Running Head: THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY

The Role of Race and Spirituality in the Identity Development of Black Women College

Students

Carol Smith

Montclair State University

THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !1

Abstract

Identity development is a crucial part of a college student’s experience. This process can

have various influences, however, it remains the role of student affairs professionals to determine

best practices to enhance and support students in this process. Knowledge of student

demographics, as well as institutional history can assist practitioners as they develop programs

and services that help students explore their identities. This study focuses on the identity

development of Black women college students, and the attributes that influence this process. The

study relies on empirical research to determine best practices for student affairs professionals

who are seeking to develop support programs and services for this demographic of students.

Themes around race and spirituality are addressed, and provide insight on how Black women

students perceive support within the context of higher education. Various theoretical frameworks

are addressed in this study, including Black Feminist Thought (Hill-Collins, 2002), which

highlights the need for Black women to define themselves through their experiences and ideas.
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !2

The Role of Race and Spirituality in the Identity Development of Black Women College

Students

Institutions of higher education can be viewed as a place where students explore their

individual and collective identities. For some students, attending college is an opportunity to

diverge from traditional roles established throughout their childhood and adolescence. For others,

it can be an opportunity to learn more about their life’s experiences. College can also be viewed

as a place where students learn about the experiences of others who have similar and diverse

cultural backgrounds. It is from this perspective that higher education institutions establish

special programs and services that encourage students to further engage in this process.

More recently, multicultural centers—or offices that support diversity, inclusion, and

social justice initiatives—have become the focal point of institutions. These centers often act as a

safe space where students who have historically marginalized identities, can begin to process and

articulate their social experiences. Programs and services that exist within these spaces usually

address concerns such as gender identity, sexuality, race relations, religious and spiritual identity,

and more. Within these centers, students as well as administrators, develop a community that is

committed to serving and advancing those with marginalized identities. However, despite

institutional efforts to address multicultural concerns, there are certain student populations who’s

needs and experiences may not be adequately addressed or supported. Among them are Black

women.

Study

The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of Black women students at

Montclair State University and to determine if there are programs or services within the
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !3

institution’s Office of Equity and Diversity—where the multicultural center exists—to support

their identity development. This study will rely on relevant research to determine best practices

for educators who are considering developing programs for this demographic of students.

Additionally, this study aims to supplement research surrounding spirituality and it’s role in

helping Black women students resist challenges within the higher education setting.

Language

The term “Black” is used in this study to describe students of all African decent. The term

“African American”, for example, does not adequately describe a student who is of pure African

or Afro-Caribbean decent. Scholars who are featured in this study, refer to their subjects as

African American. Establishing this difference in language is important because it will help

readers to distinguish the ideas of the writer from those of featured scholars. This distinction will

also help readers acknowledge the various ethnicities that exist among this demographic of

students. The term “Spirituality” in this study, refers to one’s relationship with “God or a

transcendent force that brings meaning and purpose to their existence" (Berkel, Armstrong, &

Cokley, 2004, p. 49 as cited in Patton & McClure, 2009). Finally, the term “Resistance”

describes one’s use of spirituality to cope with negative experiences and strengthen one’s identity

(Watt, 2003).

Review of Literature

Self-defining Blackness

Limited research is available about programming initiatives that support the identity

development of Black women students in higher education. Research does, however, present the

role that student organizations may play in the identity development and retention of Black
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !4

students. Shaun Harper (2007) addresses this phenomena in his article, “Student Organizations as

Venues for Black Identity Expression and Development among African American Male Student

Leaders”. Harper’s research describes the relationship between Black male identity development

and student attrition. Utilizing Helms’ 1990) theory of Racial Identity Development and

Cross’ (1971, 1991, 1995) theory of Nigrescence to address the issue of racial identity

development, Harper encourages educators to invest their efforts into introducing Black male

students to spaces where their identities can be developed and nurtured. He also suggests that this

exposure can help these students further understand themselves, their experiences, and improve

their overall quality of life (p.141).

The primary theme that emerges from Harper’s work is that, in order for Black students

to be fully invested in their university’s programs and services, educators must engage them in

dialogue that allows them to define their own Blackness and experiences (Harper, 2007, p. 141).

This concept of allowing Black people to define their own experiences is also addressed in Mary

Howard-Hamilton’s (2003) article, “Theoretical frameworks for African American Women”.

