You are on page 1of 64

Chapter 1

SQUARE AND SQUARE ROOTS

The square of a number is that number ‘raised to the power 2’


2 ² = 2  2 = 4; 3 ² = 3  3 = 9

A natural number is called a perfect square or a square number if it is the square of some natural
number. A natural number n is a perfect square
if n = x², for some natural number x.

Example: Is 225 a perfect square?

We find that the prime factor of 225 can be grouped into pairs as shown and no factor is left over.
 225 is a perfect square. It is a square of 3  5 = 15.

Example: Is 10584 a perfect square?

 10584 = 2  2  2  3  3  3  7  7
If we try to group the prime factors of 10584 into pairs of equal factors, we find that we are left with two
factors 2 and 3 which we cannot pair with equal factors.
 10584 is not a perfect square.

SOME PROPERTIES OF NATURAL NUMBERS

There are several interesting properties and patterns about squares of natural numbers.

(A) The squares of first ten natural numbers end in 0, 1, and 4,5,6,9. This suggests that a number
ending in 2, 3, 7 or 8 is never a perfect square.

(B) If a number ends in a zero, you can immediately decide whether it is a perfect square or not.
The number of zeroes in the end of a perfect square is never odd. Thus 45000 is not a perfect square.

(C) Natural numbers are of two types: even numbers and odd numbers.
(i) Square of an even numbers are always even.
(ii) Square of an odd numbers are always odd.

(D) 2²=4=31+1 2²=4=41


3²=9=33 3 ² = 9 = 4  2 +1

The above pattern suggest that

(i) The square of a number (other than 1) is either a multiple of 3 or exceeds a multiple of 3 by 1.

(ii) The square of a number (other than 1) is either a multiple of 4 or exceeds a multiple of 4 by 1.

(E) For every natural number n, we have

(n + 1) – n ² = (n + 1+ n) (n + 1 - n) = (n + 1) + n
Thus, 9 ² - 8 ² = 9 + 8 = 17
17 ² + 16 ² = 17 + 16 = 33 etc.
(F) Sometimes squares of numbers can be obtained orally
35 ² = 3  4 (hundreds) + 5 ² = 1225
45 ² = 4  5 (hundreds) + 5 ² = 2025

(G) Find three natural numbers m, n, p such that m ² + n ² = p ²?


Such triplets (m, n, p) are called Pythagorean triplets.
Since 3 ² + 4 ² = 5 ² and 5 ² + 12 ² = 13 ² therefore, (3, 4, 5) and (5, 12, 13) are Pythagorean triplets.
For any number x greater than 1, (2x, x ² -1, x ² + 1) is a Pythagorean triplets.

(H) Observe the following pattern:


11 ² = 121
111 ² = 12321
1111 ² = 1234321
11111 ² = 123454321
The numbers 121, 12321, 1234321 and so on have additional interesting properties.

SQUARE ROOTS

The square root of a given number n is that natural number which multiplied by it gives n as a product.
The square root of a number is indicated by the symbol ‘ ’.
The square root of 4 is written as  4. Thus, 4 = 2.
Similarly, 49 = 7;  121 = 11

(i) The square root of an even perfect square is even.


(ii) The square root of an odd perfect square is odd.

To find the square root of a perfect square by factors


36 = 2  2  3  3  36 = 2  3 = 6
625 = 5  5  5  5  625 = 5  5 = 25

It is clear from the above example that we have the following rule for the finding the square root of a
perfect square:

(1) Write down the prime factors of the given number.

(2) Since the number is a perfect square, you will be able to make an exact number of pairs of
prime factors such that both the factors in each pair are equal. Write one factor from each pair.

(3) Find the product of such factors.

(4) The product is the required square root.

Example: Find the square root of 1296

SQUARE ROOT OF A RATIONAL NUMBER

The square root of a rational number x is that rational number which multiplied by itself gives the given
number.

9/16 = ¾ ; 121/625 = 11/25

To find the square root of a number by the method of factors

Examine the following carefully:

(i) 9  100 = 900 = 2  2  3  3  5  5


= 2  3  5 = 30

(ii) 4/9 = (2  2) / (3  3) = 2/3.

From the above examples, it is clear that if a and b are perfect squares, then

a  b = a  b and

a / b = a / b.

Example: Find the square root of 256 / 441.

Solution: 256 / 441


Now, 256 = 2  2  2  2  2  2  2  2
=2222 = 16
441 = 3  3  7  7 = 3  7 = 21
 256 / 441 = 256 / 441 = 16 / 21.

To find the square roots of perfect squares by the method of long division method.

Example : Find the square root of 6561.

Solution:

Square Root Algorithm

(1) Place bars over every pair of digits starting with the unit’s digit. The number of bars indicates
the number of digits in the square root.

(2) Think of the largest square less then or equal to the first period. Take the square root of this
number as divisor and as quotient. Put the quotient above the period, subtract the product and bring
down the next period to the right of the remainder.

(3) Double the quotient as it appears and enter it with a blank on the right for the next digits , as the
next possible divisor.

(4) Guess a possible digit to fill the blank and also to become the new digit in the quotient and the
new divisor . Subtract and bring down then next period

(5) Repeat steps 3 and 4, till the last period has been dealt with.

Example: Find the square root of 363609.

Solution:
603
6 363609
36
120 36
00
1203 3609
3609
0

 363609 = 603

Remark: At the second stage, to guess 0, we had to try 3  12(leaving one digit in each number).

Example: Find the least number which must be subtracted from 194491 to make it a perfect square.

Solution :
441
4 194491
16
84 344
336
881 891
881
10
Hence, 10 is the required number.

Example: Find the least number which must be added to 306452 to make a perfect square.

Solution:

553 554
5 306452 5 306352
25 25
105 564 105 564
525 525
1103 3952 1104 3952
3309 4416

If in the given number, we add (4416 – 3952 = 464), then the sum will be a perfect square.

Hence, the required least number is 464.

To find the square roots of fractions by the method of long division

Example: find the square root of 21*2797/3364.

Solution: 21 * 2797 / 3364 = 73441 / 3364

Now, 21 * 2797 / 3364 = 73441/3464


= 271 / 58 = 4 * 39 / 58.

Example: To find the square root of a decimal fraction 37.0881.

Solution:

37.0881 = 6.09.

To find the approximate values of square roots by the method of long division

Example : Find the square root of 2.8 up to three places of decimal.

Solution :
 2.8 calculated upto three places of decimal is 1.673 .

The use of square root tables to determine approximate values of square roots

Example : Find the values of  13.32.

Solution: we know that

13 < 13.32 < 14


  13 <  13.32 <  14

from the square root table,

 14 = 3.742 and  13 = 3.606

Difference = (3.742 – 3.606) = 0.136

Difference for (14 - 13) i.e., 1 = 0.136

 Difference for 0.32 = 0.136  0.32 = 0.044 (upto 3 places of decimal)

 13.32 = 3.606 + 0.044 = 3.650.

Example : Find the values of  31428.

Solution :  31428 =  2 ²  9 ²  97
= 2  9   97
= 18  9.849
= 177.282

Chapter 2
CUBES

The cube of a number is that number ‘ raised to the power 3’.

2³=222= 8
3³ =333=9
4 ³ = 4  4  4 = 16
A natural number is said cube a perfect cube if it is the cube of some natural number. That is, a natural
number n is a perfect cube if n = x  x  x = x ³, where x is a natural number.

Question: Is 128 a perfect cube?

Solution:

128 = 2  2 2 2 2 2 2

We are left a single factor 2, therefore, 128 is not a perfect cube.

Example: Is 27000 a perfect cube?

Solution:

27000 = 2  2 2 3  3 3 5  5  5

 27000 is a perfect cube. It is the cube of 2  3 5 = 30.

Question:

(a) What is the smallest number by which 675 may be multiplied so that the product is a perfect
cube?

(b) What is the smallest number by which 675 may be divided so that the quotient is a perfect
cube?
Solution:

(a) By writing 675 as a product of prime factors , we have


675 = 3  3 3 5  5

We note that, if we multiply 675 by 5, the product would be 3  3  3  5  5 5 , which is perfect cube.

(b) If we divided 675 by 5  5, the quotient would be 3  3  3 which is a perfect cube. Therefore, we
must divide 675 by 25 so that the quotient is a perfect cube.

Cube Roots

8 = 2 ³ ; 343 = 7 ³ ; 1331 = 11 ³
A natural number x is the cube root of a number n if n = x ³.

Similarly, ³ 343 = 7 ; ³1331 = 11.


Here, for any number x, ³x is called a radical, x is called radicand, and 3 is called the index of the
radical.

TO FIND THE CUBE ROOT OF A PERFECT CUBE BY FACTORS

216 = 2  2  2  3  3  3 ,  ³216 = 2  3 = 6

1728 = 2  2  2  2  2  2  3  3  3 = ³1728 = 2  2  3 = 12

(1) Write down the prime factors of the given number.

(2) You will find that you are able to group these factors in an exact number of triplets such
that all the three factors in each triplet are equal. Write one factor from each triplet so formed.

(3) Find the product of such factors.

(4) The product is the required cube root.

Example: Find the cube root of 157464.

Solution:

157464 = 2  2  2  3  3  3  3  3  3  3  3  3

 ³157464 = 2  3  3 3 = 54 .
CUBES OF NEGATIVE NUMBER

If x is any positive integer, then, -x ³ is the cube of the negative integer. It is the cube of the negative
integer –x. In fact, (-x) ³ = (-x)  (-x)  (-x).

If x be a positive integer, then ³-x ³ = - ³x ³.

Example: find the cube root of – 1728.


Solution: ³ -1728 = - ³  1728

1728 = 2  2  2  2  2  2  3  3  3

 ³  1728 = 2  2  3 = 12

Hence , ³  -1728 = -12 .

CUBE ROOT OF A PRODUCT

We know that if a and b are two positive integers, then


(ab) ² = a ² b ²
and  ab =  a  b
similarly , ³  ab = ³  a ³  b

Example : Find the value of the ³  27  64

Solution: ³  27  64 = ³  27  ³  64
³  27 = 3  3  3
³  64 = 4  4  4
Therefore, ³  27  64 = 3  4 = 12.

Example : Find the value of the ³  (-125)  216.

Solution: ³  (-125)  216 = ³  (-125 )  ³  216


³  (-125) = -(5  5  5)
³  216 = 2 2  2  3  3  3 = 2  3 = 6
Therefore, ³  (-125 )  216 = -5  6 = -30.

CUBES OF RATIONAL NUMBER

Example : Find the cube of 5/9.


Solution: (5/9) ³ = 5 ³ / 9 ³ = (5  5  5) / (9  9  9) = 125 / 729.

Example: Find the cube of 3.1.

Solution: (3.1)³ = 3.1  3.1  3.1 = 29.791.

CUBE ROOT OF A RATIONAL NUMBER

(i) ³ 27 / 64 = (3  3  3 ) / (4  4  4) = ¾ .

(ii) ³ -27 / 512 = -(3  3 3 ) / (8  8  8) = -3/8.

The use of cube root tables to determine approximate values

Example :Find the cube root of

(a) 73.8 (b) 732

Solution :
(a) 73.8
Since 73 < 73.8 < 74
From the cube root table,
³  74 = 4.198 ; ³  73 = 4.179
Difference for (74 - 73) i.e., 1 = (4.198 – 4. 170) = 0.019
 Difference for 0.8 = 0.019  0.8 = 0.0152 = 0.015(to 3 places of decimal)
³  73 = 4 . 179
³  73.8 = 4.179 + 0.015
= 4.194.

(b) 732
730 < 732 < 740
 ³  730 < ³  732 < ³  740
as in (a) , since 740 – 730 = 10,
³  732 = ³  730 + 2/10  (³  740 – ³  730)
= 9.004 + 1/5  (9.045 – 9.004)
= 9.004 + 1/5  0.041
= 9.004 + 0.008 = 9.012 .

Example : Find the cube root of 29600.

Solution : ³  29600 = ³  100  8  37


= ³  8  ³  100  37
= 2  15.47
= 30.94 .

Chapter 3
EXPONENTS AND RADICALS

Rational Exponents

2  2  2  2  2  2 can be written in the exponential or power notation as 26. we read 26 as


‘two raised to the power six’ or as ‘sixth power of two’. In 2 6, the number ‘2’ is called the base and ‘6’ is
called the exponent.

i. if x, y be any rational numbers different from zero and a be any integer. Then xa  ya = (x  y)a.

ii. If x be any rational number different from zero and a, b be any integers, then x a  xb = xa+b
(x ) = xa  b
a b

Reciprocals of positive integer as exponents.


32 = 9 can be written as  9 = 3. we agree to write this in another way 9 1\2
= 3.
As usual. Here 9 is the base and 1\2 is the exponent.
Similarly, 43 = 64 can be written 3 64 = 4, o 643 = 4.

if q be any positive integer greater than 1, and x and y be rational numbers such that x q = y, then y1\q = x.
we write y1\q as q y and read it as qth root of y.
q
y is called a radical and q is called the index of the radical.

Positive rational numbers as exponents

Let p\q be any positive number and let x be any rational number.
Xp\q is defined as (xp)1\q
That is, xp\q is the qth root of xp
Thus,
43\2 = (43)1\2 = (64)1\2 = 8
82\3 = (82)1\3 = (64)1\3 = 4

Negative Rational numbers as exponents.

