Chapter 1 Introduction to Welding

Introduction ................................................... 4
Welding Defined ........................................... 5
Uses of Welding ............................................ 6
Welding and Cutting Processes .................... 8
Oxyacetylene Welding, Brazing, and Cutting 10
Thermal Cutting Processes ......................... 11
Occupational Opportunities in Welding ..... 13
Training for Welding Occupations ............. 14
Experiments and Practices .......................... 15
Welding Video Series ................................. 17
Metric Units ................................................ 17
Summary ..................................................... 19

Chapter 2 Safety in Welding

Introduction ................................................. 24
Burn Classification...................................... 24
Face, Eye, and Ear Protection ..................... 26
Respiratory Protection ................................ 28
Ventilation................................................... 31
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) ........ 32
General Work Clothing ............................... 32
Special Protective Clothing......................... 33
Handling and Storing Cylinders.................. 34
Fire Protection ............................................. 35
Equipment Maintenance ............................. 37
Work Area ................................................... 38
Hand Tools .................................................. 38
Electrical Safety .......................................... 40
Electrical Safety Systems ............................ 40
Voltage Warnings ....................................... 42
Extension Cords .......................................... 42
Safety Rules for Portable Electric Tools ..... 43
Metal Cutting Machines .............................. 45
Material Handling ....................................... 46
Ladder Safety .............................................. 47
Summary ..................................................... 48
Chapter 3 Shielded Metal Arc Equipment, Setup, and Operation
Introduction ................................................. 55
Welding Current.......................................... 55
Electrical Measurement .............................. 56
SMA Welding Arc Temperature and Heat . 56
Types of Welding Power ............................ 57
Open Circuit Voltage .................................. 58
Operating Voltage ....................................... 59
Arc Blow ..................................................... 59
Types of Power Sources.............................. 60
Generator- and Alternator-Type Welders ... 63
Converting AC to DC ................................. 65
Duty Cycle .................................................. 65
Welder Accessories ..................................... 66
Equipment Setup ......................................... 68
Summary ..................................................... 69

Chapter 4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Plate

Introduction ................................................. 73
Effect of Too High or Too Low Current Settings 75
Electrode Size and Heat .............................. 76
Arc Length .................................................. 77
Electrode Angle .......................................... 78
Electrode Manipulation ............................... 80
Positioning of the Welder and the Plate ...... 82
Practice Welds ............................................ 82
Stringer Beads ............................................. 83
Square Butt Joint ......................................... 86
Edge Weld ................................................... 89
Outside Corner Joint ................................... 93
Lap Joint ..................................................... 96
Tee Joint ..................................................... 99
Summary................................................... 102

Chapter 5 Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Pipe

Introduction .............................................. 106
Pipe and Tubing ........................................ 107
Preparation and Fit-Up ............................. 111
Practice Welds .......................................... 112
1G Horizontal Rolled Position ................. 116
2G Vertical Fixed Position ....................... 120
5G Horizontal Fixed Position ................... 122
6G 45° Inclined Position .......................... 123
Summary................................................... 125
Chapter 6 Advanced Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Introduction .............................................. 129
Root Pass .................................................. 129
Hot Pass .................................................... 134
Filler Pass ................................................. 136
Cover Pass ................................................ 138
Plate Preparation ....................................... 139
Preparing Specimens for Testing .............. 141
Restarting a Weld Bead ............................ 142
Preheating and Postheating ....................... 144
Poor Fit-Up ............................................... 152
Summary................................................... 154

Chapter 7 Flame Cutting

Introduction .............................................. 161
Metals Cut by the Oxyfuel Process .......... 161
Eye Protection for Flame Cutting ............. 162
Cutting Torches ........................................ 162
Cutting Tips .............................................. 163
Oxyfuel Cutting, Setup, and Operation .... 169
Hand Cutting............................................. 171
Layout ....................................................... 174
Selecting the Correct Tip and Setting the Pressure 175
The Chemistry of a Cut ............................. 176
The Physics of a Cut ................................. 177
Plate Cutting.............................................. 179
Cutting Table ............................................ 180
Torch Guides ............................................. 180
Distortion .................................................. 182
Cutting Applications ................................. 183
Pipe Cutting .............................................. 184
Summary ................................................... 187
Chapter 8 Plasma Arc Cutting
Introduction ............................................... 190
Plasma ....................................................... 192
Plasma Torch ............................................ 192
Power and Gas Cables .............................. 194
Power Requirements ................................. 196
Compressed Air ........................................ 196
Heat Input.................................................. 197
Distortion .................................................. 197
Applications .............................................. 198
Machine Cutting........................................ 203
Manual Cutting ......................................... 205
Safety ........................................................ 205
Straight Cuts.............................................. 206
Plasma Arc Gouging ................................. 209
Cutting Round Stock ................................. 210
Summary ................................................... 210

