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Superlattices and Microstructures 35 (2004) 497–511

www.elsevier.com/locate/superlattices

Numerical investigation of laminar flow and heat

transfer in a radial flow cooling system with
the use of nanofluids
Gilles Roy∗, Cong Tam Nguyen, Paul-René Lajoie
Faculty of Engineering, Université de Moncton, Moncton, NB, E1A 3E9, Canada

Received 17 May 2003; accepted 23 September 2003

Available online 19 May 2004

Abstract

Nanofluids, because of their enhanced heat transfer capability as compared to normal

water/glycol/oil based fluids, offer the engineer opportunities for development in areas where high
heat transfer, low temperature tolerance and small component size are required. In this present paper,
the hydrodynamic and thermal fields of a water–γ Al2 O3 nanofluid in a radial laminar flow cooling
system are considered. Results indicate that considerable heat transfer enhancement is possible, even
achieving a twofold increase in the case of a 10% nanoparticle volume fraction nanofluid. On the
other hand, an increase in wall shear stress is also noticed with an increase in particle volume
concentration.
© 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Nanofluid; Nanoparticles; Heat transfer; Laminar flow; Confined radial flow

1. Introduction
It is well known that conventional heat transfer fluids such as water, ethylene glycol
and engine oils have, in general, poor heat transfer properties compared to those of most
solids. In spite of the considerable research and efforts deployed, major improvements
in heat transfer capabilities have not really materialised. Nanofluids, because of their
enhanced heat transfer capability as compared to normal water/glycol/oil based fluids, will
offer the engineer opportunities for development in areas where high heat transfer, low

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-506-858-4300; fax: +1-506-858-4082.

E-mail address: royg@umoncton.ca (G. Roy).

0749-6036/$ - see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.spmi.2003.09.011
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Nomenclature
C p Specific heat of the fluid (J/kg K)
k Thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/m K)
L Inlet tube length (m)
P Pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number, Pr = C p µ/k
q Total heat transfer rate (W)
Q Volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
Re Inlet Reynolds number, Re = 2Q/π Ri ν
Ri Inlet orifice radius (m)
R Disc outside radius (m)
r Radial coordinate (m)
r̄ r̄ = r/Ri
T Temperature (K)
z Axial coordinate (m)
z̄ z̄ = z/Ri
Vr Radial velocity component (m/s)
Vz Axial velocity component (m/s)
V0 Inlet fluid axial velocity (m/s)
Greek letters
α Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)
φ Volume concentration of particles
µ Fluid absolute viscosity (kg/m s)
ν Fluid kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
θ Tangential coordinate (rad)
ρ Fluid density (kg/m3)
Subscripts
amb Refers to ambient condition
bf Base fluid
i Refers to a direction in space
nf Nanofluid
p Refers to particles
r, θ, z Refer to the directions in space
0 Refers to the inlet condition

