Seminar report

On

CABLE SUSPENSION BRIDGE

To be submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Civil Engineering

Under the guidance of

Dr. JYOTI PRASAD

Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Technology

Submitted by:

GAURAV RAWAT

ID. NO.45339
 COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

G.B.PANT UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY

Dr. JYOTI PRASAD

Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
College of Technology
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology
Pantnagar
District: U. S. Nagar
Uttarakhand

APPROVAL

This project report entitled “CABLE SUSPENSION BRIDGE” submitted by

GAURAV RAWAT (Id. No.45339) is hereby approved as credible work of
engineering subject carried out & presented in a satisfactory manner. The
undersigned warrant its acceptance as pre-requisite to the degree for which it has
been submitted.

Dr. JYOTI PRASAD

(Seminar Guide)
 Acknowledgement

I would like to articulate deep gratitude and veneration to Dr. Jyoti Prasad,
professor, Department of Civil Engineering for his sincere exhortation, inspiring
guidance, constant encouragement and constructive criticism throughout the
seminar work. We express deep sense of obligation to him as she made it possible
for us to submit the report in the present form.

This journey would not have been possible without the support of my family,
professors and mentors, and friends. To my family, thank you for encouraging me
in all my pursuits and inspiring me to follow my dreams. I am especially grateful
to my parents, who supported me emotionally and financially. I always knew that
you believed in me and wanted the best for me.

I must thank the Department of Civil Engineering, College of Technology and G

B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology for the best four years of my
life.

GAURAV RAWAT
ID. NO.45339
LIST OF CONTENT

S. No. Title
1 Introduction
2 Types of bridges
3 Suspension bridge and its hostory

4 Structural Elements — Elevators, Spire,

And More

5 Compnents of suspension bridges

6 Types of suspension bridges

7 Manufacturing process and design
8 Loads on suspension bridge and its
working
9 Failures of suspension bridge
10 Pros and cons of suspension bridge

11 Conclusion

12 References
BRIDGE

Bridge is a structure that provides passage over obstacles such as valleys, rough terrain or bodies
of water by spanning those obstacles with natural or manmade materials. They first begun be
used in ancient times when first modern civilizations started rising in the Mesopotamia. From
that point on, knowledge, engineering, and manufacture of new bridge building materials spread
beyond their borders, enabling slow but steady adoption of bridges all across the world.

In the beginning bridges were very simple structures that were built from easily accessible
natural resources- wooden logs, stone and dirt. Because of that, they had ability only to span very
close distances, and their structural integrity was not high because mortar was not yet invented
and rain slowly but constantly dissolved dirt fillings of the bridge. Revolution in the bridge
construction came in Ancient Rome whose engineers found that grinded out volcanic rocks can
serve as an excellent material for making mortar. This invention enabled them to build much
more sturdier, powerful and larger structures than any civilization before them. Seeing the power
of roads and connections to distant lands, Roman architects soon spread across the Europe,
Africa and Asia, building bridges and roads of very high quality.

Types of Bridges

Bridges by Structure
 Arch bridges – These bridges uses arch as a main structural component (arch is always located
below the bridge, never above it). They are made with one or more hinges, depending of what
kind of load and stress forces they must endure. Examples of arch bridge are “Old Bridge” in
Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina and The Hell Gate Bridge in New York.
 Beam bridges – Very basic type of bridges that are supported by several beams of various shapes
and sizes. They can be inclined or V shaped. Example of beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain
Causeway in southern Louisiana.
 Truss bridges – Very popular bridge designs that uses diagonal mesh of posts above the bridge.
The two most common designs are the king posts (two diagonal posts supported by single vertical
 post in the center) and queen posts (two diagonal posts, two vertical pots and horizontal post that
connect two vertical posts at the top).
 Cantilever bridges – Similar in appearance to arch bridges, but they support their load not trough
vertical bracing but trough diagonal bracing. They often use truss formation both below and
above the bridge. Example of cantilever bridge is Queensboro Bridge in New York City.
 Tied arch bridges – Similar to arch bridges, but they transfer weight of the bridge and traffic
load to the top chord that is connected to the bottom cords in bridge foundation. They are often
called bowstring arches or bowstring bridges.
 Suspension bridges – Bridges that use ropes or cables from the vertical suspender to hold the
weight of bridge deck and traffic. Example of suspension bridge is Golden Gate Bridge in San
Francisco.
 Cable-stayed bridges – Bridge that uses deck cables that are directly connected to one or more
vertical columns. Cables are usually connected to columns in two ways – harp design (each cable
is attached to the different point of the column, creating harp like design of “strings” and fan
design (all cables connect to one point at the top of the column).

Fixed or moveable types

 Fixed – Majority of bridges are fixed, with no moveable parts to provide higher clearance for
river/sea transport that is flowing below them. They are designed to stay where they are made to
the point they are deemed unusable or demolished.
 Temporary bridges – Bridges made from modular basic components that can be moved by
medium or light machinery. They are usually used in military engineering or in circumstances
when fixed bridges are repaired.
 Moveable bridges – They have moveable decks, most often powered by electricity.

