Pattern Recognition Letters 24 (2003) 21–31

www.elsevier.com/locate/patrec

A framework for texture classification using the

coordinated clusters representation q
1
ul E. S

Ra
anchez-Y

an~ez *, Evguenii V. Kurmyshev, Francisco J. Cuevas
Centro de Investigaciones en Optica, A.C., Loma del Bosque 115 Lomas del Campestre, Apartado Postal 1-948,
Leon, Guanajuato, 37000 Mexico
Received 22 November 2001; received in revised form 19 February 2002

Abstract

A statistical approach based on the coordinated clusters representation of images is used for classification and
recognition of textured images. The ability of the descriptor to capture spatial statistical features of an image is ex-
ploited. A binarization needed for image preprocessing is done using, but not restricted to, a fuzzy clustering algorithm.
A normalized spectrum histogram of the coordinated cluster representation is used as a unique feature vector, and a
simple minimum distance classifier is used for classification purposes. Using the size and the number of subimages for
prototype generation and the size of the test images as the parameters in the learning and recognition phases, we es-
tablish the regions of reliable classification in the space of subimage parameters. The results of classification tests show
the high performance of the proposed method that may have industrial application for texture classification.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Texture classification; Coordinated clusters representation; Fuzzy clustering; Binarization

1. Introduction signed to. The set of essential features is used to be

Classification refers to the assigning of an ob-
ject into one of several predefined sets or classes.
Given a set of objects, one needs some essential
attributes of the classes for the objects can be as-
q
Supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecno-
log
ıa, M
exico, under grant no. 31168-A.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-477-7731017; fax: +52-
477-7175000.
E-mail address: sanchezy@foton.cio.mx (R.E. S
anchez-
Y
an~ez).
1
On a sabbatical stay at Centro de Investigaci
on en
Computaci
on, Instituto Polit
ecnico Nacional, Mexico.
represented as a multi-dimensional feature vector.
This vector can be used to discriminate between
classes, and the problem of establishing an ade-
quate feature vector is of great practical impor-
tance.
Although it is very difficult, if possible, to give a
formal definition for the textures, a texture can be
regarded as a pattern characterized by a structural
distribution. Any texture contains both regular
and statistical characteristics. In practice one can
find textures between two extremes, completely
periodic and completely random ones. That is why
it is difficult to classify textures by one single
method.

0167-8655/03/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 6 5 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 8 5 - X
22 R.E. S
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Texture classification consists of a learning and a
recognition phase, as described by Tomita and
Tsuji (1990). In the first, a set of features is extracted
from a set of texture images with known class
labels, characterizing a specific class with a feature
vector obtained. Feature extraction techniques for
texture description and analysis can be classified
into four major categories: statistical, model based,
signal processing and structural description (see
Tuceryan and Jain (1993)). Then, in the recognition
phase, once a feature vector for each class is found
and the feature vector of any input image is com-
puted, one of the known classifiers is used to assign
the image to the category with the best match. In
both cases the fundamental problem is to use a
suitable representation of an image in order to ex-
tract an adequate feature vector.
Complexity in texture analysis arises from the
quasi-statistical properties of textures, requiring
specific methods to process this kind of images.
For natural textures, like metallographic or min-
eral structure, woven fabric, or biological tissues,
statistical characterization seems to be most ade-
quate. Statistical methods analyze textures by es-
timating a set of statistics from the distributions of
the local features. Depending on the number of
pixels taken into account to compute the local
feature it is said to be first-order, second-order or
higher-order statistics. Many of the approaches to
texture analysis presents the texture measures by
single values, such as means, variances, etc. When
these values are used as components of feature
vectors, important information contained in the
distribution function of images might be lost. The
distributions of joint occurrences of pairs and
higher order n-tiples of features give better results
than distributions of single features (Thomson and
Foster, 1997). Most commonly used statistical
methods include the calculus of co-occurrence
matrices introduced by Haralick et al. (1973), two-
point probability density functions (see Goon and
Rolland (1999)), and grey level differences (Wes-
zka et al., 1976; Unser, 1986), with a variety of
modifications later on, like the local binary pat-
terns by Ojala et al. (1996) and the signed differ-
ences by Ojala et al. (2000).
We propose a framework for texture classifica-
tion based on the coordinated cluster representa-
tion (CCR) of images. The method captures
spatial statistical features of an image by means of
corresponding histogram of CCR and does not
need explicit calculation of any single or joint
statistics. In this work we use the histogram of the
coordinated clusters representation of images as
the unique feature vector that constitutes the core
of the classification method. The use of the method
needs a previous binarization of each grey level
image that is done by means of, but not restricted
to, a fuzzy clustering algorithm. A simple mini-
mum distance classifier is used for classification in
this paper.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2
describes briefly the coordinated cluster transform
of binary images and its mathematical back-
ground. In Section 3 we outline an approach to
texture images classification and a binarization
needed for an image preprocessing is also dis-
cussed. The classification setup and experimental
results are given in Section 4. Conclusions and
directions of future work are given finally in
Section 5.
2. Coordinated clusters representation of images
Recently a model for binary image representa-
tion called the coordinated clusters transform or
representation (CCR) was proposed by Kurmy-
shev and Cervantes (1996) and Kurmyshev and
Soto (1996), in which a binary image can be
characterized by a histogram of the occurrence of
pattern units. In this work, this histogram is used
as a descriptor of textures.
In order to avoid some complicated mathe-
matical notations, we describe CCR in an algo-
rithmic way. Let S a ¼ fsa ðl; mÞg be a matrix of
binary image intensities (binary pixels) where l ¼
1; 2; . . . ; L and m ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; M, N ¼ L  M and
a ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; 2N is the binary image index. In order
to calculate the CCR of a binary image S a it is
required first to establish a rectangular window of
W ¼ I  J pixels (I < L and J < M) and then scan
sequentially by means of this window all over the
image S a with one pixel steps. Given a binary
image S a , the coordinated cluster transformation
generates the histogram of occurrence of pixel
 R.E. S
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patterns that the scanning window has detected.