temperature tolerance and small component size are required. It is believed that efficient
cooling can be obtained at significantly lower temperatures and with relatively low fluid
pressures. Given this, one can envisage uses of the technology in areas such as electronic
component cooling and other micro-sized applications. It is well known that increased
power densities per electronic device have necessitated the search for innovative techniques
of heat dissipation. We believe that nanofluids have a great potential for becoming a
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new heat transfer medium and are therefore interested in investigating their use in actual
engineering applications, such as radial flow electronic equipment cooling systems. The
objective of this investigation, which constitutes the first phase of a long-term research
initiative, is therefore to investigate the enhanced heat transfer capabilities of coolants with
suspended metallic nanoparticles, in particular Al2 O3 , inside radial flow cooling systems.
The literature relevant to this study encompasses work on fluid flow and heat transfer
in typical radial flow cooling systems and all pertinent work associated with nanofluids.
An impressive amount of published research work is available on various radial flow
systems (with or without heat transfer) using traditional fluids. There are numerous
practical applications of such systems (see, for example, those described by [1–6]).
A few relevant examples will be discussed here, specifically those related to liquid
jet impingement with confinement (i.e. flow into a narrow channel bounded by the
impingement surface and a plate containing the nozzle). This type of geometry has been
considered experimentally by Garimella and Rice [7], and Garimella and Nenaydykh [8],
in which they present a parametric analysis of the effects of various aspect ratios (i.e.
nozzle to plate spacings/nozzle diameter, nozzle thickness/nozzle diameter) and Reynolds
numbers (from 4000 to 23,000) on local heat transfer coefficient distributions. Their
main observations have shown that for very small nozzle aspect ratios, the heat transfer
coefficients are the highest and that the nozzle diameter has a definite effect on heat
transfer coefficients obtained. They also have proposed correlations for the stagnation-
point Nusselt number in terms of jet Reynolds number, fluid Prandtl number, nozzle to
heat source spacing and nozzle aspect ratio. The research conducted by these authors was
targeted for applications in electrical component cooling using FC-77 liquid as coolant.
The use of suspended solid metallic particles in fluids to enhance thermal conductivities
of coolants has been considered in the past; see, for example, the work by Kurosaki
et al. [9]. However, until very recently, all of the work done in this area was with millimetre-
or micrometre-sized particles. Applications with these types of fluid/particle mixtures
have not really materialised to full potential as the use of particles of these magnitudes
have considerable adverse effects such as flow channel clogging, pipeline erosion, rapid
sedimentation and cause important pressure drops in flow channels. Because of recent
advances in manufacturing technologies, researchers have started to investigate the use of
nanoparticles for heat transfer enhancement capabilities of cooling fluids (mainly water, oil
or ethylene glycol). Recently, it has been shown that the thermal properties of nanofluids
are substantially better than those of their conventional base fluids. Some published
results clearly indicate that a 20% increase in the effective thermal conductivity of the
mixture is possible with a relatively small concentration of particles (i.e. 1–5%) [10–12].
Although references on the use of nanoparticles are still quite sparse, published results
seem to indicate that the resulting fluid/solid mixture does not have (or at least has
to a far lesser extent) the problems encountered with larger sized particles [13, 14].
Furthermore, results have shown that metallic oxide nanoparticles (for example Al2 O3
and CuO) have excellent dispersion properties in water, oil and ethylene glycol and form
stable suspensions. It has been noticed by Eastman et al. [15] that significant settling does
not occur in static suspensions even after weeks or months. In fact, some go as far as to
say that, as a heat transfer medium, the nanofluid appears to behave more like a single-
phase fluid than a solid–fluid mixture [16]. It is also speculated that the enhanced heat
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transfer performance of the nanofluid is not only attributable to the increased thermal
conductivity of the “new” fluid but also occurs because of an intensification of the mixing
fluctuation (micro-convection) due to the particles [17]. Also, nanofluids are expected
to exhibit superior properties relative to traditional coolants containing micrometre- or
millimetre-sized particles as nanoparticles have greater total surface area for a given
volume of suspended particles. One can therefore foresee that nanofluids will become
interesting alternatives to traditional coolants in advanced applications, in particular those
in the small/micro-scale context [18]. Although nanofluids seem to have a bright future,
developments are still in their infancy. Published results on nanofluid “single-phase”
properties include those for TiO2 , Cu, CuO and Al2 O3 nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene
glycol, transformer oil or water. Most of the work on the subject deals with measuring and
determining the effective thermal conductivity of the nanofluids as a function of particle
volume fraction [10–17, 19, 20]. Some have also provided the effective viscosity of various
nanofluids [10, 13, 20]. Certain authors have also mentioned that for the viscosity of the
nanofluid, either Brinkman’s or Batchelor’s formulas could be used [17, 20–22]. These
formulas give essentially the same results. One can note however that neither of these
formulas seems to be in good agreement with experimental results of Wang et al. [13]. For
the thermal conductivity coefficient however, Hamilton and Crosser’s model [23] seems
to be satisfactory as a good approximation [16], even though it was developed for larger
sized particles. As one can see, available published results on nanofluids properties are, in
general, currently quite limited. One can also note that the effects of temperature on the
effective thermal conductivity and on the viscosity of nanofluids are, to our knowledge,
non-existent.
As for practical applications of nanofluids in confined flows, only very recently
have results been published. Pak and Cho [20] and Li and Xuan [24] have obtained
experimental results on convective heat transfer performances of nanofluids for laminar
and turbulent flow inside a tube. These authors have produced the first empirical correlation
for computing the Nusselt number using nanofluids composed of water and Cu, TiO2
and Al2 O3 nanoparticles. The results indicate a remarkable increase in heat transfer
performance over the base fluid for the same Reynolds numbers.
The investigations into the use of nanofluids in cooling applications in general are still
embryonic and much more work will be required in order to better understand the fluid
dynamic and thermal characteristics of this very promising family of new fluids. In this
paper, we will present an initial numerical study of the benefits of nanofluids in a radial
flow cooling system. The hydrodynamic and thermal fields of such fluids between two
coaxial and parallel discs will be considered.