Types by use
 Car Traffic – The most common type of bridge, with two or more lanes designed to carry car
and truck traffic of various intensities.
 Pedestrian bridges – Usually made in urban environments, or in terrain where car transport is
inaccessible (rough mountainous terrain, forests, etc.).
 Double-decked bridges – Built to provide best possible flow of traffic across bodies of water or
rough terrain. Most offen they have large amount of car lanes, and sometimes have dedicated area
for train tracks.
 Train bridges – Bridges made specifically to carry one or multiple lane of train tracks.
 Pipelines – Bridges made to carry pipelines across water or inaccessible terrains. Pipelines can
carry water, air, gas and communication cables.
 Viaducts – Ancient structures created to carry water from water rich areas to dry cities.
 Commercial bridges – Modern bridges that host commercial buildings such as restaurants and
shops.

Types by materials
 Natural materials
 Wood (Wooden bridges)
 Stone
 Concrete and Steel
  Advanced materials

SUSPENSION BRIDGES
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung
below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge
were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders,
have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.

This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables that
carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck
to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like other suspension bridge types, this
type often is constructed without falsework.

The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the
bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables continue beyond the
pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground.
The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In some
circumstances, the towers may sit on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly
to the main span, otherwise the bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between
either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or may use a
truss bridge to make this connection. In the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard
main cables.

History
Precursor
The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of iron chains in his version of
simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan. The last surviving
chain-linked bridge of Gyalpo's was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse,
which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpo's iron chain bridges did not include a suspended deck
bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the
walking layer of Gyalpo's bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by
the iron chains. Before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or
yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth.

Chain bridges

The first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in
Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finley's bridge was the
first to incorporate all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge, including a
suspended deck which hung by trusses. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in
the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810.
The diagram of the chain bridge over the Menai constructed near Bangor, Wales, in 1820

Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge (1817) and 137 m Union
Bridge (1820), with spans rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge (1826), "the first
important modern suspension bridge". The first chain bridge on the European continent was the
Chain Bridge in Nuremberg Germany. The Clifton Suspension Bridge (designed in 1831,
completed in 1864 with a 214 m central span) is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain
type. The current Marlow suspension bridge was designed by William Tierney Clark and was
built between 1829 and 1832, replacing a wooden bridge further downstream which collapsed in
1828. It is the only suspension bridge across the non-tidal Thames. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge,
spanning the River Danube in Budapest, was also designed by William Clark and it is a larger
scale version of Marlow bridge.

An interesting variation is Thornewill & Warham's Ferry Bridge in Burton-on-Trent,

Staffordshire (1889), where the chains are not attached to abutments as is usual, but instead are
attached to the main girders, which are thus in compression. Here, the chains are made from flat
wrought iron plates, eight inches (203mm) wide by an inch and a half (38mm) thick, rivetted
together.

Wire-cable

The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816), a
modest and temporary footbridge built following the collapse of James Finley's nearby Chain
Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808). The footbridge's span was 124 m, although its deck was
only 0.45 m wide.

Development of wire-cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge
at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m.The first
permanent wire cable suspension bridge was Guillaume Henri Dufour Saint Antoine Bridge in
Geneva of 1823, with two 40 m spans.]The first with cables assembled in mid-air in the modern
method was Joseph Chaley's Grand Pont Suspendu in Fribourg, in 1834.]

In the United States, the first major wire-cable suspension bridge was the Wire Bridge at
Fairmount in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Designed by Charles Ellet, Jr and completed in 1842, it
had a span of 109 m. Ellet's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge (1847–48) was abandoned before
completion. It was used as scaffolding for John A. Roebling double decker railroad and carriage
bridge (1855).
The Otto Beit Bridge (1938–39) was the first modern suspension bridge outside the United States
built with parallel wire cables.

Types of Suspension Bridges

Suspension bridges are bridges whose deck is held in place by suspender cable which hang
vertically from suspension cables. But they are not all the same. They use different techniques
and materials to achieve the same thing – span distances that could not be crossed differently.

