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Assessment of natural slopes susceptible to

failure in heavy rainfall based on in-situ cone
resistance data

Article · January 2016

DOI: 10.3208/jgssp.JPN-027

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Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication The 15th Asian Regional Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering

Assessment of natural slopes susceptible to failure in heavy rainfall based on in-situ cone resistance
data

A.M.R.G. Athapaththui) and Takashi Tsuchida ii)

i) Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan.
ii) Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan.

ABSTRACT

Slope failures are major natural disasters in Hiroshima prefecture, Japan under intense rainfall conditions. Both
people and property were affected severely due to these disastrous events during past few decades. 32,000 planar
slopes and valleys were susceptible to failure in Hiroshima prefecture, Japan have been identified by Hiroshima
prefectural government and was developed a hazard assessment system thoroughly based on rainfall and past records
of the data. However, the developed system can only be accommodated in a large area 5 km x 5km grid, and not be
possible to predict the individual slope failure in the region. Geotechnical investigation of natural slopes is
challengeable especially when natural slopes having higher gradients and access is difficult and also to estimate
shear strength parameters spatially. Recently, authors have conducted a series of in-situ investigations based on the
newly developed lightweight dynamic cone penetrometer to examine its applicability in analyzing the slopes covered
with weathering remnants of granitic rocks. Six patterns were identified based on the penetration resistance varying
with the depth. Semi-variogram analysis showed that the correlated distance of cone resistance varies with 11 to 30
m depending on the depth. A series of laboratory calibration tests based on the lightweight dynamic cone penetration
tests, and direct shear tests were conducted at different void ratios and degrees of saturation. Based on the laboratory
calibration test results, a method of determining void ratio, e from the data of qd was presented. Based on this, two
formulas to evaluate shear strength parameters, cohesion and friction angle, were established with the cone resistance
and the degree of saturation. As a whole proposed method can be successfully applied to individual slopes to
determine the profile thickness, and to evaluate the shear strength parameters spatially. Based on this, hazard
assessment of individual slopes can be made.

Keywords: cone resistance, shear strength, geo-statistics

1. INTRODUCTION the system. It is well known that the shear strength

parameters, cohesion, and internal angle of friction,
Majority of slope failures in Japan are trigged by
play a major role in the stability of slopes. Slope angle,
rainfalls in monsoon seasons. These failures are not
thickness of soil layers, water table fluctuations and
only put loss of human lives but also cause lot of
change of degree of saturation with time depending on
damages to the existing infrastructures. At present,
intensity of rainfall are other triggering factors that
nearly 32,000 natural slopes and valleys are found to be
need to be considered in the stability analysis.
susceptible to failures in Hiroshima Prefecture, the
Therefore, the authors have taken initiatives to develop
highest among any prefecture in Japan, (Hiroshima
a sound methodology explore the natural slopes
Prefecture, 2011). The regional hazard assessment
covered with weathered granite and to analysis the
system utilized by Hiroshima Prefectural government is
stability of slopes in the region. The developed method
thoroughly based on the recorded rainfall and the
is based on lightweight dynamic cone penetrometer
rainfall-failure relationship in each 5 km×5 km area
which was developed in France since 1990.
obtained from the past records of landslide disasters. In
this system, the failure of slope/s and evacuation orders
1.1 Lightweight dynamic cone penetrometer
can be given for an area of 5 km×5 km, and the hazard
Lightweight Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
of an individual slope cannot be predicted. This is an
(LWDCPT) device has been designed and developed in
empirical system, and is not adequate for more accurate
France since 1991 (Langton, 1999). The schematic
assessment of individual slopes as any reliable slope
view of LWDCPT device is shown in Fig 1(a). The total
stability analyses had not been conducted by
weight of all parts including the carrying case of the
incorporating proper geotechnical inputs in developing