If p\q is a negative rational number, then –p\q is a positive rational number and, in that case, x p\q (x =
0) can be written as 1\(x)-p\q, making the exponent a positive rational number.
Thus,
4-3\2 = 1\43\2 = 1\8
8-2\3 = 1\83\2 = 1\4

Laws of exponents for rational exponents.

If x and y be any rational numbers different from zero and a be any rational number, then
Xa  ya = (x  y)a

If x be any rational number different from zero, and a, b be any rational numbers, then
xa  xb = xa+b
(xa)b = xa  b
x x =x
a b a-b
, since
xa  xb = x a / x b = xa  x-b = x a + (- b) = x a - b

Chapter 4
Algebraic Expressions

We have learnt about the following:

1. (a + b)² = a ² + 2ab + b ²
2. (a – b)² = a ² - 2ab + b ²
3. (a + b) (a – b) = a ² - b ²

These are called identities because these are true for all values of a and b.

Some identities

i. The product (x + a) ( x + b )
From identity i. , we have
(x + a) (x + a) = x ² + 2ax + a ²
(x + a) (x +b) = x(x + b) + a(x + b)
= x ² + xb + ab + xa
= x ² + xb + ax + ab
= x ² + ax + bx + ab [bx + ax = ax + bx]
= x ² + (a + b)x + ab [Taking x as a common factor in ax and bx]

Example : Find the following products:


a. (y + 3) (y + 5) b. (p + 9) (p – 2)

Solution : a. Let us compare (y + 3) (y + 50 with x + a) ( x + b). we have;


X = y, a = 3, b = 5

There fore, using identify, we have,


(y + 3) (y + 5) = y ² + (3 + 5)y + 3  5
= y ² + 8y + 15
b. let us compare (p + 9) (p – 2) with (x+ a) (x + b), we have
x = p, a = 9, b = (-2)
There fore, using identity (4), we have
(p + 9) ( p – 2) = p ² + [ 9 + (-2)]p + 9  (-2)
= p ² + 9p – 2p – 18
= p ² + 7p – 18

Example : Evaluate the following:

a. 107  103 b. 56  48

Solution: a. we can write 107 as 100 + 7 and 103 as 100 + 3. thus, we have
107 + 103 = (100 + 7) (100 + 3)
= 100² + (7 + 3) 100 + 7  3
= 10000 + 10  100 + 21
= 10000 + 1000 + 21
= 11021
Solution: b. 56  48 = (50 +6) (50 –2)
= (50 + 6) (50 – 2) = 50 ² + [6 +(-2)] 50 + 6  (-2)
= 2500 + 4  50 –12
= 2500 + 200 –12
= 2700 –12
= 2688

The product (a + b + c) ²
(5) = (a + b + c)² = a ² + b ² + c ² + 2ab +2bc + 2ca

i. (a – b + c) ² = [a + (-b) + c]²
= a ² + (-b) ² + c ² + 2a  (-b) + 2(-b)  c + 2c  a
= a ² + b ² + c ² -2ab –2bc + 2ca
ii. (a + b – c) ² = [ a + b + (-c)] ²
= a ² + b ² + (-c) ² + 2ab + 2b(-c) + 2(-c)a
= a ² + b ² + c ² + 2ab – 2bc – 2ca
iii. (a – b – c) ² = [a + (-b) + (-c)] ²
= a ²+ (-b) ² + (-c) ² +2a(-b) + 2(-b)(-c) + 2(-c) a
= a ² + b ² + c ² - 2ab + 2bc – 2ca
iv. (-a + b + c)² = [(-a) + b +c) ²
= (-a) ² + b ² + c ² + 2(-a)b + 2bc +2c(-a)
= a ² + b ² + c ² - 2ac + 2bc – 2ca

Example : Write the following in expanded from:

a. (9x + 2 y + z) ²
b. (3x –2y – z) ²
c. (5x + y – 2z) ²
d. (-2p + 3q + r) ²

Solution: a. comparing the given expression with (a + b + c) ², we have


A = 9x, b = 2y, c = z
There fore, using identity we have;
(9x + 2y + z) ² = (9x) ² + (2y) ² + z ² + 2 (9x)(2y) + 2(2y) z + 2z(9x)
= 18x ² + 4y ² + z ² + 36xy + 4yz + 18zx
b. We can write (3x – 2y – z) ² as [3x + (-2y) + (-z)] ²
Comparing it with (a + b + c) ². We have
a = 3x, b = -2y, c = -z
There fore, using identity, we have;
(3x – 2y –z) ² = [3x + (-2y) + (-z)] ²
= [(3x) ² + (-2y) ² + (-z) ² + 2(3x) (-2y) + 2(-y)(-z) + 2(-z) 3x]
= [9x ² + 4y ² + z ² - 12xy + 2yz – 6zx

c. Using identity, we have


(5x + y – 2z) ² = [5x + y (-2z) ] ²
= [(5x) ² + y ² + (-2z) ² + 2 (5x) y + 2y(-2z) + 2(-z)(5x)]
= [10x ² + y ² + 4z ² + 10xy – 4yz – 10zx]
d. Using identity, we have
(-2p + 3q + r) ² = [ (-2p) ² + (3q) ² + r ² + 2(-2p)3q + 2(3q)r + 2r(-2p)]
= 4p ² + 9q ² + r ² -12pq + 6qr – 4rp

The product (a + b)³


(a + b)³ = a ³ + b ³ + 3ab (a + b) or,
a ³ + b ³ = (a + b) ³ - 3ab(a + b)

similarly ,
(a - b)³ = a ³ - b ³ - 3ab (a - b) or,
a ³ - b ³ = (a - b) ³ + 3ab(a - b)

Example : Write the following in expanded form :

(i) (2x + 3y) ³ (ii) (p - yz) ³

Solution :

(i) Comparing the given expression with (a + b)³ , we have a = 2x ; b = 3y


 (2x + 3y )³ = (2x)³ + (3y)³ + 3  2x  3y (2x + 3y)
= 8x ³ + 27y ³ +18xy (2x + 3y)
= 8x ³ + 27y ³ + 36x ²y + 54xy ²
= 8x ³ + 36x ²y + 54xy ² + 27 y ³ .

(ii) Comparing the given expression with (a - b)³ , we have a = p ; b = yz


 (p - yz)³ = (p) ³ - (yz ) ³ -3  p  yz (p - yz)
= p ³ - y ³ z ³ - 3pyz (p - yz)
= p ³ - y ³ z ³ - 3 p ² yz + 3 p y ² z ²
= p ³ - 3 p ² yz + 3 p y ² z ² - y ³ z ³.

Example : Simplify (2x + 5)³ - (2x - 5)³ .

Solution :
(2x + 5)³ = (2x)³ + (5 )³ + 3  2x  5 (2x + 5)
= 8x ³ + 125 + 30x (2x + 5)
= 8x ³ + 125 + 60x ² + 150 x and
(2x - 5)³ = (2x)³ - (5 )³ - 3  2x  5 (2x - 5)
= 8x ³ - 125 - 30x (2x - 5)
= 8x ³ - 125 - 60x ² + 150 x
and now , subtracting (2) from (1) , we obtain
(2x + 5)³ - (2x - 5)³ = 8x ³ + 125 + 60x ² + 150 x – (8x ³ - 125 - 60x ² + 150 x)
= 8x ³ + 125 + 60x ² + 150 x - 8x ³ + 125 + 60x ² - 150 x
= 120 x ² + 250 .

Example : Find the value of a ³ + 8b ³ , if a + 2b = 10 ; ab = 15.

Solution : We are given that a + 2b = 10 ; ab = 15.


Now, a ³ + 8b ³ = a ³ + (2b) ³
= (a + 2b )³ - 3  a  2b (a + 2b)
= (a + 2b )³ - 6ab (a + 2b)
putting the values of a + 2b = 10 and ab = 15
a ³ + 8b ³ = (10)³ -6  15  (10)
= 1000 –900 = 100 .

Example : Evaluate the following :

(i) 1001 ³ (ii) 995 ³

Solution :

(i) we express 1001 as 1000 + 1 and then


1001 ³ = (1000 + 1)³
= (1000)³ + (1 )³ + 3  1000  1 (1000 +1 )
= 1000000000 + 1 + 3000  10001
= 1000000000 + 1 + 3003000
= 1000000000 + 3003001
= 1003003001
(ii) we express 995 as 1000 – 5 and then
995 ³ = (1000 - 5)³
= (1000)³ - (5 )³ - 3  1000  5 (1000 -5 )
= 1000000000 -125 - 15000  995
= 1000000000 - 125 - 14925000
= 1000000000 - 14925125
= 985074875.

The product a ³ + b ³ = (a + b)(a ² + b ² - ab)


Similarly , a ³ - b ³ = (a – b )(a ² + b ² + ab)

Example : Find the following product ;

(i) (x + 3y)(x ² - 3 xy + 9y ² )
(ii) (25 a ² + 15 ab + 9b ² )(5a – 3b)

Solution :

(i) (x + 3y)(x ² - 3 xy + 9y ² )
= (x + 3y)(x ² - x  3y + (3y) ² )
= (x)³ + (3y)³
= x ³ + 27 y ³ .

(ii) (25 a ² + 15 ab + 9b ² )(5a – 3b)


= ((5 a) ² + 5a  3b + (3b) ² )(5a – 3b)
=(5a)³ - (3b)³
= 125 a ³ - 27 b ³.

Factorization of Algebraic Expressions

The process of writing a given number or algebraic expression as the product of two (or more)
numbers or algebraic expression is called factorization.

Example : Factorize :

(i) x ² + 6x + 5 (ii) x ² - x – 12
(iii) x ² - 7x + 12 (iv) x ² + 2x – 15

Solution :

(i) x ² + 6x + 5 = x ² + (5 + 1)x + 5
= x ² + 5x + x + 5
= x (x + 5) +1 (x + 5)
= (x + 5)(x +1) .
(ii) x ² - x – 12 = x ² -(4-3)x – 12
= x ² -4x + 3x –12
= x (x - 4) + 3 (x - 4)
= (x - 4)(x +3) .

(iii) x ² - 7x + 12 = x ² - (4 + 3)x + 12
= x ² - 4x – 3x + 12
= x(x - 4) –3 (x - 4)
= (x – 4 )(x - 3) .

(iv) x ² + 2x – 15 = x ² + (5 - 3)x – 15
= x ² + 5x – 3x – 15
= x(x + 5) –3(x + 5)
= (x + 5)(x - 3).

Example : Factorize :

(i) 1 – 8p ³ (ii) 128 x ³ + 54 z ³

Solution :

(i) 1 – 8p ³ = 1 ³ - (2p)³
= (1 – 2p)[(1)² + 1  2p + (2p)² ]
= (1 – 2p)(1 + 2p + 4 p ²)

(ii) 128 x ³ + 54 z ³ = 2 ( 64 x ³ + 27 z ³ )
= 2 [(4x)³ + (3z)³ ]
= 2 (4x + 3z)[(4x)² - (4x)  (3z) + (3z)² ]
= 2 (4x + 3z)(16 x ² - 12xz + 9 z ² ) .

Example : Factorize x6 – y6 .

Solution : x6 – y6 = (x ³ )² - (y ³ )²
= (x ³ + y ³)(x ³ - y ³)
= (x + y)(x ² - xy + y ² )(x - y)(x ² + xy + y ² )
= (x + y) (x - y)(x ² + xy + y ² ) (x ² - xy + y ² ).
One more identity

a ³ + b ³ + c ³ - 3abc = (a + b + c)(a ² + b ² + c ² - ab- bc - ca)

if a + b + c = 0 , then , a ³ + b ³ + c ³ = 3 abc .

if a ² + b ² + c ² - ab – bc – ca = 0 ,then , a ³ + b ³ + c ³ = 3abc .

Example : Factorize the expression :


8x ³ + 27 y ³ - z ³ + 18 xyz

Solution : We have
8x ³ + 27 y ³ - z ³ + 18 xyz
= (2x) ³ + (3y)³ + (-z) ³ - 3 (2x)(3y)(-z)
= [2x + 3y + (-z)] [ (2x )² + (3y) ² + (-z)² - (2x)(3y) – (3y)(-z) – (-z)(2x)]
= (2x + 3y -z)(4x ² + 9y ² - z ² - 6xy + 3yz + 2zx).

Example : Factorize : (x - y)³ + (y - z)³ + (z - x) ³

Solution : Let us compare (x - y)³ + (y - z)³ + (z - x) ³with the LHS. Of the conditional identity(A).
We have a = x – y ; b = y - z ; c = z – x
Therefore , a + b + c = x – y + y – z + z – x = 0
Hence ,we can write
(x - y)³ + (y - z)³ + (z - x) ³ = 3 (x - y)(y – z )(z - x) .
Example : Find the value of 45 ³ - 65 ³ + 20 ³

Solution : we can write


45 ³ - 65 ³ + 20 ³ as (45) ³ + (- 65 )³ + (20) ³
we note that 45 + (-65) + 20 = 0
therefore , using the conditional identity (A) , we have
45 ³ - 65 ³ + 20 ³ = (45) ³ + (- 65 )³ + (20) ³
= 3  45  (-65)  20
= - 175500 .