Chapter 9 Related Cutting Processes

Introduction ............................................... 214
Laser Beam Cutting (LBC) and Laser Beam Drilling (LBD) 215
Lasers ........................................................ 215
Applications .............................................. 217
Air Carbon Arc Cutting ............................ 219
Manual Torch Design ............................... 220
Application ................................................ 221
Safety ........................................................ 222
U-Grooves ................................................. 223
Oxygen Lance Cutting .............................. 226
Applications .............................................. 227
Safety ........................................................ 227
Water Jet Cutting ...................................... 227
Applications .............................................. 227
Arc Cutting Electrodes .............................. 227
Applications .............................................. 229
Summary ................................................... 229
Chapter 10 Gas Metal Arc Welding Equipment, Setup, and Operation
Introduction ............................................... 234
Weld Metal Transfer Methods .................. 236
Short-Circuiting Transfer GMAW-S ........ 236
Globular Transfer ...................................... 238
Axial Spray Metal Transfer ...................... 238
Pulsed-Arc Metal Transfer ........................ 239
Pulsed-Arc Metal Transfer Current Cycle 240
Shielding Gases for Spray or Pulsed-Spray Transfer 243
Buried-Arc Transfer .................................. 243
GMAW Filler Metal Specifications .......... 244
Wire Melting and Deposition Rates .......... 244
Welding Power Supplies ........................... 244
Speed of the Wire Electrode ..................... 245
Power Supplies for Short-Circuiting Transfer 246
Molten Weld Pool Control ........................ 247
Power Settings .......................................... 249
Weave Pattern ........................................... 249
Travel Speed ............................................. 249
Electrode Extension .................................. 249
Gun Angle ................................................. 250
Equipment ................................................. 252
Power Source ............................................ 253
Electrode (Wire) Feed Unit ....................... 253
GMA Spot Welding .................................. 257
Summary ................................................... 259

Chapter 11 Gas Metal Arc Welding

Introduction ............................................... 262
Setup ......................................................... 263
Gas Density and Flow Rates ..................... 268
Wire-Feed Speed ....................................... 268
Arc-Voltage and Amperage Characteristics 270
Electrode Extension .................................. 271
Welding Gun Angle .................................. 273
Effect of Shielding Gas on Welding ......... 274
Practices .................................................... 276
Metal Preparation ...................................... 277
Flat Position, 1G and 1F Positions............ 277
Vertical Up 3G and 3F Positions .............. 281
Vertical Down 3G and 3F Positions ......... 283
Horizontal 2G and 2F Positions ................ 284
Overhead 4G and 4F Positions ................. 286
Globular Metal Transfer, 1G Position ...... 288
Axial Spray ............................................... 291
 Summary ................................................... 292

Chapter 12 Flux Cored Arc Welding Equipment, Setup, and Operation

Introduction ............................................... 296
Principles of Operation ............................. 297
Equipment ................................................. 299
Advantages ................................................ 300
Limitations ................................................ 301
FCAW Electrodes ..................................... 301
FCA Welding Electrode Flux ................... 304
Shielding Gas ............................................ 308
Welding Techniques ................................. 308
Troubleshooting FCA Welding................. 314
Summary ................................................... 315

Chapter 13 Flux Cored Arc Welding

Introduction ............................................... 318
Practices .................................................... 319
Flat-Position Welds................................... 322
Square-Groove Welds ............................... 322
V-Groove and Bevel-Groove Welds ......... 326
Fillet Welds ............................................... 331
Vertical Welds .......................................... 336
Horizontal Welds ...................................... 341
Overhead-Position Welds ......................... 347
Thin-Gauge Welding ................................ 350
Plug Welds ................................................ 356
Summary ................................................... 358