The binary number of pixel configuration is used
as a code for the configuration found by the win-
dow. Because pixels are binary units, the number
of all possible states of a window of the size W ¼
I  J is equal to 2W . This number determines the
‘‘length’’ of a primary histogram that can be re-
duced significantly if one discards all the states
with zero occurrence while scanning an image.
Thus, the coordinated cluster transformation as-
signs to each binary image S a a histogram HðI;J
a
Þ ðbÞ
that represents the occurrence of window pattern,
here a is the index of an image, the subscript ðI; J Þ
indicates the size of the scanning window and the
variable b ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; 2W is the code number of
window states. It is clear that the total number of
occurrences, that is the total area of histogram, is
equal to A ¼ ðL  I þ 1Þ  ðM  J þ 1Þ. When a
a
histogram HðI;J Þ ðbÞ is normalized, it is considered
as a distribution function of occurrences
a 1 a
FðI;J Þ ðbÞ ¼ A HðI;J Þ ðbÞ: ð1Þ
The distribution function can also be interpreted
as an image spectrum in terms of the texture units,
Fig. 2. Coordinated clusters representation of an image: (a)
that were originally called coordinated clusters, in
Original 256 grey-levels texture image, (b) binarized image
order to outline some statistical properties of the using FCM and (c) corresponding CCR distribution function.
transform. The texture units of CCR, are con-
ceptually and mathematically different from those
introduced by Wang and He (1990) and Ojala image required to compute the CCR distribution
et al. (1996), where a binary code is used for the function.
pattern description too. The fundamental properties of the CCR were
An example of 3  3 window patterns and their established in the two theorems (Kurmyshev and
binary codes are shown in Fig. 1, where the binary Cervantes, 1996; Kurmyshev and Soto, 1996) that
coded decimal (BCD) corresponds to the index in are given here in a modified form. The first theo-
the CCR histogram (and also in the distribution rem establishes the structure of the CCR of peri-
function). Fig. 2 shows a texture and its binarized odic images.

Theorem 1. If a texton (primitive cell) of a trasla-

tional invariant binary image S a has a size s1 s2
pixels, s1 in one and s2 in other direction, then any
a
CCR distribution function FðI;J Þ ðbÞ takes no more
than T ¼ s1 s2 non-zero values. If the CCR scanning
window has the size equal to or larger than the
a
texton size, I P s1 and J P s2 , then FðI;J Þ ðbÞ takes
exactly T ¼ s1 s2 non-zero values.

