Chapter 1 Problems and Chapter 2 PSPO

Prepared by Dr. GopiKrishna P, Dept. of Elec. & Comp. Engg.
, AASTU
Chapter-1 Problems on Forecasting

Quantitative Approaches of Forecasting:
Most of the quantitative techniques calculate electrical demand forecast as an
average from the past electrical demand. The following are the important
electrical demand forecasting techniques.
Method 1: Average method

An average of electrical demands occurring in all previous time periods is taken
as the electrical demand forecast for the next time period in this method.
Example: The Samsung television supplier found an electrical demand of 200
KW in July, 225 KW in August & 245 KW in September. Find the electrical
demand forecast for the month of October using simple average method.
The average electrical demand for the month of October is
kw
Prepared by Dr. GopiKrishna P, Dept. of Elec. & Comp. Engg. , AASTU
Method 2: Moving average method

In this method, the average of the electrical demands from several of the most
recent periods is taken as the electrical demand forecast for the next time
period. The number of past periods to be used in calculations is selected in the
beginning and is kept constant (such as 3-period moving average).
Example: A LG refrigerator supplier has experienced the following electrical
demand for refrigerator during past five months.
Electrical
Month demand
(KW)
February 20
March 30
April 40
May 60
June 45
Find out the electrical demand forecast for the month of July using five-period
moving average & three-period moving average method.
kw
kw
Method 3: Weighted moving average method

In this method, unequal weights are assigned to the past electrical demand
data while calculating simple moving average as the electrical demand forecast
for next time period. Usually most recent data is assigned the highest weight
factor.
Example: The manager of a restaurant wants to make decision on inventory

and overall cost. He wants to forecast electrical demand for some of the items
based on weighted moving average method. For the past three months he
experienced an electrical demand for making pizzas as follows:
Electrical
Month demand
(KW)
October 400
November 480
December 550
Find the electrical demand for the month of January by assuming suitable
weights to electrical demand data.
kw
Method 4: Exponential smoothing method

In this method, weights are assigned in exponential order. The weights
decrease exponentially from most recent electrical demand data to older
electrical demand data.
Example: One of the two wheeler manufacturing company experienced

increasing electrical demand for making every three products. The electrical
demand was found to be 420 KW for June and 440 KW for July. They use a
forecasting method which takes average of past year to forecast future
electrical demand. Using the simple average method, electrical demand forecast
for June is found as 320 KW (Use a smoothing coefficient 0.7 to weight the
recent electrical demand most heavily) and find the electrical demand forecast
for August.
kw
kw
Method 5: Regression analysis method

In this method, past electrical demand data is used to establish a functional
relationship between two variables. One variable is known or assumed to be
known; and used to forecast the value of other unknown variable (i.e. electrical
demand).
Example
Regression Analysis :
Arduino Corporation manufactures Integrated Circuit boards (I.C boards) for
electronics devices. The planning department knows that the electrical demand
requirement is related to the number of I.C boards producing. The planning
department wishes to find out the relationship between no. of I.C boards and
corresponding electrical demand, so as to forecast electrical demand for new
number of I.C boards.
The no. of I.C boards and corresponding electrical demand is given for different
periods in following table :
Electrical
No. of I.C
Period(t) Demand (Dt) Dt2 Xt2 XtDt
boards (Xt)
KW
1 20 6 36 400 120
2 25 8 64 625 200
3 15 7 49 225 105
4 18 7 49 324 126
5 22 8 64 484 176
6 25 9 81 625 225
7 27 10 100 729 270
8 23 7 49 529 161
9 16 6 36 256 96
10 20 8 64 400 120
211 76 592 4597 1599
Perhaps the estimated no. of IC boards is equal to 50, then the forecasted
electrical demand is 6.683 KW
Home Work:
No. of Electrical
I.C
Period(t) Demand Dt2 Xt2 XtDt
boards
(Dt)
(Xt)
KW
1 20 4 400 16 80
2 25 8 625 64 200
3 15 1 225 1 15
4 18 3 324 9 54
5 22 6 484 36 132
6 30 9 900 81 270
7 40 12 1600 144 480
8 50 14 2500 196 700
9 60 15 3600 225 900
10 80 17 6400 289 1360
Σ 360 89 17058 1061 4191
Perhaps the estimated no. of IC boards is equal to 100, then the forecasted
electrical demand is _____ KW
Chapter-2: Planning and Design of Power System