Chapter 14 Other Constant-Potential Welding Processes

Introduction ............................................... 361
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) .............. 362
Weld Travel .............................................. 362
Electrode Feed .......................................... 362
Contact Tip................................................ 362
Electrode ................................................... 363
Flux ........................................................... 364
Advantages of SAW ................................. 364
Disadvantages of SAW ............................. 365
Arc Starting ............................................... 365
Weld Backing............................................ 365
Handheld SAW ......................................... 366
Experiments .............................................. 366
Electroslag Welding (ESW) ...................... 367
 Electrogas Welding (EGW) ...................... 369
Summary ................................................... 370

Chapter 15 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Equipment, Setup, Operation, and Filler Metals
Introduction ............................................... 374
Tungsten .................................................... 374
Types of Tungsten Electrodes ................... 376
Shaping the Tungsten ................................ 377
GTA Welding Equipment ......................... 380
Types of Welding Current ........................ 384
Shielding Gases ......................................... 386
Preflow and Postflow ................................ 388
Shielding Gas Flow Rate .......................... 388
Remote Controls ....................................... 389
Summary ................................................... 393

Chapter 16 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Plate

Introduction ............................................... 398
Torch Angle .............................................. 399
Filler Rod Manipulation ............................ 399
Tungsten Contamination ........................... 401
Current Setting .......................................... 401
Experiments .............................................. 402
Gas Flow ................................................... 403
Practice Welds .......................................... 404
Summary ................................................... 425

Chapter 17 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Pipe

Introduction ............................................... 429
Practices .................................................... 430
Joint Preparation ....................................... 430
Root ........................................................... 431
Backing Gas .............................................. 433
Filler Metal................................................ 434
Cup Walking ............................................. 436
Practice Welds .......................................... 438
Hot Pass .................................................... 440
Filler Pass .................................................. 444
Cover Pass................................................. 445
Summary ................................................... 450

Chapter 18 Shop Math and Weld Cost

Introduction ............................................... 456
Shop Math ................................................. 457
 Types of Numbers ..................................... 457
General Math Rules .................................. 457
Equations and Formulas ............................ 458
Mixed Units .............................................. 460
Adding and Subtracting Mixed Units ....... 460
Fractions .................................................... 462
Finding the Fraction’s Common Denominator 462
Reducing Fractions ................................... 463
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions.......... 463
Converting Numbers ................................. 463
Converting Fractions to Decimals ............ 463
Converting Decimals to Fractions ............ 464
Conversion Charts ..................................... 465
Measuring ................................................. 465
Welding Costs ........................................... 465
Cost Estimation ......................................... 466
Joint Design .............................................. 466
Weld Metal Cost ....................................... 469
Cost of Electrodes, Wires, Gases, and Flux 469
Deposition Efficiency ............................... 470
Deposition Rate ......................................... 471
Deposition Data Tables ............................. 471
Operating Factor ....................................... 474
Other Useful Formulas .............................. 476
Summary ................................................... 477

Chapter 19 Reading Technical Drawings

Introduction ............................................... 481
Mechanical Drawings ............................... 482
Lines .......................................................... 482
Types of Drawings .................................... 485
Special Views............................................ 485
Dimensioning ............................................ 487
Drawing Scale ........................................... 488
Reading Mechanical Drawings ................. 489
Sketching................................................... 490
Erasers and Erasing ................................... 493
Graph Paper .............................................. 494
Computers and Drawings .......................... 496
Summary ................................................... 499

Chapter 20 Welding Joint Design and Welding Symbols

Introduction ............................................... 502
Weld Joint Design ..................................... 503
Welding Process........................................ 505
 Edge Preparation ....................................... 505
Joint Dimensions....................................... 505
Metal Thickness ........................................ 505
Metal Type ................................................ 507
Welding Position....................................... 507
Code or Standards Requirements .............. 508
Welder Skill .............................................. 509
Acceptable Cost ........................................ 509
Welding Symbols ...................................... 509
Indicating Types of Welds ........................ 510
Weld Location ........................................... 510
Location Significance of Arrow................ 512
Fillet Welds ............................................... 512
Plug Welds ................................................ 513
Spot Welds ................................................ 513
Seam Welds .............................................. 514
Groove Welds ........................................... 514
Backing ..................................................... 515
Flanged Welds .......................................... 516
Nondestructive Testing Symbols .............. 516
Summary ................................................... 519