Howard-Hamilton draws upon Patricia Hill-Collins’ (2002) Black Feminist Thought framework

to address the complexities of Black women’s identity development. Howard-Hamilton (2003)

provides a historical overview of the images and stereotypes of Black women, and encourages

Black women to reconstruct their identities through “self-valuation, self-definition, and

knowledge validation” (p. 21-22).

Spirituality as a form of Resistance

Sherry K. Watt (2003) addresses the relationship between spirituality and Black women’s

identity development in her article, “Come to the river: Using spirituality to cope, resist, and
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !5

develop identity”. In the article, Watt (2003) discusses Black women’s use of spirituality as a

tool for survival. She explains that Black women “use spirituality in multifaceted ways to cope

with difficulty, to resist negative images of themselves, and to develop identity” (p. 38). Watt

(2003) provides a noteworthy recommendation for student affairs professionals in the article,

stating,“if student affairs practitioners are knowledgeable in the ways that African American

college women depend on spirituality, they may be able to be more intentional and effective in

providing support to this population (p. 38).

The recommendations made by Watt(2003) and Harper (2007) are essential to

the development of programs that support Black women students. In order to better

serve this demographic of students, practitioners must engage them in dialogue that

allows them to define themselves, as well as have an understanding of how spirituality

shapes their collegiate experiences. With this approach, practitioners create a space for

Black women students to develop holistically as well as explore the implications of

their intersecting identities.

Theoretical Framework

Hill-Collins (2002) Black Feminist Thought is the theoretical framework

supporting this study. At the core of this theory is the notion that Black women must

define themselves by interpreting their own experiences and ideas. This element of the

theory is critical when considering establishing programs that support Black women

students. Howard-Hamilton (2003) supports this position in her article as she describes
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !6

the relationship between Black women and institutions of higher education. Hamilton

expresses:

Marginal positions in academic settings have been occupied by African

American women for an extended period. This marginality is viewed as the

‘outsider within’ status, in which black women have been invited into places

where the dominant group has assembled, but they remain outsiders because

they are still invisible and have no voice when dialogue commences. A

sense of belonging can never exist because there is no personal or cultural fit

between the experiences of African American women and the dominant

group (Howard-Hamilton, 2003, p. 21).

The dominant group described in Howard-Hamilton’s article refers to students

in which higher education institutions were initially designed to support, white males.

The Black Feminist Thought framework, therefore, draws attention to several

underlying cultural attributes. The first attribute is the role that dominant groups have

historically played in shaping the narratives of Black women. The second attribute

highlights the necessity for Black women to redefine these narratives by expressing

their experiences. Patton and McClure (2009), asses that utilizing the Black Feminist

thought framework in a study such as this may “provide insight into how and why

African American women use spirituality to successfully navigate through their college

experiences” (p. 42).

Methodology
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !7

Design

This study, which was designed to support Black women of all spiritual backgrounds,

utilized a focus group discussion model to collect qualitative data. The focus group consisted of

10 open ended questions that focused on the experiences of the participants as well as their use

of support services at Montclair State University (see Appendix A).

Participants

The participants of this study were Black, cis-gendered women between the ages of 18

and 25 years, who identified as Christian. Two of the participants were of Afro-Caribbean decent,

while the others identified as African-American. They ranged between first year undergraduate

and graduate students, and were all enrolled in different academic programs at the university. To

secure participation, an electronic poll was created and distributed via email to determine the

best date to facilitate the focus group discussion. The emailing method did not prove to be

successful, as many participants did not respond to this form of communication. For those who

did respond, a texting group was established to determine an appropriate date and time to meet.

Overall, the group text method of communication was more successful, as the responses from

participants were received faster than through email communication.

Two focus group discussions were facilitated as a result of the group texting method. One

session was held in the Office of Equity and Diversity—the office in which Montclair State

University’s multicultural center is housed—and the other discussions were held in a private

office space. Both focus group discussions yielded results that affirmed the themes presented in

the study’s literature review.

Materials
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !8

Several materials were used to administer the focus group. As indicated in the previous

section, an electronic poll was distributed via email and group text. Physical consent forms were

also administered to participants, and an audio recorder was used to document the discussion

between the group and the facilitator.

Results

During the focus group discussions, each participant revealed that they intentionally

sought out spiritual support groups and organizations within the university once they became

familiar with the institution. One participant, who is a graduate student at Montclair State

University, shared information about her undergraduate experience, stating, “I left my previous

institution because I felt uncomfortable. I went to a predominantly white institution (PWI) and

felt like there was no support for students that looked like me”. The participant continued on to

say,“transferring schools during undergrad was the best decision I made at the time… I saw more

Black students at my new school and I eventually joined a Christian choir group. I would express

my true feelings with my choir members and I felt like I could be more of myself there as

opposed to at my previous institution”.