2. Mathematical modelling

2.1. Problem geometrical configuration

Fig. 1 shows the geometrical configuration of the problem under consideration. It

consists of steady, laminar flow and heat transfer of a nanofluid flowing inside a radial
channel between two coaxial and parallel discs. The discs, of outer radius R, are separated
by a gap “a”. The flow enters the radial channel through an inlet orifice of radius Ri .
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Fig. 1. The problem configuration.

2.2. Governing equations

No formulated theory exists today that could be used to predict the flow behaviour
of a mixture composed of ultrafine particles dispersed within a fluid by considering it
as a multi-component material. However, as previously mentioned, some have remarked
that nanofluids tend to behave more like single-phase fluids. Indeed, due to the extreme
particle size, it seems reasonable to assume that such a mixture can be easily fluidised
and, therefore, one may assume that the motion slip between the phases would be
negligible [16]. Furthermore, by considering the local thermal equilibrium, the solid
particle–liquid mixture may then be approximately considered to behave as a conventional
single-phase fluid and its properties evaluated as a function of those of both constituents.
We will also assume that the nanofluid is incompressible with constant physical properties
that are all evaluated at the reference state corresponding to the fluid inlet temperature.
The compression work and the viscous dissipation are assumed negligible in the energy
equation. Finally, symmetry of revolution with respect to the main axis will be assumed.
Under the above conditions, the general governing equations written in the cylindrical
coordinate (R, Z ) system considering symmetry of revolution are as follows [25]:
∇ · (ρV) = 0 (1)
∇ · (ρVVi ) = −∇ P + ∇ · (µ∇Vi ) + Si , i = 1, 2 (2)
∇ · (ρVC p T ) = ∇ · (k∇T ) (3)
where V = (V R , V Z ) is the velocity vector; S1 and S2 are the velocity-related stress terms
given as follows:

– For i = 1, the radial direction:

S1 = −µ{V R /R 2 }. (4)

– For i = 2, the axial direction:

S2 = 0. (5)
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Fig. 2. Experimental data and the correlation for dynamic viscosity of water–γ Al2 O3 .