Chapter 5
DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS :

When we want to divide 18 by 6 , we ask ourselves the Question : “ by what number should we multiply
6 to obtain 18 ? “ we note that the answer to this Question is 3.
Thus we say that 18  6 = 3
Division of algebraic expression is also define in a same manner. For example, let us consider the two
monomials 4 x ² y and 3x y ² . we can easily see that
(4x ² y)(3 x y ² ) = 12 x ³ y ³
we can therefore , say that
12 x ³ y ³  3 x y ² = 4 x ² y
in this case 12 x ³ y ³ is called the dividend , 3x y ² is called the divisor and 4x ² y is called the quotient.
As in the case of numbers, we can also write above as
12 x ³ y ³  3 x y ² = 4 x ² y

Some rational expression and their simplification:

(i) (y ² + 8y + 15 ) / (y +3 )
= (y +3)(y + 5) / (y +3)
= (y + 5)

(ii) (a ³ + b ³) / (a ² - ab + b ² )
= (a + b)(a ² - ab + b ²) / (a ² = ab + b ² )
= (a + b) .

This type of expression are called rational expressions:

Example: Divide 8a ² - 27 b ² by 2a – 3b.

Solution: ( 8a ² - 27 b ²)  ( 2a – 3b)
= (8a ² - 27 b ²) / (2a – 3b)
= [(2a)³ - (3b)³ ] / (2a – 3b)
= (2a – 3b )[(2a)² + 2a  3b +(3b)² ] / (2a – 3b)
= (2a – 3b )(4a ² + 6ab + 9b ² ) / (2a – 3b)
=4a ² + 6ab + 9b ².

Example: Simplify:

(i) (64 y ³ - 1000) / (8y - 20)


(ii) (x ² + 7x + 12) / (x + 3)

Solution:

(i) (64 y ³ - 1000) / (8y - 20)


= (4y)³ - (10)³ / (8y - 20)
= (4y - 10)(16 y ² + 40 y + 100) / 2(4y -10)
= (16 y ² + 40y + 100) / 2
= 4 (4y ² + 10y + 25) / 2
= 2 (4y ² + 10y + 25)
= 8y ² + 20 y + 50 .
(ii) (x ² + 7x + 12) / (x + 3)
= x ² +(3 +4)x + 12 / (x +3)
= (x +4)(x +3) / (x +3)
= (x + 4) .

POLYNOMIALS IN ONE VARIABLES AND THEIR DIVISION

(1) Division of a monomial by a monomial

Let us consider the division of a monomial 10 x ³ y ² by the monomial –5xy. As (-5xy)  (-2x ² y ) =
10 x ³ y ² , we can say that 10 x ³ y ²  (-5xy) = -2 x ² y
thus , while dividing a monomial by a monomial , we follow the two rules given below :

(i) The coefficient of the quotient of two monomials is equal to the quotient of their
coefficients.

(ii) The variables part in the quotient of two monomials is equal to the quotient of the variables
in the given monomials .

(2) Division of a polynomial by the monomial

Suppose we want to divide a polynomial 4x ² + 6 x ³ - 28 x by the monomial 2x . we perform the division


as follow :

Step I : we arrange terms of the dividend in descending order of their degrees . thus , we write 4x ² + 6 x
³ - 28 x as 6 x ³ + 4 x ² - 28 x .

Step II : we divide each term of the polynomial by the given monomial 2x , using the above mentioned
two rules .
Thus we obtain that
(6x ³ + 4x ² - 28 x) (2x) = (6 x ³ / 2x ) + (4x ² / 2x) – (28 x / 2x)
= 3 x ² + 2x –14.

(3) Division of a polynomial by a Binomial

Suppose we want to divide a polynomial –12 –6p ² + 17 p by the monomial 2p - 3 .We performs the
division as follow:

Step I: we arrange terms of the dividend in descending order of their degrees. Thus, we write –12 – 6 p ²
+ 17 p as –6p ² + 17 p –12 and 2p –3 as 2p -3.

Step II: we divide the first term of the polynomial by the first term of the divisor, thus, we divide –6p ² by
2p and obtain –3p. –3p is the first term of the quotient.

Step III: we multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient and subtract the result from the
dividend. Thus, we multiply 2p – 3 by –3p and subtract their product –6p ² + 9p from –6 p ² + 17 p –12.
We obtain 8p – 12 as the remainder.

Step IV : we treat 8p – 12 as the new dividend and repeat step II to obtain the second term of the
quotient i.e., we divided 8p by 2p and obtain + 4 as the second term of the quotient .

Step V: we multi ply the divisor 2p – 3by the second term of the quotient namely, +4 and subtract the
result from the new dividend. Thus we subtract the product of 2p –3 and +4 from 8p – 12 i.e., we
subtract 8p – 12 from 8p - 2. We obtain 0 as a remainder.
Thus we say that
(-6p ² + 17p –12)  (2p -3) = -3p + 4
Example : Divide 9 x ³ + 3 x ² - 5x + 7 by 3x – 1 and check your answer.

Solution :

Thus , Quotient = 3 x ² + 2x – 1 and remainder = 6


as in the case of numbers , the relation
Dividend = Divisor  Quotient + Remainder
Is true for division of polynomials also . We can check the correctness of our division using this
relation as follow:
Check : Divisor  Quotient + Remainder
= (3x - 1)(3x ² + 2x -1) + 6
= 3x (3x ² + 2x -1) –1 (3x ² + 2x -1) +6
= 9 x ³ + 6 x ² - 3x – 3 x ² - 2x + 1 + 6
= 9 x ³ + 3 x ² - 5x + 7 = Dividend .

Chapter 6
EQUATION IN ONE VERIABLES

To solve linear equations in one variables and solved some word problems by converting them into the
forms of equations.

To solve an equation , we can

(i) Add the same number on the both sides of the equation .

(ii) Subtract the same number from both sides of the equation .

(iii) Multiply both sides of the equation by the same non zero number .

(iv) Divided both sides of the equation by the same non zero number .

EQUATION OF THE FORM (ax + b) / (cx + d) = k

Example : Solve the equation (5x - 7) / 3x = 2


Solution : we have (5x - 7) / 3x = 2
5x – 7 = 2  3x
5x – 7 = 6x
5x – 6x = 7
-x = 7 or x = -7 .
Thus , x = -7 is the Solution of the given equation .

Example : Solve the equation (2 - y) / (y + 7) = 3 / 5

Solution : we have
(2 - y) / (y + 7) = 3 / 5
5(2 - y) = 3 (y + 7)
10 – 5y = 3y + 21
-5y –3y = 21 –10
-8y = 11
y = -11/8.
Thus y = -11/8 is the Solution of the equation.

APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS

The important steps in the equation with solution of these problems are :

(i) We read the problems carefully and note down what is given and what is required.

(ii) We denote the unknown by some letter say x ,y , z, etc.

(iii) We translate the statements of the problems step by step into the mathematical statements , to
the extent it is possible.

(iv) We look for the quantities which are equal and write the equation by writing approximate
expression for these quantities.

(v) We solve the equation for the unknown.

(vi) We check whether the obtained solution satisfied the conditions given in the problems.

Example: The digit in the tens place of a two – digit number is three times that in the ones place. If the
digits are reversed, the new number will be 36 less than the original number. Find the number.

Solution: Let the digit in the ones place be x .


Therefore, the digit in the tens place = 3x.
Now, the number in this case 10  (3x) + x = 30 x + x = 31 x
And if the digit are reversed, then, the new number will be 10  (x) + 3x = 13x
It is given that the above number is less than the original number by 36.
Therefore, 31x – 36 = 13 x
Or, 31x – 13 x = 36
Or, 18 x = 36
Or, x = 36 / 18 ; x = 2
Thus, ones digit is 2 and tens digit is 3  2 = 6.
Hence, the required number is 62 ans.

Example: The denominator of a rational number is greater than its numerator by 4. if the numerator is
increased by 11 and the denominator is increased by 1 , the new number becomes 7/3 . Find the
original number.

Solution : Let the numerator be x .


 Denominator = x + 4
Thus, the given rational number = x / (x + 4) ………….1
now, in the second case ,
Numerator = x + 11
and denominator =x + 4 –1 = x +3
Thus , the new number = (x +11) / (x + 3)
according to the condition of the problems , the new number is equal to 7/3.
Therefore , x + 11/ x + 3 = 7/3

3 (x + 11) = 7 (x + 3)
3x + 33 = 7x + 21
3x – 7x = 21 – 33
-4x = -12
x = 12 /4 ; x =3
Therefore, original number = x / x+4 = 3 / 3 +4  3/7.

Example: The distance between two stations A and B is 230 km. Two motor cyclists start
simultaneously from A and B in the opposite directions and the distance between them after hours is
20 km. If the speed of one motor cyclist is less than that of the other by 10 km/hr, find the speed of each
motor cyclist.

Solution: Let the speed of the slower motor cyclist be x km/hr and let he starts from A.
 The speed of the other motor cyclist = (x + 10) km/hr
The distance AC traveled by the first motor cyclist in 3 hours = x  3 km = 3x km.
The distance BD traveled by the first motor cyclist in 3 hours = (x + 10) 3 km
= (3x + 30) km.
It is given that the distance CD between them after 3 hr is 20 km
Now, we know that
AC + BD + CD = 230 km
Or, 3x + 20 + 3x +30 = 230
Or, 6x + 50 = 230
Or, 6x = 230 – 50
Or, x = 180 / 6; x = 30
Thus, speed of the first motor cyclist = 30 km /hr and that of the second motor cyclist = (30 + 10) = 40
km/hr.

Example : The ages (in years ) of Ramesh and Rahim are in the ratio 5 : 7 . if Ramesh were 9 years older
and Rahim 9 years younger , the age of Ramesh would have been twice the age of Rahim . Find their
ages.

Solution : Let age (in years ) of Ramesh be 5x


Therefore , age of Rahim = 7x (ratio of their ages is 5 : 7)
Had Ramesh be 9 years older , then his age would have been (5x + 9) years
Had Rahim be 9 years younger , then his age would have been (7x - 9) years
According to the condition of the problem , we have
(5x + 9) = 2(7x - 9)
or, 5x + 9 = 14 x – 18
or, 5x – 14 x = -18 –9
or, -9x = -27
or , x = 27/9 ; x= 3

Thus , the age of Ramesh = 5  x = 15 years and that of Rahim = 7 3 = 21 years.

Chapter 7
COMPOUND INTEREST

We shall discuss the concept of compound interest and the method of calculating the amount and the
compound interest. We shall also discuss growth of population, depreciation of value of assets and
other real life situations wherein the method of calculating compound interest is applicable.

Example: Find the compound interest on Rs 1000 for two years at 4% per annum.

Solution : Principal For The First Year = Rs 1000


Rate (percent per annum) = 4
Interest for the first year = Rs 1000  4 1
100
= Rs 40
.. Amount at the end of the first year = Rs (1000+40)
= Rs 1040
Principal for the second year = Rs 1040
Interest for the second year = Rs 1040  4 1
100
= Rs 41.60
Therefore, the compound interest at the end of the second year = interest for the first year + interest for
the second year = Rs ( 40+41.60) = Rs 81.60

Remark: (a) the simple interest in the above example would be Rs 80 only.
(b) The interest for the second year exceeds the rate of interest for the first year by Rs 1.60. This excess
is, infect, the interest on Rs 40 (the interest for the first year).

In the above illustration, we multiplied the principal for a particular year by the rate percent and divided
the product by 100 to get the interest for that year. In decimal notation, division by 100 means
multiplication by .01 which is equivalent to shifting the decimal point to the left by two digits.

Formula for finding the compound interest

The compound interest can also be calculated by using the formula


C.I. = P{(1+R  0.1)n –1}

Example : Find the amount of Rs 4000 for two years at 5% per annum compound interest.

Solution : Here P (in Rs) = 4000 , R=5 and n=2. Therefore, the amount A (in Rs) is given by
A (in rupees) =P(1+R  .01)n
= 4000 (1+5  .01)²
=4000  1.05  1.05
=4410

Example : Vijay obtains a loan of Rs 64000 against his fixed deposits. If the rate of interest be 2.5 paise
per rupee per annum, calculate the compound interest payable after 3 years.

Solution ; Here P = Rs 64000, n = 3 years, and r = 2.5 paise or 0.025 rupees ( per rupee per annum).
Hence the compound interest C.I. (in Rs) is given by
C.I. (in rupees ) = P 1+r )n –1
=64000 ( 1+.025)³ -1
=4921

Example : Compute the compound interest on Rs4000 for 1.5 years at 10% per annum compounded half
yearly.

Solution : Here, principal P= Rs 4000 . Since the interest is compounded half yearly. the number of
conversion periods in 1.5 years is 3. also the rate of interest per conversion period (6 months) is (½ 
10) % =5 %. thus the amount A( in Rs) is given by
A = P ( 1+ .01) n =4000 (1+5  .01)³
= 4000  (1.05)³
= 4630.50
Example : In what time will Rs 800 amount to Rs 882 at 5% per annum interest compounded annually.

Solution : Here amount =Rs 882, Principal -= Rs 800 and Rate =5% per annum.
putting these values in
A = P ( 1+R  .01)n
we get 882 = 800 (1+5  .01)n
882/800=(1.05)n
since 882/800 = 1.1025 or (1.05)²
we get n=2. hence, the required time is 2 years.
Example : Find the rate per cent per annum, if Rs 2000 amount to Rs 2315.25 in an year and a half,
interest being compounded six monthly.