Topics: General layout and design of generating stations; Switchyard layout; Transmission
system planning
Introduction:
Power Plants or Electricity Generating Stations
Electricity has become an indivisible part of our life today. We all know how much we are
dependent on the electricity for almost everything. It is required for many domestic, commercial
as well as industrial purposes. And the requirement is still increasing day by day. There are
various types of energy sources which are used to generate electrical power. Most of the power
stations use fossil fuels such as coal, oil or natural gas to generate electricity. There are others
sources too, such as nuclear power, hydro power, renewable energy sources etc. The type of
power plant is defined by the type of main energy source. Today, most of the electric energy is
generated from the three major types of power plants - Thermal Power Plant, Nuclear Power
Plant and Hydroelectric Power Plant.
The pie chart shows in Fig. 2.1 indicates the share of different types of power plant in
electricity generation of the world. It clearly shows that about two third of total electricity of
the world is generated in thermal power plants. Hydro plants and Nuclear plants also play major
role in electricity generation.
Fig. 2.1: Power generation in the world by different power plants

There are many other renewable energy sources which are used for electricity generation such as
Geothermal energy, Solar energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy etc. Due to some technical
difficulties these energy sources are currently contributing less than 5% of the total electricity
generation. The use of these renewable energy sources is being increased day by day.
1. Basic Layout and Working of a Thermal Power Plant

Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations). In these power stations, steam is produced by burning some
fossil fuel (e.g. coal) and then used to run a steam turbine. Thus, a thermal power station may
sometimes called as a Steam Power Station. After the steam passes through the steam turbine, it
is condensed in a condenser and again fed back into the boiler to become steam. This is known
as ranking cycle. This article explains how electricity is generated in thermal power plants. As
majority of thermal power plants use coal as their primary fuel, this article is focused on a coal
fired thermal power plant.
A simplified layout of a thermal power station is shown in Fig.2.2.
Fig. 2.2 (a): Typical Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

Fig. 2.2 (b): Typical Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

Coal:
In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the generating station.
Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is stored in either 'dead
storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup coal storage which is used
when coal supply is unavailable. Live storage is a raw coal bunker in boiler house. The coal is
cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are present which may cause wear
and tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles and then
taken into pulverizer to make it in powdered form. Fine powdered coal undergoes complete
combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves efficiency of the boiler. The ash produced after
the combustion of coal is taken out of the boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic
removal of ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.
Boiler:
The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and then burnt
in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center of the boiler
and large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy is utilized to convert the
water into steam at high temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the boiler walls in which
water is converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their way through superheater,
economizer, air preheater and finally get exhausted to the atmosphere from the chimney.
Superheater:
The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The saturated steam produced
in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in the superheater. The superheated high
pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
Economizer:
An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water before supplying to the
boiler.
Air pre-heater:
The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed in the air pre-heater.
Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of pre-heating the air is that it
improves the coal combustion.
Steam turbine:
High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes turbine blades to
rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the steam turbine which acts
as the prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam falls to a lower value and it
expands in volume as it passes through the turbine. The expanded low pressure steam is
exhausted in the condenser.
Condenser:
The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water circulation. Here, the
steam loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is converted back into water. Condensing is
essential because, compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state requires a huge amount of
energy with respect to the energy required in compressing liquid. Thus, condensing increases
efficiency of the cycle.
Alternator:
The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the alternator, electrical
energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped up with the help of
a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.
Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump. Some
water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water source.
This is the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical components.
A practical thermal plant possess more complicated design and multiple stages of turbine such as
High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure Turbine
(LPT).
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Thermal Power Plant
Advantages:
 Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
 It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
 The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
 The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:
 It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of
the causes of global warming.
 The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).
Efficiency of a Thermal Power Station