Fig. 1. Window binary pattern and its binary coded decimal as The second theorem establishes the relation
a
the index of CCR histogram. between HðI;J Þ ðbÞ and spatial correlation moments
24 R.E. S
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of nth order (nth order statistics) of a binary image
S a . According to the second theorem, the histo-
a
gram HðI;J Þ ðbÞ contains all information about the
n-point correlation moments of the image S a if and
only if the separation vectors between n pixels fit
into the scanning window, that is a distribution
a
function FðI;J Þ ðbÞ provides a sufficient information
about an n-point joint probability functions.
Theorem 2. Let S a ¼ fsa ðl; mÞg be a matrix of a
a
binary image and FðI;J Þ ðbÞ be the CCR distribution
function of the image. If maxfli g 6 I and
maxfmi g 6 J ði ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; k  1Þ and k 6 IJ , then
any autocorrelation function of kth order
hsa ðl; mÞsa ðl þ l1 ; m þ m1 Þ
sa ðl þ lk1 ; m þ mk1 Þi from each texture class and each image is binarized
0 ;M 0
LX
¼ lim N 1 sa ðl; mÞsa ðl þ l1 ; m þ m1 Þ
prototype of each class (or signature) is computed
L;M!1
l;m¼1
a
s ðl þ lk1 ; m þ mk1 Þ
a
can be uniquely reconstructed from FðI;J Þ ðbÞ, where
0
N ¼ LM is an image size, L ¼ L  maxfli g,
M 0 ¼ M  maxfmi g.
It is well recognized that the second and higher
order joint probability density functions provide
structural information about a grey level image;
the higher is the order of the statistics, more
structural information is available. On the other
hand, there is a structural correspondence between
a grey level image and its binarized analog. A bi-
narized image keeps quite enough structural in-
formation about a primary grey level image to be
classified. Thus we can expect that the CCR of a
binary image, which preserves extremely well its
structural information, is highly suitable for rec-
ognition and classification of grey level texture
images having statistical properties in a wide
range, from totally periodic to totally random
textures included. CCR of each image can be
implemented in a bitwise-oriented algorithm, al-
lowing a fast computation of each number repre-
senting the local binary pattern.
In order to preserve a structural information of
an image it is necessary to choose a CCR scanning
window with a side approximately equal to or
larger than the correlation distance between pixels.
When a correlation distance is large, the scanning
window has to be proportionally large too. Then
CCR histogram becomes rather large and com-
plicated for computer management. One practical
way to reconcile the two contradictory require-
ments (information preservation and manageabil-
ity of CCR) is to reduce the scale of images to be
classified.
3. An approach for texture classification
The framework for textured images classifica-
tion consists of two well defined phases. In the
learning phase, a set of grey level images are taken
and its CCR distribution is calculated. Finally a
using the CCR vectors from the predefined class.
ð2Þ In the recognition phase, any input test image is
binarized and its CCR distribution is computed.
This vector is compared with all of the prototype
vectors obtained in the learning stage and then the
image is assigned to that class whose signature it
matches best.
Because the coordinated clusters representation
is defined for binary images, to extend its appli-
cation to grey level images it is necessary to bina-
rize each image as a preliminary step for learning
and recognition. The binarization process can, in
principle, cause significant loss of information in
the original image and as a consequence some
textures could become indistinguishable. In this
context, the CCR approach using binarization is
not much different from other algorithms like
those based on texture edge detection or based on
Voronoi tesselations (Ahuja, 1982; Tuceryan and
Jain, 1990). In addition, there is no single method
of texture representation which is adequate for all
textures, and descriptors success in characterizing
textures depends on the goal any algorithm is de-
signed for.
In order to binarize grey level images, we use
the Fuzzy C-Means clustering method or FCM
(see Ross (1995)) with the iterative optimization
algorithm developed by Bezdek (1980) and in
Bezdek (1981). We consider the intensity level of
pixels as raw data and compute two mean levels,
 R.E. S
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say c1 and c2 , corresponding to the centers of able as a training set of class p ðp ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; P Þ,