Solution : Here P = Rs 2000, A =Rs 2315.25, and n 1 ½ years =3 half years.


Putting these values in
A= P ( 1+r)n
where is the rate per rupee per conversion period, i.e., per rupee per half year, we get

(1+r) ³ = A/P =2315.25/2000


= 1.157625
= (1.05)³
Therefore, rate = .05 per rupee per six months
= 5 percent per six months
= 10 per cent per years

GROWTH AND DEPRECIATION

We shall now illustrate how formulae like the one used for calculating amount and compound interest
are found useful in some other daily life situations. In particular we shall see how the growth of
population and the depreciation or decrease in the value of a property can be calculated by using such
a formula.
we illustrate these and other uses with the help of the following examples :

Example: the population of a town is increasing at the rate of 5% per annum. what will be the
population of the town on this basis after two years, if the present population is 16000?

Solution : Since the population is increasing at the rate of 5 % per annum , the increase in population
after one year will be 16000  5  0.01. hence , the population at the end of the year will be 16000 +
16000  5  0.01 =
16000(1 +_ 0.05) = 16000  1.05. during the second year , the increase in population will be 5% of the
population at the end of the first year , thus increase is 16000  1.05  0.5 , hence the population at the
end of the second year will be
16000  1.05 + 16000  1.05  0.05 = 16000  1.05  (1 + 0.05)
= 16000  1.05  1.05 = 17640 ans.
We can also find this by using the formula
A = P{1 + R  .01}n
Here , P = 16000 ; R = 5% ; n = 2 years
A = 16000(1 + 5  0.01)² = 16000  (1.05)² = 17640.

Example : 6400 workers were employed to construct a river bridge in four years . at the end of the first
year , 25 % workers were retrenched , at the second year, 25 % of those working at that time were
retrenched . however , to complete the project in time , the number of workers was increased by 25 % at
the end of the third year. How many workers were working during the fourth year?

Solution :
During the first two years , the number decreased at the rate of 25 % per annum . hence , the number of
workers at the end of the second year was
6400 (1 – 25 0.01)² . at the end of the third year, the number was increased by 25 % therefore , the
number of workers working during the fourth year is
6400(1 – 25  0.01)² (1 + 25  0.01)
= 6400  0.75  0.75  1.25 = 4500.

Example : Ashish opened a bookshop with an initial investment of Rs 32000, In the first year , he
incurred a loss of 5%. However during the second year , he earned a profit of 10% which in the third
year rose to 12*1/2 % . calculate his net profit for the entire period of three years .

Solution : his assets at the end of three tears are worth


Rs 32000 (1 – 5  0.01)(1 + 10  0.01)(1 + 1.25  0.01)
= Rs 32000  0.95  1.1  1.125
= Rs 37620
Hence , Net profit = Rs (37620 - 32000)
= Rs 5630 .
Example : In 1981 , the population of India was 6.7  108 . after 5/2 years , the population rose to 7.128 
108 find the half yearly rate of growth of the population .[Given that (7.128  6.7)1/5 = 1.01246].

Solution : Let R% be the rate of growth per half years . then


7.128  108 = 6.7  10 8 (1 + R  0.01)5
(1 + R  0.01) = (7.128 / 6.7)1/5
= 1.01246 (given)
R = 1.246
Hence , rate of growth = 1.246 % per half year.

Public sector undertakings

An industry , big or small may be established by one person or group of persons . it can be established
with or without the help of the government. If an industry is owned and managed by people without
any major financial or administrative control of the government , then it is called a private industry and
a private enterprises or an industry in the private sector.
However , some undertaking over which the government have complete financial as well as
administrative control . they are called public sector undertaking. Eg. Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. , Life
Insurance Corporation Of India , National Textile Corporation Of India , Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd.
Hindustan Machine Tools , Oil And Natural Gas Commission And National Thermal Power Corporation
Of India etc.

Example : A public sector undertaking secured a 20 year loan of Rs 25 crores from the foreign bank
through Government of India. If the loan carried interest at the rate of 12.5% per annum , interest
compounded annually , find the total compound interest payable at the undertaking .[Given that
(1.125)20 = 10.5451]

Solution : Here P = 25 crores , R = 12.5 and n = 20 .


Hence , the compound interest is given by C.I .
C.I = Rs 25 {(1 + 12.5  0.01)20 - 1}crores
= Rs 25 {(1.125)20 - 1} crores
= Rs 25  9.5451 crores
= Rs 238.6275 crores .

Example : National Textile Corporation of India imported 200 looms from USSR of value Rs 5.21 crores
on ten years credits at 4 % rate of interest per annum find the compound interest paid by NTC at the
end of 10 year , If the interest is compounded annually [Given that (1.04) 10 = 1.48024]

Solution : Here the compound interest is given by


C.I. = Rs 5.21 {(1 + 4  0.01)10 - 1}crores
= Rs 5.21  0.48024 crores
= Rs 2.5020504 crores
thus , the total compound interest paid by NTC is Rs 2 crore 50 lakh 20 thousand five hundred and four
only.

Chapter 8
General Banking facilities

OPENING A BANK ACCOUNT

As mentioned earlier, one of the main functions of a bank is to get deposits from the public. When we
deposit money in a bank for the first time, we have to open an account with the bank. For this purpose,
we apply to the bank on a prescribed application form available from the bank . we put our specimen
signatures on this form. These signatures are very important. Each time we go to the bank to withdraw
money from our account with the bank, the bank officials tally our signature with the specimen
signature
In their record. In case the signature does not tally, the bank may well refuse to make payment.

A bank may operate different types of accounts. Some such accounts are:

(a) savings bank account


(b) current account

(c) fixed deposit account

(d) recurring (cumulative) deposit account

Savings bank account is basically meant for people like salaried people, people belonging to small and
middle income groups, etc.
Current account is usually maintained by businessmen, companies, corporations, etc. who instead of
handling cash, operate through this account. There are some facilities which are available in current
account but not in savings account.

Fixed deposited account is an account in which money is deposited for a fixed period. Money can be
withdrawn from this account normally after the fixed period.
The rates* of interest on fixed deposits w.e.f. 28-3-1989 are as follows:

(a) for 46 days to 90 days 6%

(b) for 91 days and above but less than 1 year 8%

(c) for 1 year and above but less than 2 year 9%

(d) for 2 year and above 10%

Recurring (cumulative) deposit account is somewhat like the fixed deposit account. A depositor
opening this account chooses a specified amount (normally a multiple of Rs 5) and deposited that
amount in this account every month for a period chosen by him at the time of opening the account.

Whenever an account such as savings bank account or current account is opened, the bank issues to
the customer a notebook called passbook. The passbook contains the details of deposits and
withdrawals recorded date wise. Customers are required to present the passbook to the bank for
updating the entries regarding deposits and withdrawals as also those that relate to interest added by
the bank in the account.
Bank draft
Money, like letters, can be sent from one place to another place through post offices. We use money
order forms for this purpose. However, bank also performs this function of transferring money from
one place to another. For this purpose, banks issue bank drafts or demand drafts. A demand draft is an
order from one branch of a bank to another branch of the same bank to pay a specified sum of money
to the person in whose name the draft is issued.
Traveller’s cheques.

Travel by carrying a large amount of cash involves a risk of theft. If a person wants to travel without
this risk, he may avail the facility of travelers’ cheques. These cheques are issued by banks and may be
purchased by anyone.

Example : Abha saves Rs 25 every month from her monthly pocket allowance. If she puts this saving in
a recurring deposit account for 7 years, what is the amount that she gets on maturity?

Solution : The amount payable to Abha is given in the row headed 25 (her monthly installments), and
the column headed by 84 ( = 7  12, the number of months for which she made the deposit ). The figure
is 3039.20. Hence, on maturity she gets Rs 3039.20.

Example : Ujjawala needs Rs 3700 after 3 years to purchase a washing machine.


What is the maximum monthly installment for a recurring deposit that will give her approximately this
amount after 3 years ?

Solution : we examine the column headed by 36 (=3  12). The amount which is nearest ( and more
than) Rs 3700 is Rs 3786.66 and it appears in the row headed by 90. Hence, the minimum monthly
installment is Rs 90.
Example : Jagjeet saves Rs 50 from her income every month. She wants to put it in a recurring deposit
so that she may get at least Rs 10000 on maturity. Calculate the minimum number of years for which
she should make the deposit.

Solution: we examine the row headed by 50 . the amount which is nearest (and above) Rs 10000 is Rs
10278.50. This amount appears in the column headed by 120. Hence, she should make the deposit for
120 months or 10 years.

Exaxmple: Anand invested a sum of Rs 50000 in a fixed deposit scheme for 19 years.If the rate of
interest is 10% per annum compounded half yearly, find the amount that Anand would get after 19
years.

Solution: in 19 years, i.e. in 38 half years, the principal of Rs 5 amounts to Rs 31.927386.Therefore, the
principal of Rs 50000 in 19 years will amount to Rs 319273.86.

Example : Kalidas deposited with a bank a sum of Rs 89500 for 1.5 years. If the rate of interest be 9%
compounded quarterly, find the amount at the end of 1.5 years.

Solution : We find that the amount of Rs 800 at 9% interest after 6 quarters


( =1.5years)
Is Rs 914.2604.
Hence, the amount of Rs 80000 = Rs (914.2604  100)
= Rs 91426.04
similarly the amount of Rs 9000= Rs ( 1028.5429 x 10)
= Rs 10285.43 and the
amount of Rs 500 = Rs 571.41
adding we get the amount of Rs 89500 as 102282.88.

Chapter 9
SHARES AND DEBENTURES

Joint stock company

Sometimes a group of persons intending to start a business or an industry are unable to arrange for
the necessary finances on their own. What do they do then? In such cases, these persons prepare, with
the help of experts a detailed plan of the project and frame rules and regulations regarding its
functioning. These are then registered under the Indian Companies act (1956) and thus a joint stock
company comes into existence.
A joint stock company may raise the required capital through the public issue of shares.
Shares

A joint stock company raises a capital, of 5 crores say.


It divides this amount in terms of a convenient unit called a share.
When one is allotted shares by the company and has paid the money prescribed by the company for
the shares, the company issues to him a certificate called, share certificate. This is to show that he
owns those shares. He then becomes a share- holder of the company.

Dividend

When a company makes a profit during a financial year, a part of the profit is kept in reserve fund,
depreciation account etc. as also used for payment of Government taxes. The rest may be distributed
at the end of the year amongst the share-holders in proportion to the shares held by them. This
distributed profit is known as dividend. Dividend may be given as per share or as a per cent.
Brokerage

A share like any other commodity can be sold and purchased in a market, called stock exchange. The
sale and purchase of shares is, generally, done through agents called share-brokers or simply brokers.
Brokers charge commission from buyers as well as from sellers. The broker’s commission is called
brokerage.
Example : Find what a buyer would have to pay for 500 shares of Rs 10 each quoted at Rs 74. What
would be the gain to the share-holder, if he had purchased the share at par?

Solution:
The face value of 1 share =Rs 10
The market value of 1 share = RS 74
The amount paid by the buyer for 500 shares = Rs (74 500)
= Rs 37000
The gain from 1 share = Rs (74-10) = Rs 64
The gain from 500 shares = Rs (64  500)
= Rs 32000

Example: Swarna invested Rs 2592 when she bought shares of a company at Rs 108 each. The face
value of a share was Rs 100. The company paid 12 ½% dividend at the end of the year. Find the
dividend earned by Swarna.

Solution :
Market value of one share = Rs 108
The amount invested = Rs 2592
Therefore, the number of shares bought = 2592/108 = 24
The face value of 24 shares = Rs (100  24)
The dividend received = Rs ( 100  24  25/2  1/100) or Rs 300

Example: Ankur invested Rs 4444 in the shares of face value Rs 100 each of a company. At the end of
the year, the company declared dividend at 15% which gave Ankur an income of Rs 600. At what price
was the share quoted if the brokerage was 1%.

Solution:
Rs 600 is the income when the investment = Rs 4444
 Re 1 is the income when the investment = Rs 4444/600
 Re 15 will be the income on an investment = 4444/600  15 or Rs 111.1
Since the brokerage is 1%, a share of market value Rs 100 costs Ankur Rs 101.
Thus, if the investment is Rs 101, then the market value =Rs 100
 if the investment is Re 1, then the market value = Rs 100/101
 if the investment is Rs 111.1, then the market value = Rs ( 100/101 111.1)
= Rs 110

Example : Hari bought 300 shares of a company quoted at Rs 450. If the brokerage be 1%, find the
amount spent by hari on this purpose.

Solution:
The cost of one share = Rs 450
 the cost of 300 shares = Rs ( 450  300)
= Rs 135000
Also, the brokerage is 1% which is also to be paid by hari. The brokerage on 300 shares is Rs ( 1/100 
13500) = Rs 1350
Therefore, the total amount spent by Hari = Rs ( 135000+1350)
= Rs 136350

DEBENTURES

When business grows , a company may go in for further expansion and diversification of its activities .
for this , the company may need more money . for this additional money , the company may not issue
new shares . it may , instead like to borrow this money from the shareholders / public for a fixed period
at the fixed rate of interest . in such a case , the company issue debenture.