A huge amount of heat is lost in various stages of the plant. Major part of heat is lost in the
condenser. That is why the efficiency of thermal plants is quite low.
Thermal Efficiency: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine
shaft' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is called as thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency of modern thermal power stations is about 30%. It means, if 100 calories of
heat are produced by coal combustion, the mechanical energy equivalent of 30 calories will be
available at the turbine shaft.
Overall Efficiency:
The ratio of 'heat equivalent of electrical output' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is called as
overall efficiency.
The overall efficiency of a thermal plant is about 29% (slightly less than the thermal efficiency).
2. Hydroelectric Power Plant : Layout, Working And Types

Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest
methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about
16% of total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form
of renewable energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity
generation is relatively low.
Fig. 2.3 (a) : Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
The Fig. 2.3 shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components.
The details of each part are illustrated in the following:
Dam and Reservoir:
The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient water storage at height.
The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level (called as water head) in the
reservoir determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.
Fig. 2.3 (b) : Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
Control Gate:
Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine. The amount of
water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When the
control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.
Penstock:
A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine. Potential
energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the penstock due to
gravity.
Water Turbine:
Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is mechanically coupled to
an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and consequently the
generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii)
Reaction turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low
and medium heads.
Generator:
A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the turbine shaft.
When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is generated which is
then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.
Surge Tank:
Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when considerably long
penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top. It is fitted
between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to
reduce the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in load on the
turbine, the governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This causes
pressure to increase abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank, in
which the water level rises to reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides
excess water needed when the gates are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.
Types of Hydro-Power Plants
Conventional Plants:
Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy extracted depends on
the volume and head of the water. The difference between height of water level in the reservoir
and the water outflow level is called as water head.
Pumped Storage Plant:
In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water outflow from the
turbine. When the demand of electricity is low, the water from lower reservoir is pumped into the
upper (main) reservoir. This is to ensure sufficient amount of water available in the main
reservoir to fulfil the peak loads.
Run-Of-River Plant:
In this type of facility, no dam is constructed and, hence, reservoir is absent. A portion of river is
diverted through a penstock or canal to the turbine. Thus, only the water flowing from the river is
available for the generation. And due to absence of reservoir, any oversupply of water is passed
unused.
Advantages of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity generation
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation
Disadvantages
 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite away
from the consumers
3. Basic Layout And Working of A Nuclear Power Plant

In a nuclear power plant, heat energy is generated by a nuclear reaction called as nuclear
fission. Nuclear fission of heavy elements such as Uranium or Thorium is carried out in a special
apparatus called as a nuclear reactor. A large amount of heat energy is generated due to nuclear
fission. Rest parts of a nuclear power plant are very similar to conventional thermal power
plants. It is found that fission of only 1 Kg of Uranium produces as much heat energy as that can
be produced by 4,500 tons of high grade coal. This considerably reduces the transportation cost
of fuel, which is a major advantage of nuclear power plants. Also, there are large deposits of
nuclear fuels available all over the world and, hence, nuclear power plants can ensure continued
supply of electrical energy for thousands of years. About 10% of the total electricity of the world
is generated in nuclear power plants.
How Does A Nuclear Power Plant Work?
Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear fission
reaction in a nuclear reactor. Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced which is
transferred to the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated
coolant is made to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted into high-temperature
steam. The generated steam is then allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam, after doing its
work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the heat exchanger. The steam turbine is
coupled to an alternator which generates electricity.
Fig. 2.4: Basic components and layout of a nuclear power station.

Basic Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear fission
is radioactive, the reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms
is called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission is
done by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei of heavy element. As the nuclei break
up, it releases energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms.
Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A
nuclear reactor consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round
fuel pallets (uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are
inserted into reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be
graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator slows down the neutrons before they bombard on
the fuel rods.
Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -
1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
This type of reactor uses regular water as coolant. The coolant (water) is kept at very high
pressure so that it does not boil. The heated water is transferred through heat exchanger
where water from secondary coolant loop is converted into steam. Thus the secondary loop is
completely free from radioactive stuff. In a PWR, the coolant water itself acts as a moderator.
Due to these advantages, pressurised water reactors are most commonly used.
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
In this type of reactor only one coolant loop is present. The water is allowed to boil in the
reactor. The steam is generated as it heads out of the reactor and then flows through the
steam turbine. One major disadvantage of a BWR is that, the coolant water comes in direct
contact with fuel rods as well as the turbine. So, there is a possibility that radioactive material
could be placed on the turbine.
Heat Exchanger
In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water). Thus
water from the secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary
system are closed loop, and they are never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat
exchanger helps in keeping secondary system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is
absent in boiling water reactors.
Steam turbine, alternator and condenser working is similar to thermal power stations
4. Electrical Power Transmission System Planning