Chapter 21 Fabricating Techniques

and Practices
Introduction ............................................... 522
Fabrication ................................................ 523
Safety ........................................................ 523
Parts and Pieces......................................... 524
Layout ....................................................... 525
Nesting ...................................................... 530
Kerf Space ................................................. 531
Material Shapes ......................................... 535
Bill of Materials Form .............................. 535
Overall Tolerance...................................... 535
Assembly................................................... 537
Assembly Tools ........................................ 539
Fitting ........................................................ 541
Tack Welds ............................................... 543
Welding ..................................................... 544
Finishing ................................................... 545
Summary ................................................... 546

Chapter 22 Welding Codes and Standards

Introduction ............................................... 550
Codes, Standards, Procedures, and Specifications 551
 Welding Procedure Qualification ............. 552
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).. 552
Qualifying the Welding Procedure Specification 552
Qualifying and Certifying ......................... 552
General Information .................................. 555
Summary ................................................... 564

Chapter 23 Testing and Inspection of Welds

Introduction ............................................... 567
Quality Control (QC) ................................ 568
Discontinuities and Defects ...................... 568
Porosity ..................................................... 568
Inclusions .................................................. 570
Inadequate Joint Penetration ..................... 570
Incomplete Fusion ..................................... 571
Arc Strikes ................................................ 572
Overlap ...................................................... 572
Undercut .................................................... 573
Crater Cracks ............................................ 573
Underfill .................................................... 573
Plate-Generated Problems ......................... 573
Lamination ................................................ 574
Delamination ............................................. 574
Lamellar Tears .......................................... 574
Destructive Testing (DT) .......................... 575
Tensile Testing .......................................... 575
Fatigue Testing.......................................... 576
Shearing Strength of Welds ...................... 577
Welded Butt Joints .................................... 577
Fillet Weld Break Test .............................. 581
Testing by Etching .................................... 582
Impact Testing .......................................... 582
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) ................. 583
Visual Inspection (VT) ............................. 583
Penetrant Inspection (PT) ......................... 583
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) ........... 584
Radiographic Inspection (RT)................... 585
Ultrasonic Inspection (UT) ....................... 590
Leak Checking .......................................... 591
Eddy Current Inspection (ET) ................... 591
Hardness Testing ....................................... 591
Summary ................................................... 592

Chapter 24 Welder Certification

Introduction ............................................... 596
 Qualified and Certified Welders ............... 597
Welder Performance Qualification ........... 597
Welder Certification.................................. 597
AWS Entry-Level Welder Qualification and Welder Certification 597
Practical Knowledge ................................. 597
Welder Qualification and Certification Test Instructions for Practices 598
Preparing Specimens for Testing .............. 599
Restarting a Weld Bead ............................ 600
Summary ................................................... 635

Chapter 25 Welding Metallurgy

Introduction ............................................... 641
Heat, Temperature, and Energy ................ 641
Heat ........................................................... 641
Temperature .............................................. 642
Mechanical Properties of Metal ................ 643
Hardness .................................................... 643
Brittleness ................................................. 643
Ductility .................................................... 643
Toughness ................................................. 643
Strength ..................................................... 644
Other Mechanical Concepts ...................... 644
Structure of Matter .................................... 645
Crystalline Structures of Metal ................. 645
Phase Diagrams ......................................... 646
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram .......................... 646
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram ..................... 647
Strengthening Mechanisms ....................... 650
Solid-Solution Hardening ......................... 651
Precipitation Hardening ............................ 651
Mechanical Mixtures of Phases ................ 652
Quench, Temper, and Anneal ................... 652
Martensitic Reactions................................ 654
Cold Work................................................. 656
Grain Size Control .................................... 656
Heat Treatments Associated with Welding 656
Preheat....................................................... 656
Stress Relief, Process Annealing .............. 657
Annealing .................................................. 658
Normalizing .............................................. 658
Thermal Effects Caused by Arc Welding . 658
Gases in Welding ...................................... 660
Hydrogen................................................... 661
Nitrogen .................................................... 661
Oxygen ...................................................... 661
 Carbon Dioxide ......................................... 661
Metallurgical Defects ................................ 662
Cold Cracking ........................................... 662
Hot Cracking ............................................. 662
Carbide Precipitation ................................ 663
Summary ................................................... 664

