Besi tuang / Cast Irons

Cast irons typically contain 2-4 wt% of carbon with a high silicon concentrations and a greater
concentration of impurities than steels. The carbon equivalent (CE) of a cast iron helps to distinguish the
grey irons which cool into a microstructure containing graphite and and the white irons where the carbon
is present mainly as cementite. The carbon equivalent is defined as:

A high cooling rate and a low carbon equivalent favours the formation of white cast iron whereas a low
cooling rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes grey cast iron.

During solidification, the major proportion of the carbon precipitates in the form of graphite or cementite.
When solidification is just complete, the precipitated phase is embedded in a matrix of austenite which
has an equilibrium carbon concentration of about 2 wt%. On further cooling, the carbon concentration of
the austenite decreases as more cementite or graphite precipitates from solid solution. For conventional
cast irons, the austenite then decomposes into pearlite at the eutectoid temperature. However, in grey cast
irons, if the cooling rate through the eutectoid temperature is sufficiently slow, then a completely ferritic
matrix is obtained with the excess carbon being deposited on the already existing graphite.

White cast irons are hard and brittle; they cannot easily be machined.

The iron-carbon phase diagram showing the eutectic and eutectoid reactions. Reproduced with the
permission of Jud Ready of the Georgia Tech. Joint Student Chapter of ASM/TMS.
Grey cast irons are softer with a microstructure of graphite in transformed-austenite and cementite matrix.
The graphite flakes, which are rosettes in three dimensions, have a low density and hence compensate for
the freezing contraction, thus giving good castings free from porosity.

The flakes of graphite have good damping characteristics and good machinability (because the graphite
acts as a chip-breaker and lubricates the cutting tools. In applications involving wear, the graphite is
beneficial because it helps retain lubricants. However, the flakes of graphite also are stress concentrators,
leading to poor toughness. The recommended applied tensile stress is therefore only a quarter of its actual
ultimate tensile strength.

Sulphur in cast irons is known to favour the formation of graphite flakes. The graphite can be induced to
precipitate in a spheroidal shape by removing the sulphur from the melt using a small quantity of calcium
carbide. This is followed by a minute addition of magnesium or cerium, which poisons the preferred
growth directions and hence leads to isotropic growth resulting in spheroids of graphite. The calcuim
treatment is necessary before the addition of magnesium since the latter also has an affinity for both
sulphur and oxygen, whereas its spheroidising ability depends on its presence in solution in the liquid
iron. The magnesium is frequently added as an alloy with iron and silicon (Fe-Si-Mg) rather than as pure
magnesium.

However, magnesium tends to encourage the precipitation of cementite, so silicon is also added (in the
form of ferro-silicon) to ensure the precipitation of carbon as graphite. The ferro-silicon is known as an
inoculant.

Spheroidal graphite cast iron has excellent toughness and is used widely, for example in crankshafts.

The latest breakthrough in cast irons is where the matrix of spheroidal graphite cast iron is not pearlite,
but bainite. This results in a major improvement in toughness and strength. The bainite is obtained by
isothermal transformation of the austenite at temperatures below that at which pearlite forms.

Grey Cast Iron (Flake Graphite)

Grey cast iron, Fe-3.2C-2.5Si wt%, containing

Grey cast iron, Fe-3.2C-2.5Si wt%, containing
graphite flakes in a matrix which is pearlitic. The
speckled white regions represent a phosphide
eutectic. Etchant: Nital 2%
graphite flakes in a matrix which is pearlitic. The
lamellar structure of the pearlite can be resolved,
appearing to consist of alternating layers of
cementite and ferrite. The speckled white regions
represent a phosphide eutectic. Etchant: Nital 2%
 Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron
The chemical composition of the cast iron is similar to that of the grey cast iron but with 0.05 wt% of
magnesium. All samples are etched using 2% nital.

Spheroidal graphite cast iron, Fe-3.2C-2.5Si-

An illustration of the ductility of spheroidal graphite 0.05Mg wt%, containing graphite nodules in a
cast iron. Photograph reproduced from Physical matrix which is pearlitic. One of the nodules is
Metallurgy of Engineering Materials , by E. R. Petty, surrounded by ferrite, simply because the region
with permission from the Institute of Materials. around the nodule is decarburised as carbon
deposits on to the graphite. Etchant: Nital 2%

Heat Treated Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron

Spheroidal graphite cast iron usually has a pearlitic matrix. However, annealing causes the carbon in the
pearlite to precipitate on to the existing graphite or to form further small graphite particles, leaving behind
a ferritic matrix. This gives the iron even greater ductility. All samples are etched using 2% nital.

Graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix. Some carbon

Graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix. deposited during tempering is also visible.
Etchant: Nital 2%

Austempered Ductile Cast Iron

The chemical composition of the cast iron is Fe-3.52C-2.51Si-0.49Mn-0.15Mo-0.31Cu wt%. All samples
are etched using 2% nital. Colour micrographs are produced by first etching with 2% nital, followed by
open air heat treatment of the metallographic sample at 270oC for 3 h. This oxidises the sample and
produces interference colours which are phase dependent.