 “Simple suspension bridge” is a bridge that has no towers nor piers and is suspended on
the cables that are anchored at their ends and nothing else. It is also known as a rope
bridge, swing bridge, suspended bridge, hanging bridge and catenary bridge and is the
oldest variant of the suspended bridge. The deck of this bridge follows is arched
downwards and upwards and has additional ropes at a higher level which form the
handrail. It is a pedestrian bridge and cannot carry modern roads and railroads. "Simple-
suspension bridge" can also be name for a suspended deck bridge that has a deck which is
not stiffened, hence - "simple".
 “Suspension bridge” is a name for a modernly designed suspension bridge – a
suspended-deck suspension bridge. It has towers and, from them, cables that hold up the
road deck. These cables transfer the weight of the deck, by tension, to the towers and then
to the ground by cables whose ends are anchored. This type can carry heavy vehicles and
light rail. The first designs of this type of bridge appeared in 16th century but they were not
built until 18th century when more materials appeared which allowed for this type of
bridge to be made. Longest suspension bridges of today are of this design.
 “Underspanned suspension bridge” is a type of bridge that was developed in the early
19th century and which has deck that is raised on posts above the main cables which are,
at their ends, anchored. It is a very rare design in practice because its deck is not too
stable. Some of the bridges built like this are Pont des Bergues (built in 1834), are James
Smith’s Micklewood Bridge at Doune in Scotland (it was probably the first one built like
this and had chains instead of cables which also makes it chain bridge). Hammersmith
Bridge has parts of the roadway built in this manner.
 “Stressed ribbon bridge” is a modern, improved variant of a classical simple suspension
bridge. It has a rigid deck which lays on suspension cables which are in turn embedded in
the deck. Deck follows a catenary arc between supports and is stressed in traction, which
 adds to its stiffness and prevents swaying and bouncing like at simple suspended bridge.
This bridge is usually made of concrete reinforced by steel tensioned cables and can carry
vehicle traffic. Concrete plates are premade and placed to form the initial structure.
Sandbags are place upon the tiles to prestress cables that hold the tiles and gaps between
the tiles are filled with concrete. When the concrete dries, sandbags are removed and
cables compress, stiffening the bridge and making it more durable.
 "Self-anchored suspension bridge" has its main cables attached to the ends of the deck
rather than ground like standard suspended bridge which allows for construction on
elevated piers, or in areas of unstable soils where anchors would be loosen over time.
This method of building appeared in mi-19th century and was designed by Austrian
engineer Josef Langer in 1859. American engineer Charles Bender patented this method
in United States in 1867. Earliest bridges built with this method in United States were
Three Sisters Bridges of Pittsburgh, built between 1924 and 1928. Suspension cables
cannot be anchored until the deck is finished with this design so a false-work is used to
hold them until then.
 Differences Between Cable Stayed Bridges and
Suspension Bridges

The main difference between cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges is in the way
that they transfer loads from deck to pylon. As depicted in Figure 1, in cable stayed
bridges straight cables transfer deck loads directly to the pylon (Walther et al., 2003, P19-
39). But as shown in Figure 2, in suspension bridges, there are main cables (suspension
cables) that carry vertical cables. These vertical cables behave as restraints for the deck
and transfer deck loads to the main cables.

Figure 1: Cable Stay Bridge (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Figure 2: Suspension Bridge (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Usually main spans of suspension bridges are longer than cable stay bridges; therefore, decks of
the suspension bridges have less stiffness in comparison with cable stay bridges. As a result,
suspension bridges have more vibration concerns. In addition, design and construction of
suspension bridges are more complicated rather than cable stay bridges; and that's the reason
why most of the failures of the cable bridges happened in suspension bridges.

Components of a Suspension Bridge

Construction of various parts-

A suspension bridge should consist of the components shown on the diagram, other elements are
added for aesthetic purposes and design.

Deck: The deck on a suspension bridge is also referred to as a roadway, where vehicles are
allowed to pass to and from points A and B. They can carry motorists, pedestrians, rail traffic
etc. They are made out of steel reinforced concrete and each deck is of a large span.

Steel Cables: The decking or the roadway is suspended by steel cables. They can be as thick as a
tall male human, and are made up of many smaller steel cables; steel is used instead of iron
because it is an alloy, which makes it superior in tension and compression and it is stronger. The
smaller cables are fastened to one another forming one huge cable enough to hold up to 150,000
tonnes.

Suspenders: The suspenders connect the decking to the steel cables and help shape the bridge.
Without the suspenders, the roadway would sway out of control; they help reinforce the decking
even more as well as having steel cables.

Towers: The heavy weight of the steel cables are transferred onto the towers that help the bridge
stay standing; the weight that is now supported by the towers is focused onto the ground,
reinforcing the tower feet into the ground and keeping the bridge upright.
Anchorage Block: These weigh more than the amount of cables that is holding up the deck; this
is because it has to withstand a huge proportion of the roadway. Not only this, but it must be
strong enough to endure the amount of road traffic and vehicles crossing the bridge at any time.
They are often made out of concrete as it is extremely heavy and strong. They appear at both
ends of the bridge and preserve the tension from the steel cables.

Foundation of Tower: because of the weight pushing down on the towers, they must have a
secure foundation. The foundations are pushed far below the soil to keep the towers from tilting
and to make sure that they are vertical and strong enough to withstand the weight from the
cables. Depending on the softness of the soil, depends on how far down the foundations go; if the
soil is soft, then the foundation would be pushed further down.

Truss: The truss if found to be underneath the roadway/ decking to support it. Not only this, but
it helps stiffen the decking which reduces the probability of it swaying vertically just like it did
in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge example.

Raw Materials
Many of the components of a suspension bridge are made of steel. The girders used to make the
deck rigid are one example. Steel is also used for the saddles, or open channels, on which the
cables rest atop a suspension bridge's towers.

When steel is drawn (stretched) into wires, its strength increases; consequently, a relatively
flexible bundle of steel wires is stronger than a solid steel bar of the same diameter. This is the
reason steel cable is used to support suspension bridges. For the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, a new
low-alloy steel strengthened with silicon was developed; its tensile strength (resistance against
pulling forces) is 12% greater than any previous steel wire formulation. On some suspension
bridges, the steel wires forming the cables have been galvanized (coated with zinc).

