm 80 to 100 50 to 70
1.25 mm 50 to 85 35 to 55
630 |xm 25 to 60 20 to 35
315 ^m 10 to 30 8 to 20
160 u.m 2 to 10 2 to 10
Comments
Use 10 mm maximum size aggregates for thick shotcrete repairs (>75 mm). Table 49 presents a
120
Table 49: Comparison 10 mm Aggregate vs. 5 mm Aggregate Shotcrete
10 mm Nominal Maximum Size Aggregate
Advantages Disadvantages
• More "concrete-like'' mixture, with • Greater rebound of coarse aggregate,
coarse aggregate component, lower particularly during encapsulation of
water demand and hence, reduced reinforcing steel using the dry-mix
shrinkage and cracking potential process.
compared to 5 mm MSA shotcrete.
• Leaves a rough "pock-marked" as-shot
• Larger maximum size aggregate finish, which may be less aesthetically
provides better "cleaning" of the acceptable than a 5 mm MSA as-shot
shotcrete lines and nozzle in the dry-mixfinish.
shotcrete process.
• Requires more finishing effort compared
• Greater momentum of larger aggregate to 5 mm MSA shotcrete.
particles helps to keep the front face of
reinforcing steel "clean" during • May require application of a 5 mm
shooting and facilitates the shotcrete MSA shotcrete finish coat.
compaction process.
5 mm Nominal Maximum Size Aggregate
Advantages Disadvantages
• Lower rebound than 10 mm MSA • Being a mortar, rather than a more
shotcrete, particularly when encasing concrete-like mixture, has a higher
reinforcing steel or mesh. water demand than 10 mm MSA
shotcrete.
• More easily finished than 10 mm MSA
shotcrete; usually does not require• a Requires higher cementitious content
finish coat. than 10 mm MSA shotcrete to produce a
given strength.
121
6.2.5 Admixtures
6.2.5.1 Dry-Mix
General
Comments
Dry-mix shotcrete may be produced without admixtures to satisfy most applications. Air
entraining admixtures are recommended where shotcrete is exposed to chloride attack or severe
freeze-thaw cycling. This may occur where nearby roads are treated with de-icing salts.
6.2.5.2 Wet-Mix
General
Comments
Do not use admixtures without approval of the Engineer. Air entraining admixtures should be
added to achieve air contents of 8 to 12 % in the mix prior to shooting. The use of
122
6.2.6 Reinforcement
General
Comments
Install wire mesh on average 40 mm (minimum 20 mm) above the substrate and 40 mm below the
final shotcrete surface. Use small bar sizes for reinforcement, preferably not larger than 15M.
The engineer may specify steel fibers in lieu of wire mesh. Steelfibersare typically added at a
rate of 50 to 80 kg/m. They should be deformed and have an aspect ratio of about 60 to 80.
3
Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete tends to have less visible shrinkage cracking, better bond and
123
1
6.3 Proportioning
General
• Proportion shotcrete to meet the performance requirements of the project and in chapter
6.3.2. Experience from previous projects and trial mixes should influence the mixture
design.
Comments
Shotcrete with silica fume and steel fibers is recommended for most repairs. Steel fiber
reinforced shotcrete without silica fume may be appropriate for downstream faces of seeping
structures in order to allow the substrate to dry out more easily. Do not use shotcrete for
horizontal surfaces unless great care is taken to spray perpendicular to the substrate surface and
Table 50: Typical Remedial Shotcrete Mix Designs. Proportions at the Nozzle in kg/m
Mix Description
Material
Wet-Mix Dry-Mix
Plain Silica Fume Plain Silica Fume
Portland Cement 400 400 425 375
Silica Fume 50 50
10 mm Coarse Aggregate* 460 500 495 490
Concrete Sand* 7260 1180 1215 1205
Water 170 111 165 165
Water Reducing Admixture Yes Yes
Superplasticizer Yes
Air Entraining Admixture Yes Yes
TOTAL 2290 2302 2300 2285
124
Table 51 lists typical wet-mix proportions
The rebound from a vertical surface is usually less than 5 % in the wet-mix process. In the dry-
mix process the rebound from a vertical surface may be greater than 30 %. For silica fume dry-
mix, rebound constitutes about 20 %. Rebound contains more aggregate and less cementitious
material than the as-batched mix. Thus, placed shotcrete has a higher cement content than the
A lean mix may partly compensate for the enrichment of the shotcrete during shooting.
Table 52 describes some general differences between dry-mix and wet-mix shotcrete. Dry-mix
shotcrete is the more efficient process for start-stop type repairs. Wet-mix shotcrete appears to
125
Table 52: Wet-Mix versus Dry-Mix
Problem Wet-Mix Dry-Mix
High volume + 0
Start-stop type repair - +
Cost of equipment - +
Equipment cleaning - +
Prone to mistakes in application 0 -
Rebound + -
Undesired overspray 0 -
Sand pockets + -
Rebound entrapment 0
Site cleaning 0 -
+ = advantageous
0 = satisfactory
- = disadvantageous
6.3.2.1 Dry-Mix
126
6.3.2.2 Wet-Mix
6.4.1.1 Dry-Mix
- batched on site.