Chapter 26 Weldability of Metals

Introduction ............................................... 668
Steel Classification and Identification ...... 671
SAE and AISI Classification Systems ...... 671
Unified Numbering System (UNS) ........... 671
Carbon and Alloy Steels ........................... 671
Low Carbon Also Called Mild Steel ......... 671
Medium Carbon Steel ............................... 673
High Carbon Steel ..................................... 673
Tool Steel .................................................. 674
High Manganese Steel .............................. 674
Low Alloy, High Tensile Strength Steels . 674
Stainless Steels .......................................... 674
Chromium-Molybdenum Steel ................. 676
Cast Iron .................................................... 676
Practice Welding Cast Iron ....................... 677
Nonferrous Metals .................................... 681
Copper and Copper Alloys........................ 681
Aluminum Weldability ............................. 681
Titanium .................................................... 682
Magnesium ................................................ 682
Repair Welding ......................................... 682
Summary ................................................... 685

Chapter 27 Filler Metal Selection

Introduction ............................................... 689
Manufacturers’ Electrode Information ..... 690
Understanding the Electrode Data ............ 690
Data Resulting from Mechanical Tests ..... 690
Data Resulting from Chemical Analysis... 691
Carbon Equivalent (CE) ............................ 691
SMAW Operating Information ................. 691
Core Wire .................................................. 692
Functions of the Flux Covering ................ 692
Filler Metal Selection ................................ 693
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrode Selection 693
AWS Filler Metal Classifications ............. 696
Carbon Steel .............................................. 696
 Carbon and Low Alloy Steel–Covered
Electrodes .............................................. 696
Wire-Type Steel Filler Metals .................. 699
Solid Wire ................................................. 699
Tubular Wire ............................................. 700
Stainless Steel Electrodes ......................... 701
Nonferrous Electrodes .............................. 704
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ............ 704
Aluminum-Covered Arc Welding Electrodes 704
Aluminum Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes 704
Special-purpose Filler Metals ................... 704
Surface and Buildup Electrode Classification 705
Magnesium Alloys .................................... 706
Hydrogen Embrittlement .......................... 706
Summary ................................................... 707

Chapter 28 Welding Automation

and Robotics
Introduction ............................................... 710
Manual Joining Process ............................ 711
Semiautomatic Joining Processes ............. 712
Machine Joining Processes ....................... 713
Automatic Joining Processes .................... 713
Automated Joining .................................... 713
Industrial Robots ....................................... 714
Robot Programming .................................. 715
System Planning........................................ 717
Future Automation .................................... 723
Summary ................................................... 723

Chapter 29 Other Welding Processes

Introduction ............................................... 727
Resistance Welding (RW)......................... 728
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) .............. 728
Seam Welding (RSEW) ............................ 730
High-Frequency Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW-HF) 731
Resistance Projection Welding (RPW) ..... 731
Flash Welding (FW) ................................. 732
Upset Welding (UW) ................................ 732
Percussion Welding (PEW) ...................... 733
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) ............... 733
Electron Beam Welding Gun .................... 733
Electron Beam Seam Tracking ................. 734
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)....................... 734
Ultrasonic Welding Applications .............. 735
 Inertia Welding Process ............................ 735
Inertia Weld Bond Characteristics ............ 737
Advantages of the Process ........................ 738
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) .................... 738
Laser Welding Advantages and Disadvantages 739
Laser Beam ............................................... 739
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Process ....... 739
Stud Welding (SW) ................................... 740
Thermal Spraying (THSP) ........................ 740
Thermal Spraying Equipment ................... 740
Thermospray (Powder) Process ................ 741
Plasma Spraying Process .......................... 742
Cold Welding (CW) .................................. 743
Thermite Welding (TW) ........................... 743
Hardfacing................................................. 745
Selection of Hardfacing Metals ................ 745
Hardfacing Welding Processes ................. 746
Quality of Surfacing Deposit .................... 747
Hardfacing Electrodes ............................... 747
Shielded Metal Arc Method ...................... 748
Hardfacing with Gas Shielded Arc ........... 748
Carbon Arc Method .................................. 748
Summary ................................................... 749