The towers of most suspension bridges are made of steel, although a few have been built of steel-
reinforced concrete.
The Manufacturing Process

Construction of a suspension bridge involves sequential construction of the three

Tower constructions that will stand in water begin with caissons (a steel and concrete cylinder that acts as
a circular dam) that are lowered to the ground beneath the water, emptied of water, and filled with
concrete in preparation for the actual towers.

major components: the towers and cable anchorages, the support cable itself, and the deck structure.

Tower construction

 1 Tower foundations are prepared by digging down to a sufficiently firm rock formation. Some
bridges are designed so that their towers are built on dry land, which makes construction easier. If
a tower will stand in water, its construction begins with lowering a caisson (a steel and concrete
cylinder that acts as a circular damn) to the ground beneath the water; removing the water from
the caisson's interior allows workers to excavate a foundation without actually working in water.
When the excavation is complete, a concrete tower foundation is formed and poured.
 2 Construction details vary with each unique bridge. As an example, consider the Akashi Kaikyo
Bridge. Each of its two steel towers consists of two columns. Each column is composed of 30
vertical blocks (or layers), each of which is 33 ft (10 m)
 Anchorages—structures that support the bridge's cables—are massive concrete blocks securely
attached to strong rock formations. When the towers and anchorages have been completed, a pilot
line must be strung along the cable's eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers to the
other anchorage.

tall; each of these blocks, in turn, consists of three horizontal sections. A crane positioned
between the columns lifted three sections into place on each column, completing a layer. After
completing a block on each column, the"bootstrapping" crane was jacked up to the next level,
where it lifted the sections of the next layer into place. At appropriate intervals, diagonal bracing
was added between the columns.

Anchorage construction

 3 Anchorages are the structures to which the ends of the bridge's cables are secured. They are
massive concrete blocks securely attached to strong rock formations. During construction of the
anchorages, strong eyebars (steel bars with a circular hole at one end) are embedded in the
concrete. Mounted in front of the anchorage is a spray saddle, which will support the cable at the
point where its individual wire bundles (see Step 5) fan out—each wire bundle will be secured to
one of the anchorage's eyebars.

Cable construction

 4 When the towers and anchorages have been completed, a pilot line must be strung along the
cable's eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers to the other anchorage. Various
methods can been used to position the pilot line. For the Niagra River bridge, for example,
Roebling offered a reward of $10 to the first youngster who could fly a kite with a pilot line
attached across the gorge to make the connection. Today, a helicopter might be used. Or the line
might be taken across the expanse by boat and then lifted into position. When the pilot line is in
place, a catwalk is constructed for the bridge's entire length, about 3 ft (1 m) below the pilot line,
so workers can attend to the cable formation.
 5 To begin spinning the cable, a large spool of wire is positioned at the anchorage. The free end
of the wire is looped around a strand shoe (a steel channel anchored to an eyebar). Between the
 spool and the strand shoe, the wire is looped around a spinning wheel that is mounted on the pilot
line. This wheel carries the wire across the bridge's path, and the wire is looped around a strand
shoe at the other anchorage; the wheel then returns to the first anchorage, laying another strand in
place. The process is repeated until a bundle of the desired number of wire strands is formed (this
varies from about 125 strands to more than 400). During the spinning, workers standing on the
catwalk make sure the wire unwinds smoothly, freeing any kinks. As spools are exhausted, the
end of the wire is spliced to the wire from a new spool, forming a continuous strand. When the
bundle is thick enough, tape or wire straps are applied at intervals

Once the vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck structure must be built in
both directions from the support towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the
towers balanced at all times. A moving crane lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach
them to previously placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension
cables.

to keep the wires together. The wire coming off the spool is cut and secured to the
anchorage. Then the process begins again for the next bundle.

The number of bundles needed for a complete cable varies; on the Golden Gate Bridge it
is 61, and on the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge it is 290. When the proper number have been
spun, a special arrangement of radially positioned jacks is used to compress the bundles
into a compact cable, and steel wire is wrapped around it. Steel clamps are mounted
around the cable at predetermined intervals to serve as anchoring points for the vertical
cables that will connect the decking to the support cable.

Deck construction

 6 After vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck structure can be started.
The structure must be built in both directions from the support towers at the correct rate in order
to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all times. In one technique, a moving crane that rolls
atop the main suspension cable lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to
previously placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension cables,
  extending the completed length. Alternatively, the crane may rest directly on the deck and move
forward as each section is placed.

Finishing

 7 When the deck structure is complete, it is covered with a base layer (e.g., steel plates) and
paved over. Painting the steel surfaces and installing electric lines for lighting are examples of
other finishing steps. In addition, ongoing maintenance procedures begin. For example, a
permanent staff of 17 ironworkers and 38 painters continue to work daily on the Golden Gate
Bridge, replacing corroding rivets and other steel components and touching up the paint that
protects the bridge.

Design of suspension bridges-

The Road Deck

The road deck of a suspension bridge is very important.
Most deck designs are made from open trusses that allow
wind to pass through. It is important to build the deck
aerodynamically or else it will twist and could snap. One of

Tacoma Narrows Bridge.

The truss work of the deck was
too flexible and it snapped in strong winds.
The Building Steps

1.First huge concrete caissons are sunk into the bedrock to provide a solid
base for the towers.