127
Do not use dry baggedpremix material containing
Store and apply dry-bagged premix shotcrete at te
6.4.1.2 Wet-Mix
128
Transit Mixing and Supply
6.4.2.1 Dry-Mix
129
Keep the moisture content in the mix prior to discharge into the gun constant during
shooting, so that the nozzleman need not repeatedly adjust the water content at the noz
water ring.
mixed material into the delivery hose at a velocity suitable for the discharge nozzle.
directing an even distribution of water through the mixture. The nozzleman should be
s
Ensure the water pressure at the discharge nozzle exceeds the operating air pressure s
that the water may be thoroughly mixed with predampened shotcrete materials.
6.4.2.2 Wet-Mix
The shotcrete delivery equipment should conform to the requirements of ACI 506R-9
Use equipment that is capable of delivering a steady stream of uniformly mixed mater
powered pistons and surge reduction devices. Add compressed air at the discharge
nozzle.
6.4.2.3 Comments
ACI 506R-90 "Guide to Shotcrete" provides details of different types of equipment available.
Nozzlemen can safely operate wet-mix equipment with 64 mm internal hose diameters. Hourly
application rates of 5 m shotcrete are easily achievable. Use remotely controlled spraying booms
3
130
where a significantly higher application rate is desired or where accessibility is a problem. Keep
the nozzle, the air-ring in the wet-mix process and the water-ring in the dry-mix process free of
131
6.5 Preparation for Shotcreting
General
• Sound the whole concrete area to be repaired with a hammer to outline delamination.
• Remove all loose, spalled, deteriorated and delaminated concrete by chipping with light
duty hammers (not to exceed 7 kg mass) and high pressure water jets (100-275 MPa).
• When corroded reinforcing steel is exposed, remove concrete until there is a minimum 20
mm clearance around the exposed, corroded reinforcing bar. Take care not to damage
• Taper the perimeter of all areas where concrete is removed at approximately 45 °. Cut
outer edges of all chipped areas at about 90° angle to a minimum depth of 20 mm, to
preventfeatheredging.
• Clean the surface to receive shotcrete using high pressure water jetting in accordance
Comments
It may be efficient to remove delaminated concrete by chipping. Subsequently use water jetting
to thoroughly clean chipped areas. The preparation process should leave a rough substrate
Diamond saw cutting tends to polish the substrate. This may weaken the bond when shotcrete is
applied. Thus, water-blast saw-cut surfaces before shotcreting just like chipped or previously
untreated surfaces.
Water jetting is the recommended abrasive surface preparation method. If properly applied, it
132
results in minimal damage to sound concrete adjacent to the removed material. Sand blasting
6.5.2 Reinforcement
General
133
Comments
clearance behind rebars or mesh. Design for a clearance of 40 mm wherever feasible. The use of
shotcretefirmlyto the substrate, especially around the perimeter of large repair areas.
6.5.3 Anchors
General
• Space anchors on vertical surfaces on a 600 mm grid pattern over the entire area.
• Ensure anchors develop pull-out forces of no less than 10 kN. The engineer may specify
Comments
Shotcrete jackets tied to sound concrete across concrete of low quality require anchors. Such
well as in substrate. These anchors should not vibrate visibly when exposed to projected
shotcrete. Anchors should be shaped and placed to reduce spraying shadows and entrapment of
overspray.
134
6.5.4 Drainage
General
• Check all drainage systems upstream of the planned shotcrete layer. Repair them as
Comments
Shotcrete typically has lower permeability than most concrete used in dam construction. Thus,
seeping water may be trapped in the original concrete when shotcrete is on the air-facing side of
a structure. Under freezing conditions the original concrete and the concrete-shotcrete interface
may deteriorate severely. Draining seepage zones may reduce the water saturation of concrete
behind the shotcrete and thereby, the potential for frost damage.
Use shooting wires, guide strips, depth gauges or forms for alignment control.
Shooting wires should consist of minimum 0.8 mm diameter high strength steel wire
combined with a turnbuckle and spring coil, which maintains the wire under tension
during shooting. Remove shooting wires after completing shotcreting and screening
operations.
Use guide strips andforms of such dimensions and installation configuration that they do
shotcrete.
Install depth gauges at a maximum spacing of 1200 mm in a grid pattern. Avoid metal
135
depth gauges.
Cover reinforcing steel and bars as detailed in CAN/CSA A23.1-M90, Section 12.12.
Minimum cover is 40 mm for dry mix shotcrete and 30 mm for wet-mix shotcrete.