clusters in the intensity histogram. The mean of then the prototype distribution function for this
these values is the threshold criteria for binariza- class is calculated as follows:
tion, required to evaluate and classify each pixel as p þ1
1 X
N
black or white. This method has resulted in robust p
F a;p ðbÞ
FðI;J Þ ðb; Np þ 1Þ ¼ ð3Þ
binarization criteria with respect to pixel intensity Np þ 1 a¼1 ðI;J Þ
data. As shown in the next section, the informa-
p N þ1;p
tion remaining after a binarization is enough to p
Np FðI;J p
Þ ðb; Np Þ þ FðI;J Þ ðbÞ
discriminate between textures under classification FðI;J Þ ðb; Np þ 1Þ ¼ ; ð4Þ
Np þ 1
tests, using CCR as the feature vector. Finally, the
p
performance of any method has to be evaluated where FðI;J Þ ðb; Np Þ is the prototype of class p cal-
according to the results obtained in specific ap- culated by means of a training set of Np distribu-
plications. tion functions. Eq. (4) is the iterative formula
As an example of a binarization, a low-contrast useful for updating the prototype each time a new
grey-level image and a series of its binarized im- sample is available, without computing the sum-
ages corresponding to different thresholds are mation once again.
shown in Fig. 3. An inadequate threshold can re- For classification purposes we use the simple
sult in a dramatic loss of texture information, see minimum distance classifier (see Sonka et al.
Fig. 3b and f. The threshold 67 is obtained using (1999)), treating each m-dimensional feature vec-
the FCM algorithm, and seems to be adequate for tor as a point in the Rm space. In our approach, the
preserving the texture (see Fig. 3d). number of features formally used is equal to the
In the learning stage, if Np þ 1 distribution CCR histogram dimension, m ¼ 2W where W ¼
a;p
functions FðI;J Þ ðbÞ ða ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; Np þ 1Þ are avail- I  J is the CCR scanning window size. Actually,

Fig. 3. A 256 grey-level image and its binarization with the thresholds: (b) 51; (c) 59; (d) 67; (e) 75 and (f) 83.
26 R.E. S
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the distribution functions of images are sparse and
for practical purposes we can reduce the number
of features significantly. We consider the Ham-
ming distance between points in the space of CCR
distribution functions as the measure of distinction
between images S a and S b :
X b
dðI;J Þ ðF a ; F b Þ ¼ a
jFðI;J Þ ðbÞ  FðI;J Þ ðbÞj: ð5Þ
b
Once the CCR distribution function for the test
a
image FðI;J Þ ðbÞ is determined, then the distance of
a
FðI;J Þ ðbÞ from each one of the class prototypes
p a
FðI;J Þ ðb; Np Þ is computed. The image S is assigned
into the class p if
0
dðI;J Þ ðF a ; F p Þ ¼ min
0
dðI;J Þ ðF a ; F p Þ
p
X p0
a
¼ min jFðI;J Þ ðbÞ 
0 p
b considered to be correct. Otherwise, we have a
4. Experimental results
Two series of experiments are used to evaluate
the performance of the described method. In par-
ticular, we look for the size of subimages in
learning and recognition phases that still keep the
necessary information about texture and provide
adequate classification results. Also, we try to find
how many of these subimages are required for
computing a representative prototype distribution
function for a texture class. In classification tests
we use a scanning window of 3  3 pixels (I ¼ 3
and J ¼ 3), resulting in 512-dimensional feature
vector. Three independent variables are consid-
ered: (i) the number of subimages used for proto-
type generation, Np ¼ 15, 10, 5 and 3, (ii) the size
of subimages used for prototype generation, Sp ¼
128  128, 64  64, 48  48, 32  32 and 24  24
pixels, and (iii) the size of test subimages, St ¼
128  128, 64  64, 48  48, 32  32 and 24  24
pixels.
We consider a texture database consisting of
P ¼ 10 sample images (256  256 pixels, 8 bits)
taken from the Brodatz (1966) album (see Fig. 4).
Each primary image is used as a source for a class
generation. As an example of textures after bina-
rization, Fig. 5 shows the images of Fig. 4 after the
fuzzy c-means algorithm is used.
In the learning phase, sets of square subimages
are randomly taken from each primary image, the
CCR for each subimage is calculated and then the
prototype of each set is computed.
In the first series of experiments we analyzed the
dependence of the error rate in classification of
texture images due to the change of parameters in
the learning phase, the size of each subimage and
the number of subimages used for prototype gen-
eration. In each recognition test, a set of 200 test
texture images is formed by 10 groups of 20 square
subimages randomly taken from each primary
image. If a test subimage taken from a given pri-
! mary image is assigned to the class generated by
the same primary image, then the classification is
FðI;J Þ ðb; Np Þj
0 :
classification error.
ð6Þ
Experiments were done for each of the five
given sizes of test subimages and for different
combinations of the two parameters considered in
prototype generation, Np and Sp , yielding a total of
5  4  5 ¼ 100 different tests. For each test new
subimages are calculated for learning and recog-
nition purposes. This procedure was repeated five
times for averaging purposes, yielding a total of
500 classification tests. The number of test images
incorrectly assigned was obtained for each test.
The performance of first series of classification
tests is presented in Fig. 6 as classification error
(%error) against Np and Sp for each given St . The
plots show that the classification error depends
very little on Np P 5 and Sp P 48  48 for the test
image size St P 48  48, the misclassification rate
being near 0%. For St ¼ 128  128, the misclassi-
fication is 0% exactly in the range of parameters
Np P 5 and Sp P 48  48.
In the second series of experiments the texture
database was the same as used in experiment 1.
For each given Np we studied the dependence of
classification error against Sp , the size of the sub-
images used in the prototype computing and St ,
the size of test images. In the recognition phase,
given Sp and St , a set of 200 test texture images
was formed by ten groups of 20 square sub-
images taken randomly from each primary image.
 R.E. S
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Fig. 4. Sample images (Brodatz D9, D16, D19, D24, D29, D38, D68, D84, D92 and D112) are used for the generation of subimages
for classification tests.