2.Next the towers are constructed on top of the caissons.

3.Giant anchor points are created on both ends of the bridge to keep
tension in the cables.

4.Then the main cables are strung across the span of the bridge
.
5.A temporary walkway is constructed beneath the main cables so that
construction can begin on the road deck.

6.Suspender cables are put into place as the road deck is built to provide
strength.

7.When the road deck is finished, a layer of concrete is poured over the
steel, followed by a layer of asphalt.

LOADS ON SUSPENSION BRIDGES-

The diagram below shows the tension in the cables of a suspension bridge. These cables are
capable of withstanding tension but offer no resistance to compression. These types of bridges
work in a completely different way to the arch bridge.

Compression
The force of compression pushes down on the suspension bridge's deck, but because it is a
suspended roadway, the cables transfer the compression to the towers, which dissipate the
compression directly into the earth where they are firmly entrenched.
Tension
The supporting cables, running between the two anchorages, are the lucky recipients of the tension forces.
The cables are literally stretched from the weight of the bridge and its traffic as they run from anchorage
to anchorage. The anchorages are also under tension, but since they, like the towers, are held firmly to the
earth, the tension they experience is dissipated.

Almost all suspension bridges have, in addition to the cables, a supporting truss system beneath
the bridge deck (a deck truss). This helps to stiffen the deck and reduce the tendency of the
roadway to sway and ripple.

They come in two different designs: the suspension bridge, recognized by the elongated 'M'
shape, and the less-common cable-stayed design, which has more of an 'A' shape.

The cable-stayed bridge does not require two towers and four anchorages as does the suspension
bridge. Instead, the cables are run from the roadway up to a single tower where they are secured.

HOW DO SUSPENSION BRIDGES WORK?

On the Severn Bridge, the two main cables act a bit like a washing line. The tension in a
washing line supports the weight of the clothes that are pegged to it. In the same way, the
tension in the main cables supports the weight of the deck and traffic. The bridge deck is
hung from the main cables using wire hangers (rather than clothes pegs). And because the
main cables are held up by the towers, the weight of the whole bridge is carried down
through the towers, on to the underlying foundations.
If you put something heavy on a washing line, it will sag at that point. With a suspension bridge,
the road is supported by a stiffening girder, which spreads out the weight of the traffic, so
avoiding excessive sag under an exceptional load. If you hang something on a washing line
away from the centre, the point will not only sag but it will also move towards the nearest end
(try it!). Similarly, as a heavy load travels over a suspension bridge, it will not only dip
downwards at the point of the load, it will also move longitudinally towards the nearest tower.

If you stand on the walkway of the Severn Bridge, you can feel it moving as the traffic travels
over it. If you stand by one of the towers and watch the expansion joint, you can sometimes see
the whole bridge moving as the weight of the traffic travels across. We should not worry that the
bridge moves. It is meant to do this. This is how it absorbs the weight of the traffic and transfers
it into the main cables.

Diagram showing the main loads in a suspension bridge

The tension in the main cables carries the whole weight of the bridge deck and the traffic. This
tension is resisted by the anchorages at each end, just as the tension in a washing line is resisted
by whatever it is tied to at each end. And because the main cables are held up by the towers, the
weight of the whole bridge is transferred through the towers to the ground.

Why do bridges collapse?

Bridges don't fail very often, but when they do, the results are spectacular and unforgettable.
Once you've seen the footage of the Tacoma Narrows bridge resonating in a gale bucking back
and forth before the deck breaks up and crashes to the river below, you'll never forget it. Imagine
how terrifying it would have been if you'd been on the bridge at the time!

Bridges always collapse for exactly the same reason: something happens that makes them unable
to balance the forces acting on them. A force becomes too great for one of the components in the
bridge (maybe something as simple as a single rivet or tie-bar), which immediately fails. That
means the load on the bridge suddenly has to be shared by fewer components, so any one of
them might also be pushed beyond its limit. Sooner or later, another component fails, then
another—and so the bridge collapses in a kind of domino effect of failing materials.
Photo: This is the remains of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge a steel-trussed arch bridge that used to
carry a very busy highway over the river. It collapsed unexpectedly in 2007, killing 13 people and
injuring 145 more. A report into the disaster found that a metal plate had ripped along a line of rivets,
causing a catastrophic failure. Ironically, the bridge was carrying a massive extra load of construction
equipment for repairs and reinforcement at the time. Riddled with fatigue cracks and corrosion, it had
been deemed "structurally deficient" as far back as 1990. Photo by Joshua Adam courtesy of US Navy.

There are two different ways in which a bridge component can fail catastrophically: weakness and
fatigue. First, and simplest, it might be too weak to cope with a sudden transient load. If a bridge is
designed to carry no more than 100 cars, but 200 heavy trucks drive onto it instead, that creates a
dangerous, transient load. Or if hurricane-force winds buffet the bridge, twisting the deck much more than
it's designed to cope with, that can be catastrophic too. So a bridge can fail through weakness because a
force exceeds what's called the ultimate tensile strength (the most you can pull) or compressive
strength (the most you can push) of the materials from which it's constructed.