Use the preconstruction trial to qualify nozzlemen for the project. Nozzlemen who h
Each nozzleman should shoot preconstruction test panels. Produce the test panels to
ASTM CI140-89 with minimum dimensions of 750 x 750 x 100 mm deep. Make te
panels from wood and sealed plywood. The panels should have 45 degree sloped edge
Half of the panels should contain reinforcement and anchors representative of the proje
Each proposed nozzleman should shoot one test panel for each proposed shotcret
Extract three unreinforced test specimens at each test age, and test for the perform
Where applicable extract a minimum of three 100 mm diameter cores where reinfo
steel and mesh intersect, and check for adequate shotcrete consolidation aroun
Field cure test panels in their wooden frames in the same manner as the propose
shotcrete work, for a minimum of one day, prior to transport to the test laborato
136
Transport the test panels in their wooden forms. Take care not to crack or damage
shotcrete.
Place the test panels in a moist room in the laboratory. Maintain a temperature of 2
2 °C and a relative humidity of 98 ± 2 %. Remove the test panels from their woode
forms at an age of three days. Return the test panels to the moist room until the t
testing.
At appropriate test ages, extract test specimens from the panels by diamond sawin
coring. Store test specimens moist. Test them dry unless the in-place shotcrete wil
Establish a quality control program for the shotcrete. The program should include
For site-batched material, regularly monitor aggregate gradation and moisture cont
Make one moisture content check at the start of each shotcreting operation and whe
specifiedfrequency.
137
6.63 Construction Testing
General
• Shoot one construction test panel for each nozzle orientation for each day of shotcre
production.
• Produce test panels in accordance with the requirements of ASTM CI140-89. Howeve
the test panels should have minimum dimensions of 450 x 450 x 100 mm. Construct tes
forms of wood and sealed plywood, with 45 ° sloped edges, to permit escape of reboun
reinforcement).
• Store, handle and cure construction test panels the same way as preconstruction te
• Conduct compressive strength tests in accordance with CAN/CSA A23.2 - 14C. Correc
measured compressive strengths for a length:diameter ratio of two, using the core
• The mean compressive strength for a set of three cores should equal or exceed 0.85 ft (f
= specified compressive strength). No individual core should fail at less than 0.75 ft
The mean of a set of three cubes should equal or exceed ft with no individual cube less
• Test three specimens at age seven days for boiled absorption and permeable voi
according to ASTM C642. Use 75 mm cubes cut from the broken ends of flexural test
• Test two specimens for rapid chloride permeability according to AASHTO T277-831 at
138
Comments
Tensile bond strength tests may be performed on site. Equipment is available to drill shotcrete
cores and hydraulically pull them off the substrate. The ultimate tensile force is recorded and a /
bond strength can be calculated. Such tests are recommended when the shotcrete is at least
ASTM C457 tests on polished shotcrete samples indicate durable shotcrete if:
air content = 4 to 6 %
General
139
above.
not permit rebound in the completed work. Remove rebound from surfaces to receive
shotcrete. This is best accomplished while the material is still plastic, using blow pipes
scrapers, wire brushes or other suitable tools. Remove hardened rebound and overspr
• Shotcreting requires a clear, unhindered view of the shooting area for the nozzlemen and
a) Orient the nozzle at right angles to the receiving surface, except as required to fill
b) Adjust the combination of air pressure at the nozzle, moisture content of the shotcrete
and distance of the nozzle from the receiving surface to achieve maximum
c) Keep the front face of the reinforcement clean during shooting operations so that
shotcrete builds upfrombehind This will encase the reinforcement and prevent voids
d) Employ a blow pipe operator who continuously removes rebound and overspray in
• Do not apply shotcrete during rain or high wind which could interfere with the shotcre
stream, unless suitable protective covers, enclosures or wind breaks are installed.
• Apply shotcrete to the required line and grade and tolerance detailed in the drawings,
using shotcrete wires, depth gauges, guide strips, forms or other suitable devices. Pro
Comments
140
During shotcreting a helper should always be present to remove rebound and oversprayfromthe
working area. Rebound should not be entrapped in shotcrete. Remove all set oversprayfromthe
substrate prior to shotcreting. Thin layers of overspray worked into the shotcrete while still
plastic are acceptable. However, do not incorporate hardened overspray in the shotcrete.
Spray shotcrete at the "wettest stable consistency" with nozzle distances to the substrate in the
range of 0.6 to 1.8 m depending on equipment and air pressure. Good encasing of reinforcement
Static and dynamic structural demands (for example for earthquake upgrading, spillways, plunge
Freeze-thaw durability of a shotcrete repair is significantly enhanced when the frost line can not
penetrate past the shotcrete layer to the substrate concrete, or the substrate is protected from
moisture saturation. Suggested minimum depths of steel fiber reinforced shotcrete are given
below.
> 75 mm: on vertical surfaces of structural members such as piers, beams, buttresses which are
> 100 mm: upstream faces of dams without significant ice pressure from reservoir (Lower
> 150 mm: horizontal areas. Avoid shotcreting horizontal surfaces when possible;
> 250 mm: large spillways, areas where the substrate may remain moisture saturated even after
the shotcrete repair. For these cases consider using steel fiber shotcrete without
141
silica fume so that the substrate may dry.