http://doi.org/10.3208/jgssp.JPN-027 1025
device is 20 kg. It mainly consists of an anvil with a
strain gauge bridge, central acquisition unit (CAU), and
a dialogue terminal (DT). The hammer is a rebound
type and weighs 1.73 kg. The stainless steel rods are 14
mm in diameter and 0.5 m in length. Cones of 2, 4, and
10 cm2 in area are available, and a cone holder is used
to fix the 2 cm2 cone to the rod. The device can be
operated by one person at almost any location to a
depth of 6 m.
was carried out to examine the possible similarities
within soundings. Observations were made as the most
of the soundings could be fitted into six patterns based
on the trend of variation in cone resistance with depth
as shown in Fig. 3. The characteristics of patterns are
given in Table 1 (Athapaththu et. al, 2007).

Hammer with no rebound

(Striking mass) South Korea
Kobe
Japan
Anvil with Strain Gauge Seoul Hiroshima
Bridge Tokyo

Dam yang
Dialogue Scale
Terminal Rod Namwon
train
(a) Site locations in Japan and South Korea

Central Acquisition Unit Rod Guide

UnitUrebound
N

Cone
Asakita
Fig. 1. Lightweight Dynamic Cone Penetrometer.
Saeki Mt. Gagara
2 SITE INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS OF Kure
SITE DATA Miyajima
The base investigation was carried out at Ikeno-ue
situated on the northern slope of Gagara Mountain (Fig
2) located about 800 m east of the academic area of
(b) Site locations in Hiroshima prefecture
Hiroshima university, Japan. An area of 20 m x 50 m
was selected between the ridge and the middle slope, A
and divided the area into 5 m x 5 m grids as shown in a N B
1 C
Fig 2(c). LWDCPTs were conducted at each of 55 grid c
b
2 D
nodes. At each node, three tests were conducted until d 20m 3 E
the cone resistance becomes to 10 MPa, which is good e 4 F
5 None
enough to determine the hard stratum of the soil profile.
50m 6
Further in- situ tests were conducted at 2.5m, 1 m, and 7
0.25 m intervals at the designated area marked in Fig 2 8
9
(c) to examine the variation of cone resistance at
10
different proximities. Later theses data were used for 11
geo-statistical analysis.
2.5m
2.1 Analysis of cone resistance data for mesh
1.0m
Classification 0.25m
The data of LWDCPTs collected from 55 nodes
of Mt. Gagara were statistically analyzed, and the (c) Areas of Patterns and Grid Arrangements
average cone resistance in 50 mm intervals was
calculated. The penetrograms (soundings) of each Fig. 2. Site locations and grid arrangements.
location were graphically presented and further analysis

1026
2.2 Classifications of soundings of other sites Table 2. Distribution of the patterns.
The LWDCPTs carried out at two locations in Mt.
Gagara, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan and two slopes in Location No.
of Percentage of patterns (%)
Mt. Rokko in Kobe, Japan were classified and are data A B C D E F
shown in Table 2. Pattern D is dominated in Mt. Gagara Mt. Gagara I 24 39.0 13.0 - 48.0 - -
and shallow profiles were observed in the Mt. Rokko. Mt. Gagara 26 - 14.0 - 50.0 29.0 7.0
The in-situ investigation was carried out at southern II
part of South Korea ; Namwon, Daegok, and Dam yang Mt. Rokko, 19 25.0 - - 38.0 25.0 12.0
recently. These sites covered with remnants of Kobe I
weathered granitic rocks. The data collected from South Mt. Rokko, 9 20.0 5.0 5.0 21.0 24.0 25.0
Kobe II
Korea were analyzed based on the classification
Namwon-I 15 - 6.7 - 33.3 33.3 26.7
developed for Mr. Gagara (Athapaththu et. al, 2014). Daegok 10 30.0 20.0 20.0 - 20.0 10.0
Table 1 summarized the distribution of pattern in these Dam yang 6 - - 50.0 16.7 16.7 16.6
investigated locations. Major portion of soundings at
Namwon was identified as Patterns D and E which have
2.3 Use of geo-statistics to determine the spatial
the low cone resistance.
variability of cone resistance
Geo-statistics, and particularly the semi-variograms,
Penetration resistance (MPa) Penetration resistance (MPa) Penetration resistance (MPa)
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
have been shown to be a useful technique in recent
0
c-2
0
d-6
0 studies to examine the spatial distribution and hence
1 d-2 1 a-3 1 applied it for the present study. 2D kriging was adopted
.
.