2.3. Thermal and physical properties of nanofluids

The following formulas were used to compute the thermal and physical properties of
the nanofluids under consideration (the subscripts p, bf and nf refer to the particles, the
base fluid and the nanofluid, respectively):
ρnf = (1 − φ)ρbf + φρp (6)
C pnf = (1 − φ)C pbf + φC pp (7)
µnf = µbf (123φ + 7.3φ + 1)
2
(8)
knf = kbf (4.97φ + 2.72φ + 1).
2
(9)
The equations (6) and (7) are general relationships used to compute the density and heat
capacity for a classical two-phase mixture [20]. Equation (8) for computing the dynamic
viscosity of nanofluids was obtained by performing a least-squares curve fitting from
experimental data available for the mixture considered [13]. As previously mentioned,
for the viscosity of the water–γ Al2 O3 nanofluid, well known formulas such as the
ones proposed by Einstein and later improved by Brinkman [21] and Batchelor [22]
have considerably underestimated the values of the mixture viscosity as compared to
the experimental data, as clearly shown in Fig. 2. For the thermal conductivity of the
nanofluid, Eq. (9) was obtained from the well known Hamilton and Crosser model [23].
It is important to mention here that the data in the currently available literature were
obtained at fixed reference temperatures. Therefore, the dependence of the fluid properties
on the temperature has yet to be clearly established. As previously mentioned, for most
of the nanofluids of engineering interest, experimental data providing information on their
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thermal and physical properties remain rather scarce. Therefore, further research work will
be needed in this area.

2.4. Boundary conditions

The highly non-linear and coupled governing equation system (1)–(3) must be
appropriately solved subject to a set of appropriate boundary conditions. In the present
paper, the following were used:

• At the tube inlet section, a uniform axial velocity and temperature profile has been
specified:

z = a + L and 0 ≤ r ≤ Ri : V R = 0; V Z = V0 ; T = T0 . (10a)

• On the inlet tube wall, the usual no-slip condition and insulated wall are specified:

r = Ri and a ≤ z ≤ a + L: V R = V Z = 0; ∂ T /∂r = 0. (10b)

• On the vertical axis passing through the centre of the discs, the following conditions
of symmetry prevail:

r = 0 and 0 ≤ z ≤ a + L: V R = 0; ∂ V Z /∂r = ∂ T /∂r = 0. (10c)

• On the upper disc and lower discs, the usual no-slip conditions are specified as well
as a constant temperature:


z = 0; 0≤r ≤ R
V R = V Z = 0; T = Timp . (10d)
z = a; Ri ≤ r ≤ R

• At the domain outlet section, ambient conditions prevail:

r = R and 0 ≤ z ≤ a: P = Pamb . (10e)

In the case of the domain outlet section, an imposed back-flow total temperature is also
specified to accommodate a possible inflow condition (note: this condition was however
not found in any of the cases presented in this paper). For all cases presented in this paper,
the imposed wall temperature was set at 80 ◦ C.

2.5. Governing dimensionless parameters

It can be shown that the considered problem can be characterised by a set of seven
dimensionless parameters, namely the through-flow Reynolds number Re = 2Q/π Ri ν,
the Prandtl number Pr = C p µ/k, two aspect ratios η = a/Ri and β = R/Ri , the particle
volume fraction φ and the ratios kp /kbf and C pp /C pbf . It should be noted that the shape
and dimension of the particles also constitute factors that may influence heat transfer and
fluid flow characteristics of a nanofluid but, for the purposes of this study, will not be
considered due to the fact that their influences are currently not clearly understood and
further experimental work in this area is required.
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2.6. Numerical method and validation