These suggested depths do not take into account structural static requirements. They have been
thick. Apply the final layer preferably before the underlying shotcrete attains initial set or at least
24 hours after set and on a surface cleaned by high pressure water jet. A proper preparation of
the underlying shotcrete according to ACI 506R-90, section 6.5.8 and 6.6.2 is essential to
Large shotcrete repairs require contraction joints. Construct contraction joints to coincide with
all existing joints in the structure. Additional joints may be required to deal with thermal stress.
The spacing of these joints depends among other things on the local climate and thickness and
type of shotcrete. Joint spacing of 10 m or more may be sufficient for deep layers of fiber
reinforced shotcrete exposed to moderate temperature changes. In other cases use joint spacing
of 6 to 8 m.
Where no sound substrate exists shotcrete jacketing may be required. This involves uVback of a
6.7.2 Finishing
General
Comments
Trim all shotcrete and overspray back from adjacent unprepared concrete surfaces. Edges of all
shotcrete repairs should have a minimum square saw-cut edge 20 mm deep. Finish the shotcrete
6.8.1 Curing
143
application rate normally specified for smooth concrete finishes. Completely remov
Once shotcrete has attainedfinalset, keep it continuously moist for a rninimum period of
seven days, unless the Engineer permits the use of a curing compound. Moist curing may
a) Covering the shotcrete with wet burlap presoaked in water for 24 hours. Plastic sheet
b) Installing soaker hoses to keep the shotcrete repairs continuously wet for the curing
period.
6.8.2 Protection
Protect shotcretefromimpact, static loads other than self-weight, and dynamic loads as
specified by the engineer.
Apply the general requirements for hot and cold weather concreting detailed in CAN/CSA
If the prevailing ambient conditions (relative humidity, wind speed, air temperature a
direct exposure to sunlight) are such that the shotcrete develops plastic shrinkage and
early drying shrinkage cracking, stop shotcrete application. The contractor should:
measures.
Do not apply shotcrete if the rate of evaporation at the repair surface exceeds 1.0 kg/m /h2
Stop applying shotcrete if the ambient temperature rises above 30 XJ. The engineer m
Do not apply shotcrete if the temperature of the concrete substrate is less than 5 XJ
144
the air in contact with the repair surfaces is below 10°C.
Maintain air temperature over the repaired surfaces at 10 °C or greater for at least four
days after shotcreting. The engineer must approve the means of maintaining the air
temperature.
The preferred temperature range of applied shotcrete is 10°C to 20XJ. The limits for
shotcrete temperature are a minimum of 5X1 and a maximum of 30 XJ. Cool mix
temperatures are preferred during hot weather shotcreting and warm mix temperatures
145
CHAPTER 7
FUTURE RESEARCH
A) Test the durability of shotcrete repairs at additional sites. Findings may augment this
report.
concrete dams as a function of geometry, materials, local climate, and reservoir water level.
Record temperature and humidity profiles on dams simultaneously to verify the model. The
model could help engineers select dam repair materials, and detail the dimensions of shotcrete
repairs.
C) Study the stability of partly delaminated shotcrete layers. Produce test panels by spraying
shotcrete on top of aged concrete substrate. Introduce controlled delaminations (use bond
breaking materials like adheasive tape or styrofoam plates). Expose these panels to mechanical
and thermal load cycles. Monitor the bond between shotcrete and substrate and the growth of
Supplementary site studies should be conducted. Monitor the growth of delaminations on dam
faces over the course of several years. Test for delamination by tapping or pulse echo methods
e.g. once a year. Document the exact size and location of delaminations and compare records.
146
D) There is a demand for a reliable and fast method to detect delamination. Thermographic
investigated how thermographic imaging can be utilized to scan hydro dams for delamination.
Other techniques to be studied include ground radar and spectral analysis of surface waves.
Summarize the current knowledge about possible health hazards of admixtures and pozzolans.
147
CHAPTER 8
R E F E R E N C E LIST
8.1 Textbooks
8.1.1 Concrete
[I] Bungey, J.H.: The Testing of Concrete in Structures. Blackie and Son Ltd., UK, 1989.
[3] Carpinteri, Alberto: Mechanical Damage and Crack Growth in Concrete. Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1986.
[4] Dewar, J.D., Andersen, R.: Manual of Ready-Mixed Concrete. Blackie and Son Ltd.,
Glasgow, UK, 1988.
[5] Dodson, Vance H.: Concrete Admixtures. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990.
[6] Kosmatka, S.H., et al: Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. 5th Canadian Metric
Edition, Canadian Portland Cement Association, Ottawa, 1991.
[10] Neville, A . M . : Properties of Concrete. Pitman Publishing Ltd., London, UK, 1977.
[II] Ramachandran, V.S.: Concrete Admixtures Handbook. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge,
N.J., 1984.