One of the first year undergraduate participants shared that she sought support from a

Christian Catholic center at Montclair State University to cope with the loss of her mother, who

died a few months prior to her first semester at the institution. The participant shared, “I went to

the Newman Catholic Center by myself because I did not have any friends at the time…I did not

feel comfortable. It was uninteresting and not like any of my experiences at my home church”.

The facilitator asked the participant what made the experience uninteresting, to which the

participant replied, “I was the only Black person in the room and it felt more like a lecture on
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !9

religion than an open discussion about our experiences. I never went back”. The facilitator asked

the participant why being the only Black person mattered in her experience. The participant

responded, “It would have helped to see someone like myself, but I did not and I felt like I could

not relate to anyone else there.”

Two major themes emerged as a result of the focus group discussions. The first theme is

the need for Black women students to secure spiritual support groups within their institution of

higher education. Based on the reasons provided by the participants quoted above, spiritual

support groups not only act as an agent for helping these students to socialize, but they also serve

as an outlet for helping them cope with issues such as grief and ostracism. This theme supports

Watt’s (2003) position that Black women use spirituality as a tool for survival and coping with

difficulties. The second theme that emerged from this study, is the need for Black women

students to see themselves represented in groups within their institution. The sentiments of the

participant who transferred from a PWI was similar to those of the participant who felt

uncomfortable being the only Black student present at the program hosted by the university’s

Catholic center. Both participants experienced feelings of isolation, which caused them to

disengage. This theme shows that in order for Black women students to be invested in their

institution and programming, they must see a racial representation of themselves. These students’

inability to engage also highlights the concern of attrition, as denoted by Harper (2007). The

participant who transferred schools due to lack of racial identity support, is an area student

affairs professionals must consider when creating programming that supports this demographic

of students.

Discussion
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !10

The results of this study indicate the need for student affairs professionals to consider

another possible student development theoretical framework. The Theory of Involvement,

established by Alexander Astin (1984), suggests that,“desirable outcome(s) for institutions of

higher education are viewed in relation to how students change and develop in result to being

involved co-curricularly” (Astin, n.d.). Astin’s theory in conjunction with Hill-Collins’ Black

Feminist Thought framework, may provide insight on the factors needed to help Black women

students in their identity and spiritual development, identity expression, and overall involvement

within the institution. To address the concerns outlined in this research, a weekly discussion

forum was created called “She Speaks Truth” (see Appendixes B & C). The forum aims to

support Black women students at Montclair State University by providing a space for them to

share their experiences, express their true identities, and define themselves as a result of this

exchange. “She Speaks Truth” implements the Black Feminist Thought framework as well as the

considerations offered in the Harper (2007) study. The program is currently being featured in the

University’s Office of Equity and Diversity.

Assessment

An online survey form was created to track students feedback from the “She Speaks

Truth” program sessions. Some questions that were featured in this assessment were: “What

interested you in this program?”, “Do you believe this program serves it's purpose in supporting

the identity and spiritual development of Black women?” and “What improvements, if any,

would you like to see made in this program?”. 50% of participants were undergraduate students,

while the other 50% consisted of graduate students. 100% of participants believed that the

program served it’s purpose in supporting the identity and spiritual development of Black women
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !11

students. One participant is quoted, stating: “I wish I had this space when I first got here…there

are rarely any spaces like this, [and they are] not lead by someone that looks like me or has gone

through the same struggles as me”. Feedback from this participant proves that the “She Speaks

Truth” program is serving it’s purpose by filling the gap in Black women programming at the

Office of Equity and Diversity at Montclair State University.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. The first is that all participants identified as Christian.

This study intends to represent Black women students of all spiritual backgrounds. As a result,

the findings of this research may not be fully reflective of the Black women student population at

Montclair State University. The second limitation of this study is that it fails to provide the

perspective of transgender Black women students. Including this perspective would allow for a

more comprehensive study on intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1995) and identity development.

Recommendations and Conclusion

Having an understanding of the history of higher education and the marginalization of

Black women in America is imperative for student affairs professionals who are seeking to

develop programs and services that support Black women students. Practitioners may find that

their institution does not have the infrastructure to support these students, and must rely on

empirical research to construct new ways to address their concerns. It is also important for

practitioners to consider the role that spirituality plays in Black women students’ experience.