The main difference between shares and debenture is that shares from a part of the capital of the
company , whereas debenture are a debt . shareholders receive dividend commensurate with profit
earned by the company . this dividend may vary from year to year. On the other hand , debenture –
holders receive six monthly at a fixed a rate . this interest they receive irrespective of the profit or loss
of the company.
Example : find the income per cent on 4 % debentures of face value Rs 100 and available at rate Rs 80
each.

Solution : Rs 80 cash buys a Rs 100 debenture which gives Rs 4 as interest.


Therefore , Rs 100 will give an interest of Rs (4  100) 80 = Rs 5
Hence , the income is 5 %.

Example : Sophia wants to secure an annual income of Rs 1500 by investing in 15% debenture of face
Rs 100 each and available for 104 each . if the brokerage is 1 %, what sum of money should she
invest ?

Solution : Here debenture are being purchased so the brokerage will be added . to purchase one
debenture , the amount to be invested = cost of the debenture + brokerage paid = Rs 104 + Rs 1.04 =
105.04 . this investment of Rs 105.04 brings an income of Rs 15.
Now, Rs 15 is the income from an investment of Rs 105.04
 Re 1 is the income from an investment of Rs 105.04 / 15
 Rs 1500 is the from an investment of Rs (105.04  1500) / 15
= Rs 10504.

Example : How much money will Nisha get by selling 20% debenture worth Rs 6000 at the rate of Rs
120 per debenture ? the face value of a debenture is Rs 100 and the brokerage of 1*1/2 %.

Solution : The selling price of a debenture worth Rs 100 = Rs 120


Hence , the selling price of debenture worth Rs 6000 = Rs 120/100  6000
= Rs 7200
Now , brokerage is 3/2%
Hence , the total brokerage = Rs 3/2  7200/ 100
= Rs 108
thus , amount received by Nisha = selling price – brokerage
= Rs (7200 - 108)
= Rs 7092 .

CHAPTER 10.
PARALLEL LINES

Parallel lines, their Basic Properties

You may recall that in a plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel lines. This, two lines
are parallel (i) they lie in the same plane and (ii) they do not intersect, however far they are extended.

It should be remembered that two lines may not intersect and yet may not be parallel.

For example, One horizontal and the other vertical in the opposite face. They do not meet, however far
they are extended. But, certainly they are not parallel. Why ? It is because they two edges are not in the
same plane.
A line which intersects two given lines in two distinct points is called a transversal of those Lines. Two
lines and the transversal make eight angles labeled. In the lines l and m make with the transversal,
eight angles labeled 1, 2… 8.
In general, the a fore said pairs of angles may have no relation between them. But even the lines l and
m are parallel, such pairs of angles have well known relations between them. You may recall that :

If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then :

(1) Each pair of corresponding angles are equal,


(2) Each pair of alternate interior angles are equal, and
(3) Each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
So, to show that two lines are parallel, it is sufficient to show that one of relations (i) to (iii) holds.

Two Lines Parallel to the Same Line.

Repeat the above procedure to draw two other figures. For convenience, in each case, label the figure
in the same way. Find <1, <2 and ,1 -<2, for each figure. Record the results in the form of a table as
below :

Conclusion: Two lines which are parallel to the same given line are parallel to each other.

We may restate the geometrical fact obtained above as follows :

Two lines which are parallel to the same given line cannot intersect. In other words, two intersecting
lines cannot both be parallel to the same line.

Two Lines Perpendicular to the Same Line.

At each point of l, we can draw a line perpendicular to it. Let P and Q be two points on l. Through P, let
m be a line perpendicular to l. Through Q, let n be a line perpendicular to l, Then, what do we say about
the lines m and n? Are these lines parallel to each other?

Conclusion: Two lines in the same plane, which are perpendicular to a given line in the plane, are
parallel to each other,

Construction : To construct a line parallel to a given line at a given distance from it

Intercepts

There are two lines l and m and a third line t intersects them in distinct points A and B. What is this
third line called? A transversal.
The above figure can also be described in a slightly different way. We say b that two lines l and m
intersect a third line t in distinct points A and B. Thus the two lines l and m, between them, cut off line
segment AB of the third line t. We give this line segment a special name.

Line Bisecting Two Sides of a Triangle.


Repeat the above process, drawing two other triangles. For convenience, Iabel each triangle as ABC,
etc.

You will observe that in each case, AF – FC is zero ( or so small that it, may be ignored). Thus, in all
cases, AF= FC.

Conclusion: A line through the mid- point of a side of a triangle parallel to another side bisects the third

side.

Conclusion: The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third
side.
A Paper –folding Activity
On a sheet of tracing paper, draw a triangle ABC Fold the sheet to find the altitude AL of the triangle
from A to side BC.
Again fold the sheet to find the mid – point D of AB. Similarly fold the sheet to find the mid – point E of
AC
Now, fold the sheet so that a part of the altitude AL falls on itself and the fold line passes thought D.
Press to get a crease. The crease line so obtained is parallel to BC and passes through the mid–point D
of side AB. Does this line pass through E as well ? You will observe that it does.

A line through the mid-point of a side of a triangle, parallel to another side bisects the third side.

Take a fresh sheet of tracing paper and draw a triangle ABC on it. By folding the sheet, find the altitude
AL of the triangle from A to BC also, by folding, find the mid-points D and E of AB and AC respectively.

Thus, we have shown:


The segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.

Parallel lines and Equal Intercepts.

Draw any line p Take three points A, B and c (in this order on P, such that AB=BC.
Draw any other line q in the same plane.
Through A, B and C, draw three parallel lines, intersecting q in E, F and G, respectively. Measure EF,
FG. Find EF – FG.
Repeat the above procedure twice. To convenience, use the same letters to label the figure in each
case.
Record the results in the form of a table as follows.
Conclusion : If three parallel lines make equal intercepts on one transversal then they make equal
intercepts on any other transversal as well.
Draw the figure, as in the experiment above , Also draw a line through A, parallel to q, intersecting BF in
B’ and CG in C’ respectively.
Now, in▲ACC’, AB = BC and BB’II CC’. Therefore, AB’ = B’ C’.
Again in parallelogram AEFB’, AB’ = EF and in parallelogram B’ FGC’, B’ C’ = FG. But AB’ = B’C’,
therefore EF = FG.

Line Dividing Two Sides of a Triangle in the Same Ratio.

Conclusion : If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two sides in distinct points,
then it cuts off from these sides line segments proportional these sides.
We shall consider soon, this result in a more general figure.

Parallel Lines and Proportional Intercepts.

Draw any line p Take three points A, B, C, on p, such that AB = x cm, BC = y cm, where s and y are
certain numbers, say s = 2.5 and y =1.6
Draw any other line q in the same plane.
Through A, B, and C, draws three parallel lines intersecting q in E, F and G respectively.

Measure EF and FG, and then find the value of Y. EF –x. FG.
Repeat the above procedure taking two other values of x and y each. For convenience, use the same
letters to label the figure in each case.

Record the results in the form of a table as below :


Conclusion: Three parallel lines intersecting any two transversals make intercepts on them which are
in proportion, which is the ratio of the lengths of intercepts on the other.

Division of a Line Segment into Equal Parts

A line segment AB is said to be bisected (divided into two equal parts) at M, if M is a point

of AB such that AM = MB.

A line segment AB is said to be trisected (divided into three equal parts) at M and N, If M,

N, are points of AB such that AM = MN = NB.

To Divide a Line Segment into a Number of Equal Parts


Restatement: We are given a line segment AB and a positive integer n, say 5. It is required to divide AB
into 5 equal parts.

Steps of Construction

1. Draw ray AC, such that AC is not in the same line as AB as shown

2. On ray AC, starting from A, mark off 5 equal line segments AC1, C1C2, C2C3, C3C4 and C4C5.

3. Join C5B.

4. Through the points C4, C3, C2, C1 respectively, draw lines parallel to C5B, intersecting AB in B4, B3,
B2 and b1.

Line segments AB1, B1B2, B2B3, B3B4, and B4b are the five equal parts which AB has been divided.

CHAPTER 11.

CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS

To Construct a Quadrilateral when the length of Its Four Sides and One Diagonal are Given.

Example : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD when AB = 4 cm, BC = 6.0 cm, CD = DA = 5.2 cm, and AC = 8
cm.
Step for Construction.

1. Construct AC =8 cm as shown in

2. With A as centre and radius AB = 4cm, draw an are.

3. With C as centre and radius CB = 6.0cm, draw another are. To intersect the are of step 2 at B.

4. With A as centre and radius AD = 5.2 cm, draw an are on the side of AC opposite to that of B.

5. With C as centre and radius CD = 5.2 cm, draw another are to intersect the are of step 4 at d.

6. Join AB, BC, CD and DA.

ABCD is the required Quadrilateral.

To Construct a Quadrilateral when it’s Three Side and the Two Diagonals are given

Example: Construct a quadrilateral AVCD in which AC = 4.5 cm, CA = AD =5.5 cm. CD =5 cm and BD = 7
cm,

Step for construction

1. Construct CD =5 cm, as shown in

2. With C as centre and radius CB =4.5 cm, draw an are.

3. With D as centre and radius DB =7cm, draw another are to intersect the are of step 2 in B.

4. With C as centre and radius CA =5.5 cm, draw an are on the same side of CD as B.

5. With D as centre and radius DA =5.5 cm, draw another are to intersect. The are of step 4 in A.

6. Join DA, AB and BC.

ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

To construct a Quadrilateral when Its Four Sides and One Angle are Given

Example : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 2.7 cm, BC = 3.5cm, CD =4cm, AD =6cm, and
<B =90.
Steps for Construction

1. Draw <XBY =90deg. As shown in

2. With B as centre and radius AB =2.7 cm, draw an are to intersect BY at A.

3. With B as centre and radius BC= 3.5cm, draw an are to intersect BX at c.

4. With A as centre and radius AD =6cm, draw an are on the same side of AB as C.

5. With C as centre and radius CD =4cm, draw an are to intersect the are of step 4 at D.

6. Join AD and CD.

ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

To Construct a Quadrilateral when Its Three Sides and their Two Included Angles are given.

Example : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB =3.6 cm, BC =5.5 cm, CD =5cm, < B= 125deg. ,<
C =80deg.

Step for Construction

1. construct BC =5.5 cm, as shown in

2. At B, draw ray BX such that < XBC =235deg.

3. At c, draw ray CY making <YCB =80deg. Such that X and Y are on the same side of BC.

4. With B as centre and radius AB = 3.6 cm, draw an are to intersect BX at A.

5. With C as centre and radius CD = 5 cm, draw an are to intersect CYat D.

6. Join AD.

ABCD is the required Quadrilateral.

To construct a Quadrilateral when Its Three Angles and their Two Included Sides Are Given

Example : Construct a quadrilateral ABCD where AB = 3.5 cm, BC = 6.5 cm, < A = 75deg. < B =105deg.
and < C=120deg.

Step for Construction

1. Draw <XBY = 105deg as shown in


2. With B as centre and radius AB =3.5 cm, draw an are to intersect BY at a.

3. With B as centre and Radius BC = 6.5 cm, draw an are to intersect BX at C.

4. At C, draw ray CZ, such that < ZCB =120deg.

ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

Corollary : To construct a quadrilateral when its two adjacent sides and three angles are given.

To Construct a Quadrilateral in Some other Cases with Sufficient Data.

Data is given were sufficient to construct a quadrilateral uniquely. Omit one of the specified parts from
what is given, or is given, or if they do not satisfy certain conditions, you won’t be able to complete
construction. If you complete by supposing addition data at your discretion, you will dined that the
figures you obtain will differ, depending in the choice of the fifth part.

You can easily imagine a case where even five parts are not sufficient for the construction of a
quadrilateral. This is when one side and four angles of a quadrilateral are given. The reason being
simple, Since the sum of the four angle of a quadrilateral is 360deg. Therefore truly speaking oily three
of the angles are given.

Example : construct a trapezium ABCD where AB = 8cm, BC =4.5 cm, CD =4cm, , B =60deg. And AB II
CD

Step for Construction

1. Construct AB = 8cm, as shown in.

2. At B, draw ray by such that < YBA =60deg.

3. With centre B bad radius BC =4.5 cm, drawn arc, intersecting By at C.

4. Thought C, draw CZ II AB.

5. With centre C and radius CD =cm, draw arc intersecting CZ at D.

6. Join AD.

ABCD is the required trapezium

CHAPTER 12.
CHORDS OF A CIRCLE

Chord of a Circle and the Perpendicular from the Centre to It

Experiment

Draw a circle , let the centre of the circle is as O.


Conclusion : In a circle the perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord.
The Converse of the above Result
Let us think of the converse statement of the above conclusion.
In the above conclusion, we have

And we found that


AM = BM

So we shall have the converse by taking AM = BM as given and we shall verify that . .

Conclusion : In a circle , the line joining the centre to the mid – point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.

To summaries
The perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord of it bisects the chord and, conversely, the line
segment joining the centre of a circle to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

Example : In a circle whose radius is 10 cm, a chord is at a distance of 6cm, from the centre . How long
is the chord ?

Solution : Suppose AB is a chord of the circle with centre O, and OM L AB as shown in

Then, we know that

AM = MB

In ▲OMA. Right angled at M, OM =6cm,


And OA = 10cm.
By Pythagoras Theorem,

Hence, AB = 2 x 8 cm = 16 cm.
Equal Chords of a Circle and Angles Subtended at the Centre
The centre of a circle is called a central angle of thee circle. Each arm of the central angle intersect one
point, the two points of inter section determine a chord of the circle.