8.1.2 Shotcrete
[12] Guthoff, K.: Einflusse automatischer Dusenfuhrung auf die Herstellung von Spritzbeton.
Institut fur Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Mitteilungen Nr. 91-7,
Feb. 1991.
148
[13] Ryan, T.F.: Gunite. Cement and Concrete Association, London, UK, 1973.
8.1.3 Others
[16] Krautkramer, K.: Ultrasonic Testing of Materials. 4th edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1990.
[17] Lewis, R.J.: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. Eighth Edition, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1992.
[19] Mohr, J.G., Rowe, W.P.: Fibre Glass. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1978.
[20] Sukhatme, S.P.: A Textbook on Heat Transfer. Third Edition, Si-Units, Orient Longman
Ltd., Bombay, India, 1989.
[21] Timoshenko, S.: Vibration Problems in Engineering. D. Van Nostrand Company, New
York, 1937.
8.2.1 Concrete
[22] Berry, E.: Fly Ash in Concrete, CANMET SP85-3. Canadian Centre for Min
Energy Technology, 1986.
149
[26] Malhotra,V.M.: Fly Ash, Slag, Silica Fume, and Rice-Hu
Concrete International. Vol. 15, No. 4, April 1993.
[27] RILEM - Report of Technical Committee 67-FAB: Fly Ash in Concrete. Chapman&Hall,
London, UK, 1991.
8.2.2 Shotcrete
[31] Anderson, M . : Shotcrete for Expedient Structural Repair. Report. Applied Research
Associates, Panama City, FL, 1991.
[34] Beaupre, D., Mindess, S., Morgan, D.R.: Development of High Perfor
in: Shotcrete for Underground Support VI. Proceedings of the Foundation Conference,
Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada, May 2-6 1993, published by the American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York.
[37] Durand, B., Mirza, J., Nguyen, P.: ASTM C666 (A) Freeze-Thaw Dur
Entrained Wet- and Dry-Mix Shotcrete, in: Shotcrete
Proceedings of the Foundation Conference, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada, May 2-6 1993,
published by the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
150
[38] Fidjestol, P.: Applied Silica Fume Concrete, in: Concrete Internation
November 1993.
[42] Husbands, T.B., Causey, F.E.: Surface Treatment to Minimize Concrete Deterioration:
Laboratory Evaluation of Surface Treatment Materials. US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Ms., Technical Report REMR-CS-17, 1990.
[43] Lock, Jim: Beefing up the Mix, in: Tunnels and Tunneling. Vol. 21, No. 7, Ju
[46] Metcalf, D., Lattin, D.J.: Channel Lining With Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete. Final Report,
Arizona Transportation Research Center, Phoenix, Arizona, Report-Number FHWA-AZ-
8902, Arizona Department of Transportation, 1992.
[51] Morgan, D.R.: Freeze-Thaw Durability of Wet Mix and Dry Mix Shotcretes with Silica
Fume and Steel Fibers. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988.
151
[52] Morgan, D.R.: High Early Strength Blended-Cement Wet
International. Vol. 13, No. 5, May 1991.
[53] Morgan, D.R., Pigeon, M . : High Performance Shotcrete. paper presented at the Network
of Centers of Excellence on High Performance Concrete Half Day Seminar, Toronto,
1992/10/6.
[55] Morgan, D.R.: Shotcrete Repair of Infrastructure. Institute for Research in Construction
and Science Council of B.C. SPARK, Seminar on Repair and Restoration of Concrete
Structures, Vancouver, B.C., March 2, 1990.
[59] Muszynski, L.C.: Durability of Expedient Repair Materials. Report, Applied Research
Associates, Panama City, FL, 1993.
[60] March, A.: Large Scale Testing of Shotcrete, in: Shotcrete for Un
Proceedings of the Foundation Conference, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada, May 2-6 1993,
published by the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
[61] Pink, Allan: Concrete in Tunnels, in: Civ. Eng. (London). Sept. 1987.
[64] Schrader, E. K.: Deterioration and Repair of Concrete in the Lower Monumental
Navigation Lock Wall: Final Report, June 1981, NTIS-No. AD-A101 635/1/HDM.
152
[66] Schupack, M . , Randall, W.P.: Durability of Prestressed Concret
International. October 1989.
[71] Skarendahl, Ake: Improving Performance of Steel Fiber Shotcrete. Swedish Cement and
Concrete Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1991.
[75] Uchida, Y., Minematsu, T.: Application for Repair Work of Fibe
Using Jet Cement, in: Advanced Cements and Chemically Bonded Ceramics. To
1988, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, USA, 1989.
[78] Wolsiefer, J., Morgan, D.R.: Silica Fume in Shotcrete, in: Concrete Int
15, No. 4, April 1993.
153
8.3 Codes, Standards, Recommendations
8.3.1 Canadian
[82] CAN3 - A266.3 - M78: Pozzolanic Mineral Admixtures for Use in Portland Cement
Concrete.