a-1
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

d-4 b-3
Depth (m)

2 d-7 2 c-1 2 a-11 for the current analysis of cone resistance data.
c-3 b-5
3
e-1
e-2
3 c-5
d-1
3 b-6
b-7
Semi-variograms for the Spherical and the Power
b-8
4 e-3 4 d-3
d-5
4 b-11
c-7
Models were calculated for six different depths at
e-4 c-6
5
Pattern A
5 5
Pattern C
c-8
e-7 Z=0.1, 0.5, 1.0.1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 meters. The data were
Pattern B e-11
6 6 6 collected from the intensive in-situ investigations
Penetration resistance (MPa) Penetration resistance (MPa) Penetration resistance (MPa) conducted at Mt. Gagara as shown in Fig 2 (c). The
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 depth was measured from the ground surface and the
0 0 0
assumption was made as the soil profile is parallel to
1 1 1
Depth (m) .

the bed rock. Fig.4 illustrates the finding of the analyses

Depth (m) .

Depth (m) .

a-8
2 2 2 b-9

c-9
e-9 and it was found that correlated distance of cone
3
a-6 3 3
c-10 d-8 resistance varies from 11 m to 30 m depending on the
4 4 d-9 4
c-11
d-11 d-10
Pattern F depth (Athapaththu et. al, 2007). Further it was
5 5 5
a-5 Pattern D Pattern E b-10 observed that correlated distance increases with the
6 6 6
depth. This analysis is helpful to determine the spacing
between in-situ tests locations within a site for future
Fig. 3. Six patterns of soundings
investigations.
Table 1. Characteristics of the patterns
8
Spherical Model= 0.1 m
Pattern Characteristics
7 Spherical Model =0.5 m
Spherical Model =1.0 m
Semi-variance (Mpa)2

A A gradual increase of penetration resistance with

6 Spherical Model =1.5 m
depth. These profiles show a comparatively thick
Spherical Model=2.0 m
weathering front over the bed rock.
B Gradual increase of penetration resistance with depth.
5
However increment ratio is greater than that of pattern
4
A. This group also shows thick weathering front.
C This class shows considerably shallow profiles than 3
those of patterns A and B. Gradual increase of cone
resistance with the depth with greater increment ratio. 2
D Although the profile thickness is similar to that of
pattern C, the trend of increases the cone resistance 1
with depth is quite low; shows very low values of Range 11- 30 m
penetration resistance, about 1 MPa, almost up to 2.0 0
m . This soil is mostly the colluvium. 0 10 20 30 40 50
E The trend of increase in cone resistance is similar to
that of pattern D. However, the profile thickness is Relative distance (m)
less: about 1.2 m.
F This group shows the shallowest profiles (total depth
is about 0.5 m) and exhibits increment ratio of higher Fig. 4. Correlated distance of cone resistance.
penetration resistance.

1027
3 RESULTS OF DIRECT SHEAR AND 18
CALIBRATION TESTS Sr=40%
16 Sr=50%

Apparent Cohesion cd (kPa)