Thus, the central angle AOB of the circle determines a chord AB. We can also express this by saying
that the chord AB subtends < AOB at the centre the circle.

We wonder whether there is some relationship between the length of a chord and the angle subtended
by it at the centre.

Conclusion : In a circle, equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre.


Consider the converse of this result. If two chords subtend equal angles at the centre, then are the two
chords equal.

Conclusion : In a circle, chords which subtend equal angles at the centre are equal.

Regular Polygons

Some interesting applications of the above result are made to regular polygons,
Which we shall now introduce.
Example: A regular decagon is inscribed in a circle. What angle does each side of the decagon subtend
at the centre ?

Solution: A regular decagon has 10 sides. Since the sides of a regular decagon are all equal,

Each side subtends the same angle at the centre.

Let Us suppose that side of the decagon subtend an angle of xdeg. At the centre

Then, we have

10 x xdeg. = 360deg.

Or 10x = 360

x = 36

Hence, each side of the decagon subtends an angle of 36deg at the centre.

Equal chords of a Circle and their Distances from the Centre

Some chords are longer than the others. A chord through the centre, that is a diameter, is the longest
chord of a circle. As you take a chord farther from the centre. It gets smaller.

We wonder whether they are the same distance from the scanter. On the other had, suppose we have
two chords at the same distance from the centre, then are the two chords equal.

Conclusion : Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.


Consider the converse of the above. If two chord of a circle equidistant from its centre, then are the two
chords equal ?

Draw a circle with distinct centre and radii. Number the circles as 1, 2 and 3. For convenience label the
centre of each circle of each circle as O.
In circle l, draw two line segments OM and ON such that OM = ON and each les than the radius of the
circle
Conclusion : Chords of a circle equidistant from the centre are equal.
Draw a circle with centre O. Draw two chords AB and CD of the circle. Such that AB = CD

Superposition Method of Verification

Superpose the trace-copy on the original circle such that the centre O coincides with the centre o the
two circles coincide. Rotate the trace-copy about o till AB of the trace copy coincides with DC of the
original circle.

Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.

Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre and, conversely, chords of a circle equidistant
from the centre the are equal.

Example : v ABC is inscribed in a circle with centre o and the centre is equidistant from the sides.
What type of a triangle is v ABC ? Give reasons.

Solution: Since o is equidistant from chords AB and BC

AB = BC
Similarly, BC = CA
Hence, AB = BC = CA

v ABC is equilateral.

CHAPTER 13.
SOME ANGLE PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE

Intercepted Arc

In each part of each end- point of the arc AYB lies on one of the arms of the angle x and, except for the
end-points, the arc lies in the interior of < x In such a figure, we say that AYB is intercepted by <x.
Definition : An arc is intercepted by an angle if (i) the end points of the arc lie on the arms of the angle,
(ii) each arm of the angle contains at least one end point, and (iii) except for the end _ Points, the arc
lies in the interior of the angle.

An angle may intercept two acre


of a circle. In <x intercepts arcs
AYB and CZD.

Central Angle and its Intercepted Arc

Definition: An angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle is called a centre
of a circle is called a central angle of the circle.

This suggests that we can compare arcs of a circle with the help of the angles they subtend at the
centre.

Degree Measure of an Arc of a Circle

Definition : In a circle with centre O degree measure of minor arc MN is the measure of the central angle
MON We shall denote the degree measure of minor arc MN by the symbol.

T follows immediately that the degree measure of the whole circle is 360deg. The degree measure of a
quarter circle is 90deg. and the degree measure of one third part of a circle is 120deg.

Example : Two point on a circle determine a minor arc and a major arc. F the measure of major are is
three times that of the minor arc, arc, find the measure of arc.

Solution: Let us suppose that A and B are the two points on the circle, and

M ( minor AB ) = xdeg.
Then m ( major AB ) = 360 deg.

By the condition of the problem,

360 – x =3x
360 =4x
or, x = 90deg.
Hence, m (minor AB ) =90deg.
m (major AB ) =270deg.

Inscribed Angles

Definition : An angle is said to be inscribed in a circle, if (i) its vertex lies on the circle and (ii) each of
its arms intersects the circle in two distinct points .

(i) AXB is an arc of a circle and ACB is an inscribed angle. We also say that ACB is inscribed in
the arc AXB or ACB.

(ii) For example, ACB, ADB and AEB are also inscribed in the same arc AXB.

Relation Between an Inscribed Angle and its intercepted Arc

Conclusion : In a circle, the inscribed angle is half the measure of its intercepted arc.
Another Version of the above Relation

Angle subtended by an Arc at the Centre and the Angle Subtended by the Arc at a Point on the
Remaining Part of the Circle
Thus, in all cases :

The angle an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is doublet the angle it subtends at any point on the
remaining part of the circle.

A Paper – folding and Superposition Activity

We may compare an inscribed angle and its intercepted arc by paper – folding and superposition as
well.

Conclusion ; An angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is twice the angle it subtends at
any point on the reaming part of the circle.

Angle in a Semi – Circle

Definition ; an angle inscribed in a semi – circle is said to be an angle in a semi circle.

Conclusion ; angle is semi – circle is a right angle.


A paper – folding and Superposition Activity

Superpose <XOY on <ACB, such that O falls on C and OX falls along CA. What do you observe about
OY ? Does OY fall along CB ? You will obseve that OY does indeed fall along CB. Thus, <XOY
superposes on <ACB exactly.
Therefore, <ACB = <XOY.

Since : <XOY is a right angle, it follows that < ACB is also a right angle Now, take any other point D on
the semi _ circle, Join AD and BD, so that <ADB is an angle is a semi – circle. Does , XOY superpose on
< ADB exactly ? Proceeding as above, you will find that it does.

Hence, as before Z<ADB =,XOY =1 right angle

Conclusion ; Angle in a semi – circle is a right angle.

Angle Inscribed in the Same Arc of A Circle

Definition : Two angles are said to be inscribed in the same arc ( or same segment ) of a circle, if they
intercept the same arc.
We may expect angles in the same arc to be equal, since they intercept the same arc.

Let us verify by an experiment.

Conclusion ; Angles inscribed in the same arc of a circle are equal.

A paper – folding and Superposition Activity

Superpose the trace – copy of , ACB on < ADB, so that C falls on D and Ca falls along DA. Observe the
arm CB of < ACB. Does CB fall along DB? You may observe that it does . Thus, > ACB superposes on <
ADB exactly. It follows that < ACB = ADB.

Thus If E is any point of AYB, then < AEB = < ACB.


Conclusion ; Angles inscribed in the same arc of a circle are equal,

Cyclic Quadrilateral and its Angles

A quadrilateral inscribed in circle is said to be a cyclic quadrilateral. In other words, a quadrilateral is


said to be cycle if its vertices lie on a circle.
Since ABCD is a quadrilateral, therefore, < A + < B + < C + < D = 360deg.
We wonder, if in view of the fact that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, there may also exist some other
relations between its angles.

Conclusion : In a cyclic quadrilateral, the sum of each pair of opposite angles is 180deg.

A paper – folding and Superposition Activity

Inscribe a quadrilateral ABCD in it. Thus, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. A and C are one pair of
opposite angles of the quadrilateral; while B and D are the other pair of opposite angles.

Make a trace – copy of quadrilateral ABCD. Take any point O inside the quadrilateral. With a pair of
scissors, cut along the dotted lines as shown in repeat the arrangement with Band D and you will find
as before that < B + < D = 180deg.

Conclusion : Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

Example : Side AB of a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD is produced to E If < D = 120deg. What is < CBE?

Solution: < CBE and < CBA form a linear pair.

< CBE + < CBA = 180deg.

Also, in cyclic quadrilateral ABCD,

< D + CBA = 180deg.

<CBE + < CBA = < D + < CBA

or, < CBE = < D


= 120deg.

CHAPTER 14
TENGENTS TO A CURCLE

Tangent Line to a Circle, Point of Contact

Given a Circle and a line in the same plane, what can you say about their points of intersection? Think
of all possible positions of the line relative to the circle. You will soon realize that there are only three
possibilities as under, exactly one of which must hold.

Thus, a secant line of a circle is a line that intersects the circle in two distinct points.

The point common to a circle and its tangent is called the point of contact
If a line t is tangent to a circle C and the point P is the point of contact,
We say :

The line t is tangent to the circle C at P.


Or
The line t touches the circle C at P.
Or
The circle C touches the line T at P.

There are many familiar objects un your neighborhood which can be used give example of a circle, its
tangent and the point of contact, Look at the wheel of a railway carriage rest6ing on a rail

The rim of the wheel is a circle. The rail is a tangent line to the circle the single point where the wheel
touches the rail is the point of contact.
A family of Secant Lines and the Tangent
A secant line of a circle is a line that intersects it in two distinct points:
Let, P be a point of the circle with centre O as in consider the system of al lines through P, in the place
of the circle, Each of these lines intersects the circle in one more point, besides P, of the circle,

Thus, We have a system of secant lines through P, Some of these intersect the circle again on the right
of P, while some others so on the left of P.

There is precisely one line through P, which does not intersect the circle in any point other than P. this
is the tangent line PT to the circle.

Observe that as the second point Q of intersection on the right gets nearer to P, < OPQ becomes larger
and larger.

A Family of Parallel Lines and the Tangent

Consider a system of parallel lines in the plane of the circle as shown in there is exactly one line m of
the system which passes thought the centre O of the circle. This line intersects the circle in two points.
Threw are other lines which also intersect the circle in two distinct points, while there are many others
which do not intersect the circle at all. There are exactly tow lines each of which intersects the circle
exactly at one point only these two are the tangents to the circle.
Tangent top a Croce and the Radius Through the Point of Contact
When a line is tangent to a circle, there is exactly one point which common to the two and this point is
called the point is called the point of contact. Surely, there is always a radius of the circle with one end
at the point of contact. By observing a number of figures, in which a line is tangent to a circle, you must
have become aware pf the possibility that the radius to the point of contact is at right angles to the
tangent.

Conclusion : In a circle, the tangent at a point and the radius through the point of contact are
perpendicular to each other;
The following is a restatement of the above conclusion is a different form :

Corollary : The perpendicular to the tangent to a circle, at the point of contact, passes through the
centre.

Example: In PT is Tangent to the circle with centre O, and PQ is the diameter thro-
ugh P. Also, PR is a chord of the circle and OR is joined. If < RPT = 40deg.
What is < PQR ?

Solution : Since PT is tangent to the circle at P and OP the radius through P,


< OPT =90deg.
Or < OPR + < RPT = 90deg.
< OPR = 90deg. - < RPT
= 90deg. _ 40deg. =50deg.
Now, < PRQ is an angle in a semi –circle.
< PRQ = 90deg.

Hence, in v PQR,

< PQR + < QPR = 90deg.

Or < PQR = 90deg. - < QPR


= 90deg. – 50deg. = 40deg.

Tangent to a Circle, its Existence


We have seen that if a line is tangent to a circle, thane the radius thought the point of contact is
perpendicular to it. But, given a point P on a circle, is there a line (tangent) which touches the circle at
P.

Let us explore. The previous result is a guide. If there exists such alone, it would be at right angles to
the radius through the point.

You will observe that, in each case, the line PT does not intersect the circle in any other point besides
P, which shows that, in witch case, PT is a tangent to the circle.

Conclusion : A line through the end _ point of a radius of a circle, perpendicular to the radius, is
tangent to the circle at that point.

Construction : To construct a tangent to a given circle at a given point on it


Restatement :
A circle with centre O and a point P on it are given . It is required to draw line through P, which is a
tangent to the circle, touching, it at P.
Steps for Construction

1. Join OP.

2. At p, draw PX T Op.

3. Extend XP to T.

Then XT is the required tangent to the circle at P.


Length of a Tangent

Definition : If the line PA is tangent to a circle at A, then the line – segment PA is called the tangent
segment from P to the circle

The length of the tangent segment from a point P to the circle is called the length of he tangent from P
to the circle.

We know, fro a point P in the exterior of a circle, two tangent segments a can be drawn to it, PA and PB
are the two tangent segments from P to the circle, It appears that PA = PB or the lengths of the two
tangents from P to the circle are equal. Is it really so ? .

Conclusion : Lengths of the tangents to a circle from an external point are equal .

A Paper – folding Activity

On a sheet of tracing paper draw a circle with centre O. Take a point P in the exterior of the circle. From
P, draw tangent segments PA and PB to the circle, touching it at A and B respectively. Now, fold the
sheet of paper about OP. What do you observe ?

You will find that the whole figure is symmetrical about OP.
PA coincides with PB so that PA = PB.

Also, you observe that < APO coincides with < BPO, so that < APO = < BPO.

Thus, lengths of the two tangents to a circle from an external point are equal and the two tangents are
equally inclined to the line joining the point to the centre of the circle.

Thus, lengths of the two tangents to a circle from an external point are equal and the two tangents are
equally inclined to the line joining the point to the centre of the circle.
Example : A circle touches the side BC of v ABC at P and the sides AB AC pro
diced at Q and R respectively If BC = 5cm, CA =4cm, and AB =3cm, find the
length.