[83] CAN3 - A266.4 - M78: Guidelines for the Use of Admixtures in Concrete.
[84] CAN3 - A266.5 - M81: Guidelines for the Use of Superplasticizing Admixtures in
Concrete. Preliminary Standard.
[87] CAN/CSA - 23.1 - M90: Concrete Material and Methods of Concrete Construction.
[88] CAN/CSA - 23.1 - M94: Concrete Material and Methods of Concrete Construction.
8.3.2 U.S.
[91] ACI Committee 201: Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service. ACI
201.1R-68, in: ACI Manual of Concrete Practice 1991, Part 1, Detroit, Michigan, 1991.
[93] ACI Committee 201: Guide to Durable Concrete. ACI 201.2R-77, in: ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice 1991, Part 1, Detroit, Michigan, 1991.
[95] ACI Committee 506: Recommended Practice for Shotcreting. ACI 506-66.
[96] ACI Committee 506: State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete. ACI 506.1
R-84; Detroit, 1984.
154
97] ACI Committee 311: ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection. 8th edition, ACI, Detroit 1992.
98] ACI: Specification for Materials. Proportioning, and Application of Shotcrete, ACI
506.2-77(83); Detroit, 1983.
100] ACI: State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete. ACI 506. lR-84(89); Detroit,
1989.
101] A S T M C39-86: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens.
102] A S T M C215-91: Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse. Longitudinal, and
Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens.
104] A S T M C597-83: Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete.
105] A S T M C642-90: Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity. Absorption, and Voids in
Hardened Concrete.
107] US Army Corps of Engineers: Standard Practice for Shotcrete Structures. Engineering
Manual No. 1110-2-2005, Washington, D.C, 1993.
8.3.3 Others
108] Deutscher AusschuC fur Stahlbeton: Richtlinie fur Schutz und Instandsetzung von
Betonbauteilen; August 1990, Berlin, Germany.
155
[113] Durability of Shotcrete Rehabilitation Treatments of Bridges in Canada, published by the
Canadian Strategic Highway Research Program, Ottawa, 1991.
[114] Recommended Practice for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges, published by the
Canadian Strategic Highway Research Program, Ottawa, 1991.
[115] BCHydro: File 419.1506.0.7 - Buntzen Lake Dam. Comprehensive Inspection and
Review. Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1985, 1991.
[116] BCHydro: Drawing 422-C02-U8 - Stave Blind Slough Dam. Concrete Repair Areas.
Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1985.
[117] BCHydro: File 422.1506.0.7 - Stave Falls Dam. Comprehensive Inspection and Review.
Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1993.
[118] BCHydro: File 422.1506.1 - Stave Blind Slough Dam. Construction Report on Dam
Rehabilitation. Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1986.
[120] BCHydro: File 544.1506.0.7 - Jordan River Diversion Dam. Comprehensive Inspection
and Review. Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1985.
[121] BCHydro: File 544.1506.0.9 - Jordan River Diversion. 1989/91 Rehabilitation Project
Completion Report. Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1991.
[122] BCHydro: File 544.1506.010.1 - Concrete Cores from Jordan River Dam Site.
Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1959.
[123] BCHydro: File 544; 1506.010.1 - Concrete Testing and Evaluation. Report.
Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1986.
[124] BCHydro: File 544.1506.010.1 - Report on Deck Slab Treatment Test Program.
Civil&Transmission Archive Edmonds, 1970.
[126] B C Hydro: File A3 524 - Stave Falls Power Developments. Edmonds Library A02, 1924.
[129] HBT AGRA: File VA-00722, Memo from International Power and Engineering
Consultants Ltd.. Burnaby.
[131] HBT AGRA: Project VX-00119-001. Test Protocols. Burnaby. 1990.10.9., 1990.10.15.
[132]Powertech Labs.: Project No. 4810-34-00, Buntzen Lake Concrete Investigation. Surrey,
July 1993.
[133] Powertech Labs.: Project No. 5362-34, Evaluation of Shotcrete Repairs at BC Hydro
Dams. Surrey, 1994.
[136] Armelin, H.S., Helene, P.: Physical and Mechanical Properties of Steel-Fiber Reinforced
Dry-Mix Shotcrete. Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1993.
[138]Banthia, N., et al: Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete: Comparisons with Cast Concrete.
University of British Columbia, 1993. Recently published in: Journal of Materials In Civil
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 6, No. 3, August 1994.
[140] B.C. Hydro: Inter-office Memo from "Surrey Research", Project 4898.1-84, C170-M7,
1985.
[142] Eilau, J.: BC Hydro Shotcrete Projects. Personal File Collection. Burnaby, 1994.
157
[144] Morgan D.R.: Private Communication. HBT AGRA, Burnaby, April 1994.
[146] Warner, James: All about shotcrete: paper, Mariaposa, California, 1993.