But a bridge can also fail even if the forces on it are relatively modest and well within these limits.
Everyday materials usually have to undergo repeated stresses and strains—for example, a bridge deck is
loaded (when a truck drives across) and then unloaded again immediately afterward, and that can happen
hundreds or thousands of times a day, hundreds of days a year. Just as a paperclip snaps when you
repeatedly bend it back and forth, the endless cycles of stress and strain, flexing and relaxing, can cause
materials to weaken over time through a process known as fatigue. Eventually, something like a metal
cable or tie in a bridge will snap even though it's not experiencing a particularly high stress at that
moment. Fatigue is often compounded by gradual corrosion (rusting) of metal components or what's
informally known as concrete cancer (such as when reinforced concrete cracks after the metal
reinforcing bars inside it start to rust).

Engineers try to protect against bridge failures in two main ways. If we learn to see bridges as "living
structures," constantly aging and being degraded by weather and the environment. it's easy to understand
that they need regular maintenance, just like our homes and bodies. Periodic inspections and preventative
maintenance helps us spot problems and correct them before it's too late. Engineers can also protect
against bridge failure by building in a factor of safety—designing them so they can cope with forces
several times larger than they're ever likely to encounter. That might include extra "redundant"
components or reinforcements so that even if one part of the structure fails, others can safely share the
load until the bridge can be reinforced or repaired.
FAILURES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE-

Deck Vibration

Due to the low stiffness, light weight, and long spans of cable bridges, the lateral and torsional stiffness of
these bridges are low in comparison with regular non-cable bridges . Usually, cable bridges are built in
vast areas such as rivers, coasts, and valleys. Therefore, they are exposed to wind loads. The speed of the
wind through a bridges varies frequently; in some moments it decreases and in some moments it
increases. If the wind speed variations follows a regular pattern, then the time distance between tow
adjacent peeks of wind speed graph can be called as period of the wind loads. Usually wind loads have
long periods. Because of high stiffness and short natural vibration period of the regular bridges (non-cable
bridges), wind resonance usually cannot happen on them. But, cable bridges have long periods in both
lateral and torsional vibration; therefore, resonance is a design concern in this type of bridge (Miyata,
2003, P1407 and Plaut, 2008, P613-5). Due to the above mentioned difference between cable bridges and
regular bridges (non-cable bridges), a lot of collapses and performance failures have happened since the
cable bridge invention. Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Wiki Failures) and Silver Bridge over Ohio River are
two examples of cable bridge failures which led to complete collapse of structures. In Figure 3 and 4 the
Tacoma Narrows bridge is shown during the fluttering and at the moment of collapse, respectively.
Figure 3: Tacoma Narrows Bridge with severe viberation (Credit by: YouTube)

Figure : Tacoma Narrows Bridge after collapse due to wind fluttering (Credit by: Wikipedia)

At the earlier time of use of cable bridge systems, due to the lack of information about the behavior of this
type of bridge, designers didn't pay enough attention to the deck stiffness of the bridges. As a result, a lot
of bridges were faced with wind-fluttering problems. In bridges with this problem, when the period of
wind impact loads becomes close to the period of deck vibration, they begin to oscillate. This oscillation
can continue to the point of damage or collapse of the bridges.
There are two major solutions for fluttering problems of cable bridges (Miyata, 2003, P1403-5).
a) Modification of the Deck: In this solution the shape and configuration of the bridge deck become
modified to create a more stiff deck (with respect to the length of the span). In addition, the shape of the
deck can be modified to a more aerodynamic shape resulting in less wind load on the deck.
b) Use of Dampers: By use of damper the induced energy to the deck and cables can be damped. In
addition, dampers limit deformation of the deck and by this means keep the deck away from large
deformation.

Low lateral, torsional ,and vertical stiffness of the cable bridges can cause performance failure of the
bridges in some cases. A good example of this type of failure is Millennium Pedestrian Bridge in London
which became closed a few days after opening for fixing its problem. The problem was side vibration of
the bridge deck due to pedestrian walking synchronous lateral excitation. Two main reasons of this
vibration was low lateral stiffness of the deck and low damping potential of the bridge for lateral
movements and deformations. The problem of the Millennium bridge was solved by installation of lateral
dampers (Newland, Cambridge University website). In Figure 5 a view of this bridge is shown. In the
following YouTube link a movie of vibration of this bridge is shown:

Figure : Millennium Bridge in London

Ship Collision with Pylon
Generally, cable bridges have long-spanned deck and high-rise pylons which results in a high distance of
the free-board. With these characteristics, passing of huge vessels is possible through the spans.
Unfortunately, the redundancy of this type of bridge is low; as a result, if one of the pylons fails, all parts
of the bridge will fail. Therefore, soundness of the pylons is an essential factor in stability of the cable
bridges. As we can see in the history of bridges, collision of vessels with piers is one of the most common
reasons of failures. Fortunately, pier collocation evidences before and after the invention of cable bridges
made designers aware to prevent collision with pylons (Svensson, 2009, P21-31). There are two main
solutions to prevent collisions with pylons which are listed in the following:

a) Pier barriers: In this solution, some barriers, which are in fact short columns, become installed around
the pylon. By this means, if a ship mislead through the pylon, it will collide with the barrier instead of
pylon. In Figure 6, the Sunshine Skyway Bridge is shown which is protected by barriers. The old
Sunshine Skyway Bridge collapsed in 1980 due to collision of a vessel with one of the piers of the bridge
(Sayers, 2007, P1) and it cost $244 million to reconstruct a new bridge.
b) Decreasing the number of collision-exposed pylons: Characteristic of cable bridges makes it
possible to have longe spans. Therefore, designers prefer to place pylons out of water, have longer spans,
and by this means prevent collision of vessels with pylons
Tendon System Problems