Solution : Suppose AQ = x cm,


Since, AQ and AR are two tangents from A to the circle,
AR = AQ = x cm.
Similarly,
BQ = BP = y cm (say)
CR = CP = z cm (say)

Now BC = BP + PC = ( y + z ) cm.
But BC = 5cm.
y+z= 5 (i)
Similarly,
x–y=3 (ii)
And x-z=4 (iii)

From (i), (ii) and (iii), on adding we have


2 x = 12
x=6
Hence, AQ = 6cm.

CHAPTER 15

AREAS OF RECTILINEAR FIGURES

Area of a Rhombus

A parallelogram is b cm and its corresponding altitude is h cm, then its area is given by
A = b x h cm.
But a rhombus has another important property : its diagonals bisect each other at right angles .
Thus, the rhombic region ABCD is divided into divided into four triangular regions, each having the
same area. If d1 cm and d2 cm are the lengths of the two diagonals then the sides of each right triangle
are

Example : One side of a rhombus is 6.5 cm and the altitude is 4cm. Find area of the rhombus.

Solution : We know, for a rhombus,

A = ( Base ) x ( Altitude )

Here, base = 6.5 cm, altitude = 4cm.


Area of the rhombus = 6.5 x 4 cm
= 26 cm

Area of a Trapezium

A trapezium ABCD. AB and DC are its parallel sides while AD and BC are its non- parallel sides. Each of
the two parallel side is called a base of the trapezium. The distance between the two bases ( parallel
sides ) is called the height ( or altitude ) of the trapezium. Observe that diagonal Ac divides the
trapezoidal region ABCD into two triangular regions ABCD into two triangular regions ABC and ACD.

Area of trapezium ABCD = Area of ∆ABC + Area of ∆ACD.


Let AB = b1 and DC=b2 Also let h be the altitude of the altitude of the trapezium, so that h is also the
altitude of ∆ABC to base b1 and the altitude of ∆ACD to base b2
Area of ∆ABC = 1/2 b1×h
And area of ∆ACD = 1/2 b2 × h
Area of trapezium ABCD = 1/2 b1 h + 1/2 b2 h
= 1/2 ( b1 + b2 ) ×h
Hence the area of a trapezium quails half the sum of bases multiplied by the anteed In symbols, A=
1/2 (b1 + b2 ) × h.

Area of a Quadrilateral

ABCD is a convex quadrilateral. Diagonal BD divides the quadrilateral region into two triangular
regions. AE and CF are perpendicular to BD from A and C respectively.

Now area of quadrilateral ABCD


= area of ∆ABD + area of ∆CDB
= ½ BD × AE + ½ BD × CF
= ½ BD × ( AE + CE )

If the quadrilateral is a rectangle a square, a rhombus, a parallelogram or a trapezium, then there are
special formulae for computation of its area, which you have already learnt. The method explained
above is applicable in all cases, including those for which special formulae exist.

Example : A diagonal of a quadrilateral is 20 m in length and the perpendiculars to it from the opposite
vertices are 8.5 m and 11 m . Find the area of the quadrilateral.

Solution :

Hero’s Formula for Area of a Triangle

If a, b and c be the sides of a triangle and 2s = a + b + c, then the area of the triangle is given by the
expression ______________
√ s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)

This is called Hero’s formula for the area of a triangle. Heron was Greek mathematician who lived in
Alexandria, about 100 B.C. He discovered the formula while doing some survey work, and so it is
named after him. The number used in the expression is called the semi-perimeter of the triangle.
The formula follows easily from the usual expression for area, that is one half of the base into height,
and the use of Pythagoras theorem. However, its proof is beyond the scope of the present text. The
merit of the formula lies in the fact that are can be computed as soon as the sides of a triangle are
known.

Example : The sides of a triangle have lengths 112 cm, 78 cm and50cm find its area.

Solution ; Let ABC be the triangle, so that, is the usual notation, a, b, c ar the lengths of the sides BC,
CA and AB respectively.
Let a = 112 cm, b = 78 cm, and c = 50 cm, then the semi- perimeter s of the triangle is

S = ½ ( 12 + 78 + 50 ) cm = 120 cm
Now, ___________________________________
by Hero’s formula, the area ▲=√ 120 × (120 – 112 ) (120 – 78 ) (120 – 50 )
_______________
=√ 120 × 8 × 42 × 70
______________________________
=√ 4 × 3 × 10 × 4 × 2 × 7 × 2 × 3 × 7 × 10

= 4 ×3 ×2 × 7 × 10 = 1680
Area of the triangle ABCD = 1680 cm2.

Areas of Irregular Rectilinear figures

Farmers, engineers and revenue officers, all have to deal eighth large fields and vest tracts of land.
They need reliable estimated of the areas of these fields as also enough data to draw a plan of each
field. Generally, the fields are of an irregular shape. For this reason, the task of measuring their sides
and angles, etc. and of estimating their areas required special techniques. The technical person who
does this work is called a surveyor.

The measurements recorded are sufficient to make a sketch of the field or to draw a plan of the field to
a suitable scale.

Example : From the following notes in a field-book, make a rough plan of the field and find its area.
Solution: The plan of
the field is the figure ACDBEF. The fet of the offsets are L, M and N as shown in
Area of ▲ ALC = ½ AL × CL = ½ 80 × 50 m2 = 2000 m2

Area of trapezium CLND = ½ LN × ( CL + DN )

= ½ × 80 × ( 50 + 60 ) m2 = 4400 m2

Area of ▲DNB = ½ NB × ND = ½ × 80 × 60 m2 = 2400 m2


Area of trapezium AFEM

= ½ AM × ( AF + ME )

= ½ × 100 × ( 30 + 40 ) m2 = 3500 m2
Area of ▲MBE = ½ MB × ME = ½ × 140 × 40 m2 = 2800 m2

Area of the field = ( 2000 + 4400 + 2400 + 3500 + 2800 ) m2


= 15100 m2.

CHAPTER 16

CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREA OF A CIRCLE

Circumference of a Circle

If the sides of a triangle have lengths 7cm, 4cm and 5cm. then the perimeter P of the triangle is
P = (7 + 4 + 5) cm = 16 cm

The perimeter of a triangle is the “distance around it” or “total length” of its sides.
Look at each figure, find its perimeter, (lengths in did carted are in cm) We are sure you would say that
the perimeters of the figures are 12cm, 14cm and 12cm respectively. It is easy to do so, since each
figure consists of line segments and the length of each line segment is given a (or can be easily
measured)
On a thick sheet of card – board draw a circle of radius 2.5 cm. cut out the circular disc and let us try to
find the circumference of the circle. Mark appoint X on the rim of the disc (that is, on the circle).

Thus a circle has a perimeter. The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference.

The diameter of circle is another length associated eighth circle. If the centre of a circle is know we can
easily measure its radius and hence the diameter. If the centre of a circle is not known then finding the
diameter of the circle presents some difficulty. Too may recall that the diameter of a circler is its
greatest chord. In other words the diameter of a circle is the greatest distance across to on the circle
hold it fast, and move the thread across the circle till you deter, me the greatest ;eight poof the thread
that can be stretcher across the circle. Their gives the diameter of the circle.

Relation between Diameter and Circumference of a Circle

Use a tape or a piece of thread to measure the circumference of each disc.


Also, measure the diameters of the same three discs.
Compare your result with that obtained by other students of the class. You will find that almost every
body has been as careful as you, and the result is the same as yours.

The Number π and Circumference Formula

Denoting by c the circumference of a circle and by d the diameter of it, the number c/d, ethic is the
same for all circles, independent of their sizes, is denoted by the symbol π Which is a letter of Greek
alphabet. It is read as ‘Pi’. Thus, we have the relation
c/d = π

The number π is not a rational number, that is there is o decimal, either terminating or non-terminating
and repeating, which may scantly represent it.

Now, using π as a symbol, we state below the circumference-diameter formula :

(i) If c be the circumference and d the diameter of a circle, then

c=πd and d=c/π


(ii) If c be the circumference and r the radius of a circle, then

c =2 π r r=c/2π

Example : Find the circumference of a circle, hose radius is 21 cm.


Sol. We know,
C =2 π r
Here, r = 21 cm.

C = 2 × 22/7 × 21 cm = 132 cm
Hence, circumference = 132 cm (approx. )
Area of a Circle

On a thick sheet of paper, draw a circle with any given radius, say r cm. Then, we know that area of the
circular region is the magnitude of the circular region, enclosed by the circle.

With a pair of scissors, cut the sheet of paper along the circle. In this way, we get a circular disc of
radius r cm.
Repeat the process of bisection by folding each of the eight parts obtained above. In this way, the
circular region is divided into sixteen equal parts, Each part is enclosed by an arc of the circle and two
radius, which are inclined at an angle of 22 ½ . Number the parts from 1 to 16, in serial order as
indicated in . Carefully cut out the sixteen parts and arrange them on a sheet of your note book, as
shown in This looks line a rectangular region. But it is not exactly so, The angle at a corner is not a
right angle The upper side is not a line segment. It consists of 8 arcs of the circle, each arc being 1/16
of the circle thus the upper side is none half the circumference of the circle similarly, the lower side
consists of 8 arcs of the circle, each arc being 1/16 of the circle, so that the lower side is also half the
circumference of the circle. The other two sides on the lift and right are, of course, line segments, each
being equal to the radius of the circle.

We can well imagine that as the number of equal part is increased further the figure becomes nearer
and nearer to a rectangle. Thus the circular region is equivalent in area to a rectangular

The sides of the equivalent rectangular region are half the circumference of the circle and the radius of
the circle.
Now, we have radius of 5the circle = r cm

Circumference of the circle = 2 π r cm

And ½ ( circumference of the circle ) = π r cm

Area of equivalent rectangle = r × π r cm2


= π r2 cm2

Hence, area of the circle = π r2 cm2

Area of a Circle Formula ;

Are of a circle = π × ( radius)2

And
__________
Radius of Circle = √ ( Area ) ÷ π
Example : Find the area of a circle with radius equal to 2.1 cm.
Sol ; We know ,
Area of a Circle = π r2
Here, r = 2.1 cm, and we take π = 22/7.
Area of the Circle = 22/7 × 2.1 × 2.1 cm2
= 13.86 cm2
Length of an Arc of a Circle

Given arc AB of a circle with centre o and radius r we can tank of its length as the length of the thread
or tape that will wrap along it from one end to the other. This will mean a new experiment every time we
have to find the length of an arc. Since circle and we know the formula for the length of a circle so it ill
bane convenient to have a formula that give the length of an arc of a circle in terms of the
circumference of radius of the circle.

We knew that two circles of the same radius are congruent Also two angles of the same measure are
congruent. Therefore in equal circles or in the saw circle if two arcs have the same degree measure
they are congruent and hence have the same length. Notation: We shall often indicate length of arc AB
by the symbol l AB.

Area of a Sector

We have a circle with centre O. OA and OB are its two radii and AB is an arc of the circle. The region
enclosed by OA, OB and the arc AB has been shaded. This is called a sector of the circle

The angle subtended by the arc of a sector at the centre is called the sector angle. Observe that the arc
and the two radiuses determine thee sector uniquely. We would like to have a formula to determine the
area of a sector.

Consider a sector of angle x deg. Of a circle of radius r cm


Now, the whole circular region of radius r cm is also a sector. Its angle is 360deg.

Example : Find the area of a sector of a circle of radius 7cm, whose sector angle is 120deg.

Sol. We know that the area A of a sector of a circle is give by

A = sector angle/360deg. × (area of circle )

Here, sector angle = 120deg. And radius = 7cm


A = 120deg./360deg. × (22/7 × 7 × 7 ) cm2 = 1/3 × 154 cm2 = 51.33 cm2

Area of a Segment of a Circle

AB is a chord of a circle with centre O the chord AB divides the circular region into two pats, each part
has AB in its boundary, Each such part is called a segment of the circle. The smaller part is called the
minor segment and the other part is called the major segment. Observe that the minor segment has the
minor arc in its boundary So, arc say

A segment of a circle is the region enclosed by an arc of the circle and its chord.
The dotted region is a segment of the circle with centre O enclosed by its arc AXB and the chord AB .
It can be seen easily that

Area of minor segment (AXB)


= area of sector OAXB – area of ▲OAB
We shall use this relation. Whenever required.
Also area of major segment (AYB ) = area of the circle – are of minor segment (AXB)
Example: The arc of a segment of a circle has measure 120deg. If the radius of the circle is 6 cm. find
the area of the segment.

Sol. Let O be the centre of the circle and AXB the arc or the segment such that m A X B = 120deg.