Appendix A - Typical Frost Events
0
r°ci 5
rci 5
per 10 years
1 5 2
2 0 -4
3 5 -3 6
4 10 -6
5 5 3
159
Table 4 : Buntzen Dam, Frost Event B4
Day Max Temperature Min. Temperature Events
ra ra per 10 years
0 3 3
1 1 -1
2 1 -2
3 1 -3 16
4 1 -3
5 1 -2
6 1 -1
7 3 3
160
Table 7: Buntzen Dam, Frost Event B7
Day Max Temperature Min. Temperature Events
r°ci ra per 10 years
0 3 3
1 -2 -6
2 -3 -8
3 -3 -8
4 -3 -8
5 -3 -8 6
6 -2 -6
7 -2 -6
8 0 -6
9 1 -4
10 0 0
Table 9: Buntzen Dam, Frost Event B9, Isolated Night Frost, Temperature > -3 °C:
87 events per 10 years.
161
Typical Frost Events for Stave Dam and Ruskin Dam
Ten distinguishable frost events were modelled for the climate at Stave and Ruskin Dam.
162
Table 14: Stave Dam, Ruskin Dam, Frost Event SR6
Day Max Temperature Min. Temperature Events
ra [°C] per 10 years
0 5 5
1 0 -5
2 -10 -15
3 -10 -15
4 -5 -15
5 0 -7
6 5 -7
7 5 -7 8
8 5 -7
9 5 -7
10 10 -5
11 10 -5
12 10 -5
13 5 -2
14 5 -2
15 2 • 2
163
Table 16: Stave Dam, Luskin Dam, Frost Event SR8
Day Max Temperature Min. Temperature Events
ra r°ci per 10 years
0 2 2
1 3 0
2 2 -3
3 -1 -4
4 0 -4
5 0 -5
6 -1 -6
7 -1 -6 7
8 -2 -6
9 -2 -8
10 -2 -8
11 -2 -8
12 -2 -8
13 2 -4
14 1 0
15 3 3
164
Table 19: Stave Dam, Ruskin Dam, Frost Event SR11
Day Max Temperature Min. Temperature Events
ra ra p e r 10 y e a r s
0 2 2
1 2 -4
2 2 -4 8
3 2 -4
4 2 -4
5 2 2
Table20: Stave Dam, Ruskin Dam, Frost Event SR12, Isolated Night Frost,
Temperature > -3 °C: 103 events per 10 years.
165
Appendix B - Test Results
Field Testing
Table 1: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tests. Stave Dam
B6 37.3 31
37.6 31
166
Table 5: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocirsr Tests, Ruskin Dam, Step Wall
R4 44.6-50.1 41-51
R6 32.0-51.5 23-53
167
Table 9: Schmidt Hammer Tests. Jordan Dam
Jll 45.0 43
J12 48.0 48
J13 47.0 46
Buttress 15 45.0 43
Buttress 16 49.0 49
Buttress 24 48.0 48
The Schmidt hammer readings given in Table 9 were already multiplied by a correction factor of 1.1.
The correction factor was introduced after an instrument calibration succeeded the field tests at Jordan
Dam.
Laboratory Testing
Table 10: Core Specimens. Stave Dam
Bl oc + sc none
D1A oc + sc deteriorated oc
D2 oc + sc oc near sc
B3 oc + sc none
B4 oc + sc none
D4 oc + sc oc-sc interface
Table 12: Boiled Absorption TeststASTM C642). Stave Samples (ASTM C642)
SI perpendicular 4.0
Bl perpendicular 3.3
D2 perpendicular 3.9
B4 perpendicular 3.6
Dl parallel 4.2
B4A 0.1
oc = original concrete
sc = shotcrete
Table 16: Air Content Determination of Shotcrete Sample B6. Buntzen Dam
D5 parallel 3.4
B7 parallel 3.5
D7 2.13 2.22
Table 22: Fractures in Core Specimens. Ruskin Dam
R7 oc + sc 90 % oc, aggreg.-paste
interface,
10 % oc and 1 small aggreg.
R8 oc + sc 90 % sc-oc interface,
10 % oc, around aggreg.