A classification test was done for each combina-
tion of parameters and the procedure repeated five
times as in the first experiment, yielding 5  4 
5  5 ¼ 500 different tests each one with 200 sub-
images to be classified.
The number of test images incorrectly assigned
was obtained for each one of these tests and Fig. 7
shows the performance as classification error (%
error) against Sp and St for each given Np . The
plots in Fig. 7f, g and h are almost identical, the
28 R.E. S
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Fig. 5. Sample images from Fig. 4 shown after binarization.

classification error just slightly increased for the
case i, when Np ¼ 3 subimages are used. Hence, the
misclassification rate is almost independent of
the number of subimages Np P 5 used for the sig-
nature generation, giving us more freedom for this
parameter selection. Classification errors are due
basically to the size of the test images, being less
than 5% for 32 pixels on a side, almost negligible
for 48 pixels and 0% error in the case of 64 pixels.
The computing time of algorithms is given here
for a reference. The time for an image binarization
and computing the CCR distribution function
depends on a particular image data. On a Pentium
4 PC running at 1.4 GHz, it takes about 686.0 ms
 R.E. S
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Fig. 6. Classification error rate as a function of the number and the size of subimages used for prototype generation. Classification of
images: (a) St ¼ 128  128, (b) St ¼ 64  64, (c) St ¼ 48  48, (d) St ¼ 32  32 and (e) St ¼ 24  24 pixels.

Fig. 7. Classification error rate as a function of the size of subimages used for prototype generation and those for testing. Case (f)
Np ¼ 15, (g)Np ¼ 10, (h) Np ¼ 5 and (i) Np ¼ 3.

to binarize a 128  128 pixels grey-level image compute the CCR distribution function. For a
using the FCM method and about 15.9 ms to 64  64 pixels case, the times are just 160.7 and 4.4
30 R.E. S
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ms, respectively. It takes about 0.5 ms to compare
a test CCR distribution function against 10 pro-
totypes and classify the image in one of the 10
classes.
5. Conclusions
A method for classifying binary texture images
has been discussed and its application to grey level
images has been presented by the use of previous
binarization of grey level images. The method
consists basically of binarization and coordinated
clusters representation of texture images, and then
one of the known classifiers is used to assign the
image to the category with the best match. In this
paper, the simple minimum distance classifier is
used. The capacity of the coordinated clusters
representation of images to capture spatial statis-
tical features of an image is exploited.
Binarization of grey level images is considered
as an alternative for manipulating images in a less
complex but still representative form. In this sense,
application of fuzzy clustering yields an adequate
binarization scheme. As shown, the combination
of the binarization and the CCR of textures
characterizes the image data set successfully.
Even though in this work a small 3  3 scanning
window for coordinated cluster transform and a
very simple classification criteria were used, the
performance of the method is highly promising. In
addition, the method was implemented in an al-
gorithm which is very rapid and needs modest
computer resources. These properties are very de-
sirable for texture analysis in industrial applica-
tions. Besides, the modularity of the method allows
to improve the performance in accordance with
specific applications, using different binarization
methods and/or more sophisticated classifiers.
Future work should be done to analyze the
performance of this classification method with
different binarization algorithms of grey level im-
ages, different sizes of scanning windows and other
classifiers. When the simple binarization of images
causes a dramatic loss of information and a con-
sequent increase of the misclassification rate, one
way to correct this imperfection is the application
of multi-level thresholding instead of binarization.
Acknowledgements
~ez would like to thank
R.E. S
anchez-Y
an
the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog
ıa,
M
exico, for the financial support through a
scholarship.
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