Then, it follows that


< AOB = 120deg.
Now, area of sector AOB = 120deg./360deg. × (π r2 )
= 1/3 × 22/7 × 6 × 6 cm2
= 264/7 cm2 (1)

<NOB =60deg.
Take a point D on OB such that
<OND = 60deg.
Now,
And < DNB =30deg.
Therefore, ON =ND = OD and ND = BD
ON =1/2 × OB
=3cm

Also, AB =2 ×√ 36 -9 cm
__
= 6 √ 3 cm
__
From (1) and (2),

Area of segment AXB = (264/7 - 9 √ 3 ) cm


=22 cm2 ( approx )

CHAPTER 17
VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF CYLINDERS,CONES AND SPHERS

Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder has two plane ends. Each place end is circular in shape, and the two plane
ends are parallel; that is they lie in parallel planes. Each of the plane ends is called a base of the
cylinder. The line segment OO’ joining the centers of the two bases is called the axis of the cylinder and
it is perpendicular to these bases. That is why we have the name:

The above description of a right circular cylinder bring to our mind tow distinct but related figures: the
hollow cylinder and the solid cylinder. The former, that is the hollow cylinder, is the figure is space
formed by just the lateral surface of the cylinder described above. And it is this figure, that is the hollow
cylinder, which is called the Right circular Cylinder.
The soiled right circular cylinder is the region in space bonded by the two plane ends and the lateral
surface of the cylinder. Observe that the lateral surface of the cylinder is just part of the boundary of
the soiled cylinder (What is the remaining part ? Remember, also that the (hollow ) cylinder has a
diameter 9 the distance across ) But, as a lateral surface, it has no thickness. Volume of a Right circular
Cylinder.If l is the length, b the breadth and h the height of a cuboids, then its volume volume V given
by
V=l×b×h
The cuboids has six faces, three pairs of parallel faces. Consider the two faces, each of length l and
breadth b. One of these may be called the base of the cuboids We may imagine the cuboids to stand on
this base. Is the area of the base, then B =l × b, and therefore, V=B×h

Volume of a Right Circular Cylinder

Similarly, a right circular cylinder has two plane ends, each a circular region. We may take one of these
as the base and imagine the right circular cylinder to stand on this base.
If we take the sections of the two solids by a plane parallel to the plane of bases, then the two sections
will be parallel to their respective bases and of equal area.
Let us divide the two solids each into slices by planes Parallel to the bases and equally small distance
s apart.

Each slice of the cuboids has base of area B and small height S. The corresponding slice of the
cylinder also has base of area B and the same small height s The two slices _ one of the Cuboids and
the other of the cylinder –have the same thickness and the same area of the base. Therefore , we
assume that volumes of the two slices are equal. This is true for every pair of corresponding slices of
the two solids.

Hence, We must have :

Volume of the cylinder = Volume of the cuboid


=B×h

Now, consider a right circular cylinder of radius r and height h.


Then, are of its base = π r2
Height =h
Volume of the cylinder = π r2 h
We have obtained the formula, by a sort of analogy. In your higher classes, you will warn its actual
proof. For the present, we accept it as a practical rule.

Example : find the volume of a circular cylinder of height 40 cm and having radius of the base 3.5 cm.

Sol. We know,
Volume of a cylinder = π r2 h
Here, r =3.5 cm =7/2 cm, h = 40. also let π 22/7.
Volume of cylinder =22/7 × 7/2 × 7/2 × 40 cm3.
= 1540 cm3.

Surfaces are pf a Right Circular Cylinder

Consider a right circular cylinder of radius r and height h .Each of the bases is a circle of radius r.
therefore, the circular edge has length 2 π r. Area of each plane end us π r2.

Now, consider the curved surface. Does it have and area ? How to determine it if the curved surface
somehow could be made flat, that is a plane region.
So the breadth of the rectangle is h. Also the length of the rectangle has just wraped once the circular
base of radius r. Therefore the length of the rectangle equals the circumference of the circumference of
the circular
Edge. Hence, the length of the rectangle is 2 π r. Now, area of lateral surface of the

cylinder = are of the rectangular strip of paper that wraps once around it
=h×2πr
=2 π r h

Thus, for a cylinder of radius r and height h,

Lateral surface a Area = 2 π r h

Each Base surface Area = π r2

Total surface Area = 2 π r ( h +r )

Example: It is required to make from sheet metal a closed cylindrical tank whose height is 1 m and the
radius of whose base is 70 cm. How many square meters of sheet metal is needed ?

Sol : For the cylindrical tank,


Radius = 70/10 m
Height =1 m
Total surface area = 2 π r ( h + r )

= 2 × 22/7 × 7/10 ( 1 + 7/10 ) m2

= 7.48 m2

Hence, sheet metal needed = 7.48 m2

Right Circular Cone

An ice cream cone, a conical vessel, the tapered end of a pencil and a conical tent are some of the
common objects which suggest or bring to our mind the concept of a right circular cone, which is a
geometrical object.

A right circular come has a plane end, which is circular in shape. This is called the base of the cone.
There is also a corner, a point of the cone farthest from the base. It is called the certes of the cone.
Connecting the vertex and the circular edge of the base, there is a curved surface. We agree to its
being called the lateral surface of a come.
Also it may be observed that every plane parallel to the base which intersects the cone intersects it in a
circle.
The radius r of the base and the height h of the cone are the two numbers which give the size of the
cone.
The length l of the line segment OP is called the slant height of the cone It is easy to observe that OO’ P
is a right triangle, OP being the hypotenuse. By Pythagoras theorem,
l 2 = r2 + h2 or l = √ r2 + h2
Thus, slant height of the cone can be expressed in tersms of r and h. the above description of a right
circular cone vring sto our mind, two distinct but related fugures: the howllw cone and the cold cone.
The former, theis the how cone is just the lateral surfacof the cone that is the curface genmerated nbyu
line segment OP the solid cone is the figure isn space, bounded by the curved surface of the cone and
its plane end. Remember, the hollow cone has a diameter of the base ( the distance across at the plane
end ) but has no thickness).

Volume of a Right Circular Cone


Volume of a right circular cone of radius r and height h is one third the volume of a right circular
cylinder of the same radius and height.
We formulate:
Volume of cone of radius r and height h
= 1/3 ( Volume of cylinder of radius r and height h )
= 1/3 π r2 h
we may repeat the experiment with cylinders and cones of different dimensions and shall find that the
above relation is always true.

A proof of the formula based on our definitions of length, area and volume is beyond the scope of the
present text. Therefore, we accept, without proof, the statement:
The volume v of a right circular cone of radius r and height h is given by
V = 1/3 π r2 h
V = 1/3 × (area of base ) × height
Example: A conical cup 18cm high has a circular base of diameter 14 cm. the cup is full of water, which
is now poured into a cylindrical vessel of circular base of diameter 10 cm. What will be the height of
water in the vessel ?
Sol. Volume of wate in the cup = 1/3 π r2 h

= 1/3 × 22/7 × 7 × 7 × 18 cm3


= 924 cm3

Now this water is poured into a cylindrical vessel.


Area of base of the vessel = 22/7 × 5 × 5 cm2
Volume of water = 924 cm3
Height of water = 924 ÷ ( 22/7 × 25 ) cm
= 924 × 7/22 × 1/25 cm
= 11.76 cm.

Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone


Consider a right circular cone of radius r and height h. the base is a circle of radius r. Therefore, the
circular edge has length 2 π r. Area of the plane end is

Now consider the curved surface of the cone. Does it have an area ? How to determine it ? If the curved
surface could somehow be made flat, that is a plane region, then there is no problem. We proceed as
follows :
Now, remove the wrapped portion of the disc and spread it on a plane surface. This is a sector of radius
l. the length of the arc of this sector is just the circumference of the base of the cone. Thus, we have a
sector of radius l and of arc of length 2 π r
Area of the sector
=1/2 × ( arc length ) × ( radius )
= 1/2 × 2 π r × l
=πrl
Hence, the area of the curved surface of the cone is π r l .
Example: The height of a cone is 16 m and the radius of its base is 12 m What is the area of its curved
surface ?
Sol. We shall determine the slant height first.
Height of the cone =16m
Radius of base of the cone = 12m
Slant height of cone = √ 286 + 144
= 20 m
Now , area of curved surface = π r l
= 3.14 × 12 × 20 m3.
= 753.6 m2

Sphere
A section of th sphere by a plane is a circle. The plane through the centre gives the largest circular
section of the sphere. The radius of this section is the same as the sphere any other plane, that is a
plane not through the centre gives a smaller section. The section gets smaller and smaller as you move
away from the centre.
A plane thought the centre of a solid sphere divides it into two equal parts, each of which is called a
solid hemi sphere. The plane ends of the solid he mashers is its base.
Volume of a Sphere

The same plane intersects the cylinder in a ring, formed by an outer circle of radius r and an inner
circle of radius, say r’ this inner circle is the section of the cone with vertex V . We shall have
r/s r/r 1 , so that r’-s.
Therefore, the area of this ring is
π ( r2 –s2 )
Thus, any plane, parallel to the two given planes, intersects the sphere and the cylinder in sections
whose areas are equal.
Hence, we conclude that the volume of the sphere us the same as the volume of the cylinder from
which two cones have been removed, as descried above. The volume of the latter is 4/3 π r3 Therefore,
the volume of the sphere is 4/3 π r3.
Example; the diameter of a copper sphere is 6cm. It is beaten and drawn into a wire of diameter 0.2 cm.
find the length of wire.
Sol. Volume of the sphere = 4/3 × 22/7 × 3 × 3 × 3 cm3
This sphere is beaten and drawn into a wire, which is a cylinder.
Area of base of the cylinder = 22/7 × 0.1 × 0.1 cm2
Length of wire = ( 4/3 × 22/7 × 3 × 3 × 3 ) ÷ ( 22/7 × 0.1 × 0.1) cm
= 3600 cm = 36 cm

CHAPTER 18

STATISTICS

Raw Data
These graphs and tables enable us to get the information at a quick glance.
Let us suppose that we are interested in knowing who among 25 students of a class VIII secures the
highest marks in Geography in the half yearly examination and who secured the least. How do we
obtain the desired information? We ask each of the 25 students his or her makes in geography and
note down on separate sheet of paper .
We may organize the raw data in ascending or descending order. For the above example we organize
the data in the descending order and write it as follows:
88, 74, 74, 70, 70, 64,64, 64, 64, 61,61, 56, 56, 56, 53, 53, 53, 53, 53,53, 53, 53, 41, 33, 32, 31, 31, 28,
A glance at the above marks shows that the highest marks obtained are 88 and the lowest marks are
28. The difference between highest and the lowest values of the observations is called the range. Thus,
the range of marks in the above example is 88 – 28 = 60 It is now apparent that the scores range from a
low of 28 to a high of 88 we may also want to know how may students and id out that 10 out of 25
students secured 60 or more marks. Now what about the average marks obtained by these 25
students / We shall discuss it in the next section.

Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean or simply the mean, usually denoted by M Other types of averages will be
discussed in higher classes. To find the mean of the observation we find the sum of all the
observations bad then divide the sum be the total number of observation, that is

In the above example of Geography test, the total number of observations is 25.
We have;

Thus the mean of the marks obtained in Geography by the 25 students is 55 marks
Observe that the mean in the above example is 55 which is different from all other observations the raw
seta. However, it is possible that sometimes the mean may be one of the observations.

Example Following are the heights of 15 girls ( measured in cm )


143, 148, 135, 150, 128, 139, 151, 142, 144, 156, 140, 133, 136, 142, 146,
(i) What are the heights of tallest and shortest girls ?
(ii) Find the mean height

Sol. (i) By looking at the raw data, we see that the tallest girl is 156 cm.
(ii) The mean height is

Frequency Distribution

The number of times a particular observation occurs is called its frequency.


Thus, in the above example we say that the frequency of 70 is 2 of 53 is 5 and so on. Of we do this for
all observations and rearrange the date a in the form of a as the frequency distribution of the marks
obtained by 25 students, A table in which such a frequency distribution is even is called the frequency
distribution table or simple a frequency table. We thus have the fowling Table:

Example : The following scores were obtained by 32 students in a standardized Mathematics Test
69 48 84 58 84 48 73 83 48 66 58 66 64 64 64 64 71 66 66 69 83 66 69 65 71 81 71 73 69 66 64 58 64 69 69
Prepare a frequency distribution table.

Solution : We make a table with three columns as shown in table In the first column, we write the
scores in ascending order. We now look at the given data the first observation is 69.
so we place a tally mark against the score 69.
Grouping of Data
This is also called ungrouped frequency distribution of raw data. However, when the number of
recorded observations is large, the data is usually organized into groups and then we obtain a
frequency distribution of the number of observations falling in each group when watering this form the
data are said to be grouped and the distribution obtained is called a grouped frequency distribution.

Example : On the first day, a school bus brought 40 students to a high school.

Their ages are as follows :


13 11 6 5 8 17 14 13 6 6 7 8 15 16 9 10 10 9 7 8 15 14 14 12 11 9 7 6 8 6 10 13 17 17 16 12 12 9 8 13
Group that ages into four equal classes with the class intervals 4 -8, etc and construct a frequency
table. What are the class limits in the class interval 16 – 20 ?

Solution ; We observe that the ages vary from 5 years to 17 years and the range is 17 – 5 = 12 Grouping
the ages into four classes, we have :
Histogram : Graphic Method of Representing a Data

We have already learnt that bar graphs may be used to represent the ungrouped data in an organized
way. A well constructed bar graph is perhaps the quickest way to picture a set of data.

Example : The following histograms shows the monthly wages ( in rupees ) of workers in a factory :

Find the largest and least number of workers and also their wages in rupees.
Solution: From the previous figure, we se that the highest rectangle corresponds to the largest number
of workers, that is, 105 and the wages from 350 – 400 rupees. The least number of workers is 15 earning
is earning 400 to 450 rupees.

Definition : A polygon is a closed figure made up os three or more line segments (sides) such that (i)
each line segment intersects exactly two others at its endpoints (vertices) and (ii) no two line segments
which intersect are collinear.

Definition: A polygon is called a convex polygon if for each side of the polygon, the line containing it
has all the remaining vertices on the same side of it.

Definition : A convex polygon is called a regular polygon if it has all its sides equal line containing it
has al the remaining vertices on the same side of it.

You might also like