Ductile iron as-cast. Nodules of graphite, pearlite Ductile iron as-cast. Nodules of graphite, pearlite
(dark islands) and ferrite (light background). (dark islands) and ferrite (light background).
Etchant: Nital 2% Etchant: Nital 2%

Austenitised at 950°C, austempered at 350°C for 64

Austenitised 950°C, austempered 350°C for 64 min.
min.

The following images are of austempered ductile iron automobile components, provided by the Institute
of Cast Metals Engineers. In order to avoid distortion, the crankshaft for the TVR sportscar is rough-
machined after casting, heat-treated to produce the bainitic microstructure, and then properly machined. It
is reported to have excellent fatigue properties; its damping characteristics due to graphite reduce engine
noise.

The Ford Mustang suspension arm was made from austempered ductile iron in order to reduce weight,
noise and cost. It was designed using finite element modelling to optimise strength and stiffness.
Auminium alloys were considered but rejected because the component would then occupy a much larger
space because of their lower strength.

The truck trailer suspension arm was originally made from welded steel, for use on transportation across
the rugged Australian Outback. These failed at the welds and were associated with distortions which led
to accelerated deterioration of the tyres. The suspension made from the cast austempered ductile iron has
proved to be much more robust.
 The austempered ductile iron crankshaft for the
TVR sportscar.

TVR Tuscan Speed 6, high-performance sports car

with an austempered ductile iron crankshaft.

Austempered ductile iron suspension arm for a Ford

Mustang Cobra
A truck trailer suspension arm made from
austempered ductile iron, Steele and Lincoln
Foundry.

Blackheart Cast Iron

Blackheart cast iron is produced by heating white cast iron at 900-950oC for many days before cooling
slowly. This results in a microstructure containing irregular though equiaxed nodules of graphite in a
ferritic matrix. The term "blackheart" comes from the fact that the fracture surface has a grey or black
appearance due to the presence of graphite at the surface. The purpose of the heat treatment is to increase
the ductility of the cast iron. However, this process is now outdated since spheroidal graphite can be
produced directly on casting by inoculating with magnesium or cerium. All samples are etched using 2%
nital.
Blackheart cast iron. Blackheart cast iron. Etchant: Nital 2%

Wear-Resistant High-Chromium Cast Iron

This cast iron is used in circumstances where a very high wear resistance is desirable. For example,
during the violent crushing of rocks and minerals. It contains a combination of very strong carbide-
forming alloying elements. Its chemical composition is, therefore, Fe-2.6C-17Cr-2Mo-2Ni wt%.

All samples are etched using Villela's reagent, which is a mixture of picric acid, hydrochloric acid and
ethanol. The material from which these micrographs were obtained was kindly provided by Dr Arnoldo
Bedolla-Jacuinde of Mexico. Details of the iron have been published in the International Journal of Cast
Metals Research, 13 (2001) 343-361.

The white phase is a chromium-rich carbide known as
M7C3. The matrix consists of dendrites of austenite,
some of which may have transformed into martensite.
There may also be relatively small quantities of other
alloy carbides.
The white phase is a chromium-rich carbide known
as M7C3. The matrix consists of dendrites of
austenite, some of which may have transformed
into martensite. There may also be relatively small
quantities of other alloy carbides.

Welding of Cast Irons

The casting process is never perfect, especially when dealing with large components. Instead of scrapping
defective castings, they can often be repaired by welding. Naturally, the very high carbon concentration of
typical cast irons causes difficulties by introducting brittle martensite in the heat-affected zone of the
weld. It is therefore necessary to preheat to a temperature of about 450°C followed by slow cooling after
welding, in order to avoid cracking.

The materials used as fillers during welding usually contain large nickel concentrations so that the
resulting austenitic weld metal is not sensitive to the pick-up of carbon from the cast iron. The deposits
are soft and can be machined to provide the necessary shape and finish. Of course, nickel is expensive so
when making large repairs, the weld gap is first covered ('buttered') with the nickel-rich filler and then the
remaining gap is filled with less expensive mild-steel filler metals.

Ironbridge
The world's first bridge made of iron in 1779. The entire structure is made of cast iron. Photographs
courtesy of Yokota Tomoyuki and family.

Ironbridge, made of cast iron Ironbridge, made of cast iron

Ironbridge, made of cast iron

Ironbridge, made of cast iron. This

Ironbridge, made of cast iron The gorge.
photograph shows a crack.

More photos of Ironbridge

 Remains of a blast furnace
A nearby power station.
(Coalbrookdale) built in 1708.

Cast iron has a "solid feel" and has an appealing appearance. There are many conventional applications of
cast iron.

Cast Iron in a Computer Mouse

The following photographs have kindly been provided by Ben Dennis-Smither, Frank Clarke and
Mohamed Sherif.

The microstructure of the roller ball, which is made

Disection of a computer mouse. The item of interest of cast iron, The flakes of graphite are surrounded by
is the roller ball. ferrite, the brown is the peralite, and there is also the
product of the lediburite eutectic which is not clear
at this magnification.

The pearlite is resolved in some regions where the

sectioning plane makes a glancing angle to the
lamellae. The lediburite eutectic is highlighted by
the arrows. At high temperatures this is a mixture of
austenite and cementite formed from liquid. The
austenite subsequently decomposes to pearlite.
The ball is made of cast iron presumably because it
is relatively hard.