oc = ordinary concrete, substrate
sc = shotcrete
aggreg. = aggregate
Table 23: Air Content Determination of Sample RD2. Ruskin Dam. Spillway
R4 parallel 4.2
R4 perpendicular 5.1
R5 parallel 4.7
R5 perpendicular 5.1
R6 parallel 4.7
R6 perpendicular 4.8
R7 parallel 4.7-4.8
R8 parallel 4.2
Table 26: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Ruskin Dam. Shotcrete
R4 parallel 4.0-4.2
R5 parallel 4.4
R5 perpendicular 4.4
R6 parallel 4.4
R7 parallel 4.4
R7 perpendicular 4.6
R8 parallel 4.3
oc = original concrete
sc = shotcrete
RD2, shotcrete 59 X
RB2, shotcrete 22
RD3, shotcrete 28
R6 0.90 0.55
R7 0.57 0.54
J5 oc + sc none
J6 oc + sc none
J7 oc + sc none
J8 oc + sc none
oc = ordinary concrete, substrate
sc = shotcrete
Table 32: Air Content Determination of Sample J5 . Jordan Dam. Upstream Side. Shotcrete 1969
Table 34: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. Jordan Dam. Upstream Face. Original Concrete
J5 parallel 4.2
J6 parallel 3.9
J7 parallel 4.5
J8 parallel 4.3
J8 perpendicular 4.6
Table 35: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. Jordan Dam, Upstream Side. Shotcrete
J5 perpendicular 4.1-4.2
J6 perpendicular 3.9
J7 perpendicular 4.1
J8 perpendicular 4.3
J5 0.7 sc
J6 1.3 sc
176
Table 37: Sorptivity Tests. Jordan Dam, Upstream Side. Shotcrete 1969
J5 1.25 0.86
J13 oc + sc none
oc = ordinary concrete, substrate
sc = shotcrete
Table 39: Air Content Determina tion of Sample J12 , Jordan Dam, Buttresses. Shotcrete 1970
Table 40: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. Jordan Dam. Buttresses. Shotcrete 1970
177
i
Table 41: Core Specimens. Jordan Dam, Buttresses, Shotcrete 1990
Jl oc + sc none
J2 oc + sc none
J3 oc + sc none
J4 oc none
JIO oc + sc none
Jll oc + sc none
Table 42: Air Content Determination of Sample JIO, Jordan Dam, Buttresses. Shotcrete 1990
Table 43: Boiled Absorption Tests(ASTM C642), Jordan Downstream Samples 1990
Jl perpendicular 3.8
J2 perpendicular 4.6
J3 perpendicular 4.4
J4 perpendicular 4.1
Table 45: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Jordan Dam. Buttresses. Shotcrete 1990
J2 parallel 4.1
J3 parallel 4.4
Table 46: Tensile Bond Strength. Jordan Dam. Buttresses. Shotcrete 1990
J10 1.1 oc
oc = original concrete
sc = shotcrete
Stave Dam
180
Photo 2: Stave Dam, Retaining Wall, Shotcrete.
Delaminated area hatched.
Note: Horizontal crack along lower edge of shotcrete,
deteriorating shotcrete on horizontal edge below parapet.
Photo 3: Stave Dam, Retaining Wall, Shotcrete.
Typical Core Hole.
Note: Freeze-thaw deteriorated substrate concrete behind (dark) shotcrete.
182
Buntzen Dam
183
Photo 5: Buntzen Dam, Downstream Face, Shotcrete.
Delaminated areas hatched, cracks outlined yellow.
Photo 6: Buntzen Dam, Downstream Face, Shotcrete.
Part of intake structure in upper right corner, delaminated areas hatched, cracks outlined yellow.
Note: Crack in shotcrete extending downward from the intake structure's lower left corner.
Photo 7: Buntzen Dam, Downstream Face.
Delaminated shotcrete hatched.
Note: Gap between shotcrete layer and stairs.
186
Ruskin Dam
187
188
Photo 10: Ruskin Dam, Step Wall, Typical Core Sample.
Units of ruler: Inches (top), millimeters (bottom).
Note: Deteriorated substrate concrete (left) below shotcrete (right).
189
Photo 11: Ruskin Dam, Detail of Core Sample from Step Wall, Substrate Concrete.
Note: White calcium carbonate deposits, chemical reaction between deposit and hydrochloric acid
center right.
190
Photo 12: Ruskin Dam, Saw Cut across Shotcrete Core Sample from Step Wall.
Note: Spraying shadow caused by wire mesh.
191
Jordan River Diversion Dam, Upstream Face
192
Photo 14: Jordan Dam, Upstream Face.
Coring operation in progress.
193
Photo 15: Jordan Dam, Upstream Face, Typical Core Sample.
Substrate concrete left, shotcrete right.
Meter rod units are centimeters.
Note: Porous substrate concrete, dense shotcrete, shotcrete bonds well to substrate.
Photo 16: Jordan Dam, Upstream Face, Detail of Polished Shotcrete Sample.
Magnification about 60 times.
Note: Cement paste attacked by freeze-thaw cycles, micro-cracks made visible by blue dye,
depicted deterioration not typical for shotcrete.
Jordan River Diversion Dam, Downstream Face / Buttresses
196
197
198
Photo 20: Jordan Dam, Buttresses, Shotcrete from 1970.
Note: Shrinkage cracking, marking for coring (sample J13).
Photo 21: Jordan Dam, Buttresses, Typical Core Samples.
Top: substrate concrete, bottom: wet-mix shotcrete from 1990; scale units are inches.
Note: Purple colour from carbonation test, purple concrete = alkaline cement paste,
weak or no colour reaction = carbonated cement paste.
Photo 22: Jordan Dam, Buttresses, Conventional Patching Mortar.
Note: Patching mortar delaminated, marking for coring sample.
201