Like each relatively new material, a tendon has its unknown problems. In addition, long tendons have
different behavior in comparison with short tendons. Fortunately, due to use of multiple-tendon cables,
and high redundancy cable systems, failure of tendons often only results in temporary performance issues
with the bridge. Therefore, by regular control and maintenance of the cables, we can prevent failures,
when without a frequent maintenance procedure we can expect the collapse of the bridge.

One of these failures is rain/wind-induced vibration of cables. If some of the cables become loose or if the
pretension loads in the cables be non-compatible with the dead load distribution, then under the
combination of light wind and rain loads, they began to vibrate like strings (FHWA, 2007, P13-14).

There is three solution for this type of failure (FHWA, 2007, P14-36):
a) Special surface shape: Specially roughed surface of the cables ducts efficiently increases aerodynamic
stability of the cables. In Figure 7 different common shapes of the ducts are depicted.
b) Use of Dampers: By use of dampers, the movement of the cables become limited and the vibration
energy of the cables become damped. Usually, these dampers are install between deck and cables
(perpendicular to the cables direction). In figure 8, use of dampers in Ravenel Bridge is shown.
c) Tie of the cables together: By installing the cross-tie on the cables, internal restraints for the cables
become established, and as a result, transverse stiffness of the cables increases. In Figure 9, a sample
cross-tie is shown.
Figure : Common types of cable duct surface in cable stayed bridges
Figure : Dampers on Ravenel Bridge cables (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Figure: Cross-tie on cables

Another type of failure in the cable systems is cable anchorage failure. Transfer and distribution of
concentrated load in the cables are two main duties of cable anchorages. Due to the changes in the
magnitude of the cable load, fatigue can easily happens in anchorages. Therefore, a regular inspection is
necessary to avoid fracture in in the anchorages. In Figure 10, tearing out of one of the of Sabo Bridge
anchorages is shown (Wiss, 2012, P35).

Figure : Fracture in anchorage of Sabo Bridge

Failure During Construction

Due to the different job site conditions, varying construction procedures, and heavy construction loads, the
construction of cable bridges is very complicated. Many failures occur during the construction phase and the design
group must maintain constant communication with contractors during in this period. The reasons of the failures
during construction can be categorize in the following three major groups:
a) Mistake in evaluation of load of construction: Due to very complex load path and presence of very
concentrated loads in different part of the structure, construction methods of this type of bridges are very
complicated and should be studied by the design group. Some times, design group makes mistake on
evaluation of the construction loads or select a risky method for construction, and these can lead to
collapse of the whole structure.
b) Mistake in selection of suitable construction machinery and mistake of workers: Generally, due to
special construction situations such as high elevation job site, heavy weight of bridge parts, and using
gigantic machinery like cranes, workers feel high pressure on themselves and are stressful during
construction of cable bridges, In these situations, workmen mistakes are more likely to happen. This type
of mistake can cause small failures or total collapse of structures.
c) Natural disasters during construction: Construction period of the cable bridges are long in
comparison with regular bridges. Before installation of all parts of the bridge, the bridge has not too much
redundancy and most of the times decks are hanged like cantilever beams; therefore, if a sever load such
as high wind pressure or earthquake load, which is not considered in the design of the stages of
construction, is induced on the bridge, the structure may have not enough reserved resistance for the
additional load and in this situation the bridge is very susceptible to collapse.

Collapse of Kukar Bridge in Indonesia is one of the most recent cable bridge collapses during
construction. As depicted in Figure 11, the deck of this bridge totally collapsed. The main reason of this
failure was detachment of hanger cables from main cable which was due to mistake in design phase and
overloading of deck during construction (Matsuno, 2007, P3-5).

Figure : Kukar Bridge in Indonesia

On October 1970, West Gate Bridge at Melbourne, with 112 meter main span, collapsed during
construction and killed 35 people. Many factors are mentioned as the causes of the collapse of
this bridge. Most important of them were the unusual erection method used by the contractor,
insufficient study on construction loads and temporary structures, and high work pressure on
construction team due to tight time schedule which increased the risk of human mistakes
Another example of the failures in construction period happened when an earthquake occurred
during construction of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in Japan. The main span of this bridge which is
depicted in Figure 12 was 1990 meter. At the time of the earthquake the pylons were built; and
due to earth movement the main span (distance between pylons) increased about 1.3 meter; but,
as the result of good cooperation between design and construction groups, construction
continued to the end without any problem (Nasu et al., 1999, P312).