The main objective of this part of research was to 14 Sr=40% Sr=60%
establish sound relationship with shear strength Sr= 50% Sr=70%
12
parameters, ϕd and cd with cone resistance, qd under Sr= 60% Sr=80%
different void ratios and degrees of saturation. To fulfil 10 Sr=100%
Sr= 70%
this task, a series of laboratory direct shear tests were 8 Sr= 80%
carried out varying void ratios and degrees of saturation. 6
Also, laboratory scale calibration tests were conducted Sr=100%
4
based on LWDCPT for different void ratios and degrees
of saturation. The testing program consisted of (i) 2
consolidated drained direct shear box tests conducted at 0
void ratios ranging from 0.7 to 1.0 in 0.1 increments at 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
a constant degree of saturation (ii) Repeat of (i) at Void Ratio after Consolidation, e
different degrees of saturation varying from 40% to
100%. Laboratory scale calibration tests were (c) Apparent cohesion varies with void ratio, e.
conducted on weathered granitic soil prepared in soil
Fig.5 Relationships of shear strength parameters with e, and Sr.
columns for different degrees of saturation and void
ratio as mentioned above. Fig 5(a) illustrates the
Equations (1) and (2) were derived based on the Fig.
relationships between cone resistance and void ratios
5, and can be used to calculate shear strength
for different degrees of saturation. The cohesion cd, and
parameters for soils derived from weathered granite
the friction angle, d varying with void ratios under (Tsuchida et.al,2011; Tsuchida et. al, 2014). Here Sr is
different degrees of saturation are shown in Figs. 5 (b) the degree of saturation at the time of conducting the
and (c). in-situ tests and qd5 is the cone resistance for 5kPa
overburden stress. Once the friction angle is determined
4.0 from Equation (1), cd can be calculated based on
Sr=40%
Penetration resistance , qd5 (MPa)

50%
3.5 Equation (3).
60%
3.0 e=1.19-0.084ln(qd5)-0.0074Sr
70%
Sr=40%
d  29.9  1.61ln( qd 5 )  0.142S r (1)
2.5
Sr=50%
2.0 Sr=60% cd  10.6  1.19 ln(qd 5 )  0.041S r (2)
Sr=70%
1.5 Sr=80% Sr=80% d
Sr=90～100%
cd   11.6  0.146S r (3)
1.0 1.35
0.5
Sr=90－100% 4 APPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS TO
0.0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION AND
Void ratio , e
DISCUSSIONS
In this study, in situ investigation of natural slopes
(a) Cone resistance varies with void ratio, e. and shear strength parameters required for the analysis
were thoroughly discussed. A typical procedure for the
45
investigation of a slope is summarized below.

40 1) Gather the geological and topographical maps of the

area of interest (susceptible valley of interest).
Frictional Angle ϕd

2) The in-situ testing points are determined at both

35 sides of the valley center from top to the foot at 20
Sr=40%
Sr=50% m intervals.
Sr=60% 3) At each testing point, the gradient of slope need to
30 Sr=70%
Sr=80% φd = 52.7-19.2 e be measured and the LWDCPTs are to be carried out.
Sr=90% The soil samples will be taken at 30 cm depth for
Triax. (Sr=100%)
25
permeability tests, and other laboratory tests.
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Void Ratio after Consolidation, e Fig. 6 shows an example of investigation carried out
at a valley in Mt. Gagara. Along the lines A, and B,
(b) Friction angle varies with void ratio, e. LWDCPTs and soil sampling were carried out. Based

1028
on the developed relationships, shear strength
parameters were determined and are illustrated in the
cross sections of lines A and B as drawn in Figs 7 (a)
and (b).
Line A
data for known degree of saturation at the time of
interest. The rest of the slopes which is susceptible to
failure can be well assessed through the proposed
methodology. However, collecting the information of
individual slopes is challengeable as the number of
susceptible slopes/valleys is very high in Hiroshima
N prefecture, Japan. A day is required to investigate and
carryout the in-situ tests at a given site.
Line B =Pattern B

=Pattern D 5 CONCLUSIONS
20m This study was focused to find an effective method
=Pattern E for site investigation and analysis of slopes susceptible
to failure in weathered granitic rocks in Hiroshima
prefecture, Japan. Based on the outcomes of this
research following conclusions were drawn.
Pattern
A 1. Six patterns of cone resistance varying along the
B depth were identified in the weathered granitic
C profiles. The proposed six patterns were
D successfully applied for the different locations
E and found that most of the soundings can be
F fitted into one of the pattern. Therefore, proposed
= None classification can be successfully applied to the
terrains having weathered granite.