The system of governing equations (1)–(3) with the appropriate boundary conditions
Eqs. (10a)–(10e) has been successfully solved by using a numerical method that is
essentially based on the “finite control volume approach”. Since such methods are very
well documented elsewhere (see in particular [26, 27]), only a brief review will be given
here. This method is based on the spatial integration of each of the conservation equations
over finite control volumes using the exponential scheme for the treatment of the combined
convection and diffusion fluxes of mass, heat and momentum. Staggered grids have been
used where the velocity components are calculated at the centre of the volume interfaces
while the pressure as well as other scalar quantities such as temperature are computed
at the centre of the control volume. The algebraic discretisation equations resulting from
this integration process have been solved sequentially and iteratively through the physical
domain considered by combining the “line-by-line” procedure and the well known TDMA
technique. Multi-pass and alternating sweeping techniques for both directions in space
were used. A “pressure-correction” equation, obtained by combining the discretisation
form of the Navier–Stokes equations and the continuity equations, was employed to
compute the guessed pressure field as well as to correct the velocity fields in order to
progressively satisfy, in an iterative manner, all the discretisation equations.
In order to ensure grid-independent solutions, several non-uniform grids have been
subjected to an extensive testing procedure. Result comparisons are shown in Fig. 3 for
a selection of tested grids (out of several others). The radial velocity profiles as well as
the temperature profiles are shown respectively in Fig. 3(a) and (b). As one can see, the
results obtained with the 40 (axial) × 840 (radial) grid is practically identical to those
for a much finer grid, i.e. 60 × 1640 (note: the numbers of grid points correspond to
the region of interest comprised by 0 ≤ z̄ ≤ η and 0 ≤ r̄ ≤ β; it does not cover the
inlet tube region). One can also see that the third grid considered yields slight differences
from the other two. Therefore, the 40 × 840 grid appears to be quite satisfactory and
was therefore used for all subsequent cases presented in this paper. The corresponding
grid for the entire computational domain has 38,580-node quadrilateral cells. The grid
points are highly packed near the radial flow channel entrance, as well as on all walls. As
a convergence indicator, the residuals resulting from the integration of the conservation
equations (1)–(3) over finite control volumes were computed at each iteration. During the
calculation process, these residuals were constantly monitored and scrutinised. For all the
simulations performed in this study, a converged solution was usually achieved with a
very low level of these residuals, i.e. 10−6 or less for all the governing equations (1)–(3).
The computer program has been extensively and successfully validated by comparing the
calculated results with the available data in the literature for the classical problem of the
laminar flow of water between two coaxial discs [6]. Fig. 4 shows the comparison of the
radial velocity component V R as obtained by the numerical scheme used in this present
paper with available experimental data. The experimental data obtained by Szeri et al. [6]
were for the following case: Q = 64.55 cm3 /s, Ri = 16.934 mm, R = 254 mm and
a = 3.175 mm. The data from Szeri et al. were adapted according to the notation used in
the present work: they correspond to Re = 2470, β = 15 and η = 0.187. As one can see,
the agreement can be qualified as very good.
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Fig. 3. Grid sensitivity testing.

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Fig. 4. Numerical model validation.

3. Results and discussion

Results presented in this paper are for a water/aluminium oxide particle nanofluid
(H2 O–γ Al2 O3 ). Unless otherwise specified, the results presented hereafter are for Re =
1200, β = 15 and η = 0.187. The basic flow patterns for two different Reynolds numbers
are given in Fig. 5. In both cases, a nanoparticle volume fraction of 5% is used. One can
however note that only the regions near the inlet are shown, as further downstream the flow
is fully established. For the case where Re = 1200, we can notice the formation of a single
recirculation cell on the nozzle side of the channel. This is to be expected as flow separation
is produced by the sudden change in flow direction, causing a certain vena-contracta effect.
For the second Reynolds number, Re = 2470, one can notice the formation of a second
recirculation cell on the opposite disc. This is also quite plausible and such behaviour has
been observed experimentally in the past by McGinn [28], amongst others.
As we are primarily interested in quantifying the heat transfer enhancement benefits of
nanofluids, Fig. 6 shows the relative increase of the total heat transfer rates as a function
of the nanoparticle volume fraction φ. As one can notice, significant increases of the total
heat transfer rates can be found with the use of suspended nanoparticles. For example, for
φ = 5% and 10%, we can see, respectively, 45% and 110% increases in heat transfer rates.
As previously discussed, the nanofluid physical and thermal properties were calculated
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Fig. 5. Flow streamlines for φ = 5% and Re = 1200 and 2470.