Chapter 30 Oxyfuel Welding and Cutting Equipment, Setup, and Operation

Introduction ............................................... 756
Pressure Regulators ................................... 757
Regulator Operation .................................. 757
Regulator Gauges ...................................... 758
Regulator Safety Pressure Release Device 759
Cylinder and Regulator Fittings ................ 760
Regulator Safety Precautions .................... 761
Regulator Care and Use ............................ 762
Welding and Cutting Torches: Design and Service 763
Mixing the Gases ...................................... 763
Torch Care and Use .................................. 764
Welding and Heating Torch Tips .............. 765
Torch Tip Care and Use ............................ 766
Backfires ................................................... 766
Flashbacks ................................................. 766
Reverse Flow and Flashback Valves ........ 767
Care of the Reverse Flow Valve and Flashback Arrestor 768
Hoses and Fittings ..................................... 768
Hose Care and Use .................................... 768
 Types of Flames ........................................ 769
Leak Detection .......................................... 770
Manifold Systems ..................................... 775
Manifold Operation ................................... 776
Summary ................................................... 777

Chapter 31 Oxyfuel Gases and Filler Metals

Introduction .............................................. 782
Oxyfuel Flame .......................................... 783
Characteristics of the Fuel-Gas Flame ..... 783
Fuel Gases ................................................ 783
Flame Rate of Burning ............................. 785
Acetylene (C2H2) ...................................... 786
Liquefied Fuel Gases ................................ 788
Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MPS) ........ 788
MAPP ....................................................... 790
Propane and Natural Gas .......................... 791
Hydrogen .................................................. 792
Filler Metals ............................................. 794
Ferrous Metals .......................................... 795
Mild Steel ................................................. 795
Cast Iron ................................................... 795
Summary .................................................. 796

Chapter 32 Oxyacetylene Welding

Introduction .............................................. 798
Mild Steel Welds ...................................... 799
Factors Affecting the Weld ...................... 799
Characteristics of the Weld ...................... 800
Flat Position Welding ............................... 807
Outside Corner Joint ................................. 807
Butt Joint .................................................. 808
Lap Joint ................................................... 810
Tee Joint ................................................... 812
Out-of-Position Welding .......................... 813
Vertical Welds .......................................... 813
Butt Joint .................................................. 815
Lap Joint ................................................... 817
Tee Joint ................................................... 817
Horizontal Welds ...................................... 818
Horizontal Stringer Bead .......................... 818
Butt Joint .................................................. 819
Lap Joint ................................................... 819
Tee Joint ................................................... 819
Overhead Welds ....................................... 819
 Stringer Bead ............................................ 819
Mild Steel Pipe and Tubing ...................... 820
Horizontal Rolled Position 1G ................. 820
Horizontal Fixed Position 5G ................... 823
Vertical Fixed Position 2G ....................... 824
45° Fixed Position 6G .............................. 825
Thin-Wall Tubing ..................................... 826
Summary .................................................. 827

Chapter 33 Soldering, Brazing, and Braze Welding

Introduction .............................................. 830
Advantages of Soldering and Brazing ...... 831
Physical Properties of the Joint...………….. 832
Shear Strength .......................................... 832
Ductility .................................................... 832
Fatigue Resistance .................................... 832
Corrosion Resistance ................................ 833
Fluxes ....................................................... 834
Flux ........................................................... 834
Fluxing Action .......................................... 835
Soldering and Brazing Methods ............... 835
Method Grouping ..................................... 835
Torch Soldering and Brazing ................... 835
Furnace Soldering and Brazing ................ 837
Induction Soldering and Brazing .............. 837
Dip Soldering and Brazing ....................... 838
Resistance Soldering and Brazing ............ 838
Special Methods ....................................... 839
Filler Metals ............................................. 839
Types of Filler Metals .............................. 839
Soldering Alloys ....................................... 840
Brazing Alloys .......................................... 841
Joint Design ....................................................................... 843
Joint Spacing ............................................ 843
Brazing Practices ...................................... 845
Surface Buildup and Hole Fill Practices .. 851
Silver Brazing Practices ........................... 853
Soldering Practices ................................... 856
Summary .................................................. 859