List of Pros of Suspension Bridges

1.Low Construction Costs

What makes suspension bridges practical is the inexpensiveness of these bridges due to required
materials needed for construction. With three basic necessities such as cables, anchorages and
roadways, suspension bridges are possible to construct. Having said, this, suspension bridges are
great solutions to provide communities with functioning and useful bridges without much need
for funding. These are beneficial in areas that lack infrastructure funds. And in the case of
allotting budget for projects, the inexpensive costs in building these types of bridges can allow
for other projects to be financed.

2. Long Span

Another advantage of suspension bridges is the possibility to construct them at different lengths,
from 2,000 to 13,000 feet and is lengthier than other types of bridges. This makes it possible to
build suspension bridges to connect very long distance locations. Depending on the demand and
possibility given, these bridges can be underspanned like the Pont des Bergues and the
Micklewood Bridge. On the other hand, three long suspension bridges are in Denmark, Japan
and China.

3. Ease of Maintenance

Apart from inexpensive construction costs, suspension bridges are known for their minimal
maintenance requirements. Once construction is completed, there are no immediate needs for
additional materials like cables. What is called for is simply regular maintenance. Moreover, it is
known for durability and longevity, making major repairs not needed as often. Consequently,
maintenance costs are also not that high.

4. Versatility

Suspension bridges do not only cost less to build, they can also be built practically anywhere so
long as there are places for building support towers and anchorages. This is also because of the
design which is suspended in the air, no inflow restrictors are needed to be placed underneath.
They can also bear the beatings of earthquakes.

5. Attractive

Tourists, local and foreign in America love to cross the Brooklyn Bridge and visit the Golden
Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Compared to truss and beam bridges, suspension bridges are more
aesthetically pleasing because of the different shapes of these bridges. The curved and linear
features of these bridges make them structurally beautiful. This is on top of the cables giving
support to these bridges, making them versatile bridges.

4. Has Flexibility

One common reason that the choice to build a suspension bridge is reached is if it is being built
in a high earthquake zone, like California. This is because suspension bridges are flexible due to
the cable system they are held up by. The bridge can “move” with the wind and during natural
disasters such as an earthquake.

5. Simple Construction

No access is needed from below the bridge while it is being constructed, making it a great choice
for areas that ships and waterways need to stay clear.

2. Can Be Built High Up

Suspension bridges can be built very high up over waterways. This is essential for any area that
needs to be able to allow passing ships to come through.

List of Cons of Suspension Bridges

1. Loss of Income

Despite the low costs of constructing suspension bridges and the job opportunities they offer, the
length of time needed to finish building these bridges are long. What happens is that the
businesses that are within the vicinity will be affected since business operations will be
hampered. Consequently, there will be loss of sales and profit. This can have a negative impact
on the economy of the city or town. Also, bridges built to connect locations between bodies of
water can affect the course of ships carrying supplies since they need to divert their routes. This
can also result to loss of money since deliveries of goods can take longer.

2. Weak in Winds

Despite flexibility and strength to withstand earthquakes, these bridges are not too strong when it
comes to powerful winds caused by hurricanes. Too much strong winds can result to damages to
suspension bridges. A classic example is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge which collapsed on
November 7, 1940 in winds of at only 40 miles per hour. Although the disaster was blamed on
design and construction, what happened that time presented risks associated with suspension
bridges.

3. Load Limitations

Another disadvantage of suspension bridges is the material used which are the cables. These
cables have limitations when it comes to bearing the weight of loads. Although it can allow a
minimal weight with regard to vehicles passing through, too much weight can lead to the
breaking of cables

4. Limited Applications

Suspension bridges, despite their cost-effectiveness in construction and flexibility when it comes
to site location, have limitations when it comes to its use. This is because they can be destroyed
by strong winds and not durable enough to hold limitless weight, careful consideration should be
taken before construction. That said, they can only be used by general traffic.

4. Soft Ground Issues

If the suspension bridge needs to be built in an area that has soft ground, like over water, very
extensive foundation work in order to make it safe for heavy loads.

2. Too Flexible

Flexibility of the suspension bridge design is a major advantage, until conditions become severe.
Underneath extreme winds or very heavy the load the bridge can move so much that the bridge
would need to be closed.

3. Cannot Support High Traffic

Since very little support is needed underneath the deck of the bridge, and the cables are light, the
bridges are very light weight. This restricts the amount of traffic and the weight of heavy loads
that can use it.
CONCLUSION

A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and common wire rope.

 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge
 Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve,
leading to a reduced construction cost
 Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is
required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to remain open while the
bridge is built above
 May be better to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid bridges
 Bridge decks can have deck sections replaced in order to widen traffic lanes for larger
vehicles or add additions width for separated cycling/pedestrian paths.
 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge deck
vibrating under high winds
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges makes it
more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur
 Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial cables or to lift deck
units. This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction.

Due to relatively short age of the cable bridges and the use of high tech materials and machinery
in the construction phase, we should do more study to have thorough understanding of the cable
bridges behaviors .Construction of cable stayed bridges are very expensive, and due to
dimensions of the structure, failure of them can endanger too many people's lives; therefore,
existing bridges are very valuable investments in our hand for more study. In addition, as
discussed in different parts of this article, a lot of failures of the bridges are due to a lack of
regular inspection and maintenance; therefore, by doing of more study on existing bridges, we can
learn more about the characteristics of the cable bridges and prevent failures of the under-study
bridges.
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