2. The Spherical Model was found to be the

best-fitted semi-variogram for the granitic
profiles and hence can be applied to evaluate the
cone resistance at unknown location. The
correlated distance varies from 11 m to 30 m
with the depth increases from 0.1 m to 2.5 m.
Fig.6 Pattern categorization. This gives some idea for determination of grid
spaces in carrying out in-situ investigation of
natural slopes of weathered granite.
0
cd=9.0kPa Ground Surface
-5 Line B
φd=34.1° Top of Base Rock
cd=10.5kPa
3. Based on the cone resistance data, qd,
Elevation (m)

-10
φd=36.2°
cd=9.6kPa
-15

-20
cd=7.4kPa φd=35.0° cd=7.5kPa
cd=9.8kPa
relationships were developed to calculate shear
φd=32.0° cd=8.5kPa φd=32.2°
-25 φd=33.5°
cd=9.6kPa
φd=35.2°
strength parameters in terms of degrees of
-30 φd=35.0° saturation as;
-35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

d  29.9  1.61ln( qd 5 )  0.142S r

Horizontal Distance (m)

(a) Line A
d
cd   11.6  0.146S r
0
cd=9.4kPa
1.35
Line A Ground Surface
-5 φd=34.6°
-10 cd=8.9kPa
Top of Base Rock
4. A sound method was established to assess the
Elevation (m)

φd=34.1°
-15

-20
cd=10.1kPa
φd=35.7° cd=10.2kPa slopes vulnerable to failure in the region. This
cd=8.9kPa φd=35.8° cd=9.9kPa
-25 φd=34.0°
cd=9.6kPa
φd=35.4° includes site investigation and parameters required
φd=35.0°
-30
for stability analysis. It is possible to carryout
-35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Horizontal Distance (m)
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
stability analyses continuously with the change of
degree of saturation and water table fluctuations
(b) Line B due to rainfall.

Fig.7 Cross section and shear strength parameters for stability ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
analyses.
Authors wish to acknowledge the assistance
Using this information, it is now possible to provided by students of geotechnical laboratory,
analyses the slope for the measured or predicted rainfall Hiroshima University, Japan in carrying out field and

1029
laboratory works, and the volunteers who involved in
the in-situ investigations.

REFERENCES
1) Athapaththu A.M.R.G., Tsuchida T., Kano S. (2014): A new
geotechnical method for natural slope exploration and
analysis, Natural hazards( Journal of the international
Society for the prevention and mitigation of natural hazards),
DOI 10.1007/s11069-014-1384-0.
2) Athapaththu A.M.R.G., Tsuchida T., Suga K., Kano S.
(2007): evaluation of in-situ strength variability of Masado
soils,. J.of Jap. Soc. of Civil Engng.-JSCE, 63(3), 848-861.
3) Athapaththu A.M.R.G., Tsuchida T., Suga K., Kano S.
(2007): A lightweight dynamic cone penetrometer for
evaluation of natural Masado slopes. J.of Jap. Soc. of Civil
Engng.-JSCE, 63(2), 403-416.
4) Hiroshima prefecture (2011) :http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.
jp/page/1171592994610/ index. html
5) Langton D.D. (1999): The PANDA-lightweight penetrometer
for soil investigation and monitoring material compaction,
Ground Engng. , 33-37.
6) Takashi Tsuchida, A.M.R.G. Athapaththu, Shouichi
Kawabata, Seiji Kano, Takashi Hanaoka, Atsuki Yuri, (2014):
Individual landslide hazard assessment of natural valleys and
slopes based on geotechnical investigation and analysis, Vol
54 (4), Soils and Foundations, pp. 806-819.
7) Tsuchida T., Athapaththu A.M.R.G., Kano S., Suga K.
(2011): Estimation of in-situ shear strength parameters of
weathered granitic (Masado) slopes using lightweight
dynamic cone penetrometer, Soils and Foundations 51(3),
497-512.

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