This attribute may provide insight on how these students are able to resist challenges they face in

the university. Additionally, practitioners must consider contemporary issues such as gender

identity development, and how that contributes to the overall discussion on identity development.
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !12

References

Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal

of college student personnel, 25(4), 297-308.

Astin. (n.d.). Alexander Astin's Theory of Involvement. Retrieved from https://

studentdevelopmenttheory.weebly.com/astin.html Collins, P. H. (2002). Black feminist

thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.

Berkel, L. A., Armstrong, T. D., & Cokley, K. O. (2004). Similarities and differences between

religiosity and spirituality in African American college students: A preliminary

investigation. Counseling and Values, 49, 2-1

Collins, P. H. (2002). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of

empowerment. Routledge.

Constantine, M. G., Miville, M. L., Warren, A. K., Gainor, K. A., & Lewis-Coles, M. A. E.

(2006). Religion, spirituality, and career development in African American college

students: A qualitative inquiry. The Career Development Quarterly, 54(3), 227-241.

Crenshaw, K. (1995). Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement. The New

Press.

Harper, S. R. (2013). Am I my brother’s teacher? Black undergraduates, racial socialization, and

peer pedagogies in predominantly white postsecondary contexts. Review of Research in

Education, 37(1), 183-211.

THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !13

Harper, S. R., & Quaye, S. J. (2007). Student organizations as venues for Black identity

expression and development among African American male student leaders. Journal of

College Student Development, 48(2), 127-144.

Howard-Hamilton, M. F. (2003). Theoretical frameworks for African American women. New

directions for student services, 2003(104), 19-27.

Jobe, L. D. (2013). Underserved, underrepresented, unprepared: Experiences of African

American females in community college with barriers to academic success(Doctoral

dissertation, Capella University).

Kelly, B. T. (2003). Focus group interviews. Research in the college context: Approaches and

methods, 49-62.

Patton, L. D., & Croom, N. N. (Eds.). (2017). Critical perspectives on Black women and college

success. Taylor & Francis.

Patton, L. D., & McClure, M. L. (2009). Strength in the spirit: A qualitative examination of

African American college women and the role of spirituality during college. The Journal

of Negro Education, 42-54.

Porter, C. J., & Dean, L. A. (2015). Making meaning: Identity development of Black

undergraduate women. NASPA Journal about Women in Higher Education, 8(2),

125-139.
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !14

Rosales, A. M., & Person, D. R. (2003). Programming needs and student services for African

American women. New Directions for Student Services, 2003(104), 53-65.

Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and

campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of

Negro Education, 60-73.

Stewart, D. L. (2009). Perceptions of multiple identities among Black college students. Journal

of College Student Development, 50(3), 253-270.

Stewart, D. L., & Lozano, A. (2009). Difficult dialogues at the intersections of race, culture, and

religion. New Directions for Student Services, 2009(125), 23-31.

Tatum, B. (1992). Talking about race, learning about racism: The application of racial identity

development theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review, 62(1), 1-25.

Walker, K. L., & Dixon, V. (2002). Spirituality and academic performance among African

American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 28(2), 107-121.

Watt, S. K. (2003). Come to the river: Using spirituality to cope, resist, and develop identity.

New directions for student services, 2003(104), 29-40.

THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !15

Appendix A

Focus Group Questions

1. What has your experience been like as a student at Montclair State University?

2. Describe your experience with support services at the institution? What does this look like for
you?

3. Can you describe your best and worst experience as a student here?

4. Do you feel safe to express your ideas and experiences in class?

5. Are you familiar with the term “Black Feminism” or “Black Feminist Thought”? What about
“Intersectionality”?

6. How would you describe your experience after utilizing this frame of thought?

7. What is your experience with spirituality?

8. How important is spirituality to you?

9. Historically, black women have struggled to articulate their experiences in higher education
settings. What are your thoughts on spirituality being used as a tool to develop your identity and
articulate your experiences?

10. Do you believe that your institution currently has an initiative designed to support black
women’s spiritual identity development? If not, do you believe that establishing this space would
be beneficial for yourself and future students?
THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !16

Appendix B

“She Speaks Truth” Flyer

THE ROLE OF RACE AND SPIRITUALITY !17

Appendix C

Photo of Hawksync Portal