Fig. 6. The influence of the particle volume fraction φ on the heat transfer performance.

either by using empirical equations based on both constituents of the mixture or from
available experimental data. For the particular case of nanofluid viscosity, it was mentioned
that the viscosity obtained by using Brinkman’s formula considerably underestimated this
property as compared to available experimental data. Although the results presented in
this paper were obtained using relationships obtained from experimental data, calculations
were also made using Brinkman’s formula for the determination of the nanofluid viscosity.
Fig. 6 also shows the total heat transfer rates calculated using Brinkman’s formula and the
results show the corresponding difference between the two approaches. For the Reynolds
number considered, Re = 1200, the heat transfer rates obtained with the use of viscosity
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508 G. Roy et al. / Superlattices and Microstructures 35 (2004) 497–511

Fig. 7. Temperature profiles for various radial positions.

obtained with Brinkman’s formula are considerably lower than those obtained using the
viscosity obtained from experimental data. A more complete set of results obtained using
Brinkman’s formula for determining nanofluid viscosity can be found in the authors’
previous work [29]. As we can see, the determination of accurate thermal and physical
properties of nanofluids appears rather crucial. More experimental work will therefore be
needed in this area.
Fig. 7 illustrates the development of the fluid temperature profile between the two discs
for various radial positions for the same typical configuration (Re = 1200, β = 15 and
η = 0.187). The profiles shown clearly indicate the gradual increase in the temperature
of the fluid as the fluid flows towards the periphery of the channel. As one can see,
approximately midway through the channel (i.e. at r̄ = 7.1) the fluid temperature at the
half-way position between the two discs (i.e. z̄ = 0.5) is already at 86% of the imposed
disc temperature. At the periphery of the discs (i.e. at r̄ = 15), the fluid temperature at the
half-way position between the two discs is 96% of that of the imposed disc temperature.
Although the use of nanofluids has beneficial heat transfer enhancement capabilities,
it is to be expected that they also increase friction/pressure losses. Fig. 8 illustrates the
average relative wall shear stress as a function of the nanoparticle volume fraction. Clearly,
the use of a nanofluid will cause considerable increases in wall shear stresses/pressure
losses. For example, for a 5% particle nanofluid, a 2.5-fold increase in wall shear stress
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Fig. 8. Particle fraction effects on average relative wall shear stress.

would be encountered. As with the total heat transfer rate, Fig. 8 also shows comparatively
the case in which Brinkman’s formula is used to determine the nanofluid viscosity. As
is clearly seen, the wall shear stress obtained in this case is considerably lower than that
obtained using the experimental data.
Although the use of nanoparticles in traditional cooling fluids can be expected to
increase the shear stresses and pressure losses inside any cooling application, it is believed
that the heat transfer benefits of such fluids in certain engineering applications will
outweigh this side-effect, especially in micro-sized applications in which high heat transfer,
low temperature tolerances and small component size are required. Currently, we are
undertaking experimental work to complement this study.

4. Conclusion

The heat transfer capabilities of a nanofluid in a radial flow cooling system have been
numerically studied. Results have shown that the inclusion of nanoparticles in a traditional
coolant can provide considerable improvement in heat transfer rates, even at small particle
volume fractions. Increases in the resulting wall shear stresses are however also noticed. As
nanofluids are expected to be next generation coolants, it will become important to evaluate
more accurately the thermal and hydrodynamic behaviours of such fluids in engineering
applications, especially in radial flow cooling systems. In particular, research work will
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510 G. Roy et al. / Superlattices and Microstructures 35 (2004) 497–511

be required to determine the effects of the various important flow parameters such as
particle size on the heat transfer capabilities. Furthermore, to this day, no theories have been
advanced to clearly explain the behaviour (either as a fluid or as a heat transfer medium)
of these multiple-component fluids.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada and the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research of the “Université de Moncton”
for financial support of this project. Thanks are also due to the Faculty of Engineering of
the “Université de Moncton” for allocating the computing facilities.

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