Electrical energy, after being produced at generating stations (TPS, HPS, NPS, etc.) is
transmitted to the consumers for utilization. This is due to the fact that generating stations are
usually situated away from the load centers. The network that transmits and delivers power from
the producers to the consumers is called the transmission system. This energy can be
transmitted in AC or DC form. Traditionally, AC has been used for years now, but HVDC (High
Voltage DC) is rapidly gaining popularity.
Single Line Diagram of AC Power Transmission System
A typical single line diagram that represents the flow of energy in a given power system is
shown in Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5: Power transmission planning

Electrical power is normally generated at 11kV in a power station. While in some cases, power
may be generated at 33 kV. This generating voltage is then stepped up to 132kV, 220kV, 400kV
or 765kV etc. Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is to be
transmitted. Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level. Stepping up of voltage is to
reduce the I2R losses in transmitting the power (when voltage is stepped up, the current reduces
by a relative amount so that the power remains constant, and hence I2R loss also reduces). This
stage is called as primary transmission.
The voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV. Secondary
transmission lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near load
centers (cities etc.).
The voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can be
supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Also, feeders emerge from these substations.
This stage is called as primary distribution.
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the load
points (end consumers) up to a couple of kilometers. Finally, the voltage is stepped down to 415
volts by a pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered to the distributors. End
consumers are supplied through a service mains line from distributors. The secondary
distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.
Different Types Of Transmission Systems
1. Single phase AC system
 single phase, two wires
 single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
 single phase, three wires
2. Two phase AC system
 two-phase, three wires
 two-phase, four wires
3. Three phase AC system
 three-phase, three wires
 three-phase, four wires
4. DC system
 DC two wires
 DC two wires with midpoint earthed
 DC three wires
Electric power transmission can also be carried out using underground cables. But,
construction of an underground transmission line generally costs 4 to 10 times than an equivalent
distance overhead line. However, it is to be noted that, the cost of constructing underground
transmission lines highly depends upon the local environment. Also, the cost of conductor
material required is one of the most considerable charges in a transmission system. Since
conductor cost is a major part of the total cost, it has to be taken into consideration while
designing. The choice of transmission system is made by keeping in mind various factors such as
reliability, efficiency and economy. Usually, overhead transmission system is used.
Main Elements of a Transmission Line

Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely used for
electric power transmission. Following are the main elements of a typical power system.
 Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line. Conductors
must be of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity.
Usually, ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
 Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and step-
down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be
transmitted at higher efficiency.
 Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating
them from the support towers.
 Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.
 Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation.
These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.
 Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.
5. Electric Power Distribution Planning

Electrical power is dominant as it is relatively much easier to transmit and distribute than other
forms of energy such as mechanical. Imagine transmitting mechanical energy to just 20 feet of
distance. Isn't it much easier to use wires instead of belts, chains or shafts?
We have seen how electrical energy is generated in generating stations and how it is transmitted
over long distances through transmission networks. Now, let's see how electrical power is
distributed to the consumers.
Power Distribution System
A distribution substation is located near or inside city/town/village/industrial area. It receives
power from a transmission network. The high voltage from the transmission line is then stepped
down by a step-down transformer to the primary distribution level voltage. Primary distribution
voltage is usually 11 kV, but can range between 2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or
consumer.
A typical power distribution system consists of :
 Distribution substation
 Feeders
 Distribution Transformers
 Distributor conductors
 Service mains conductors
Along with these, a distribution system also consists of switches, protection
equipment, measurement equipment etc.
Fig. 2.6: Power Distribution Planning

The Fig. 2.6 figure shows a single line diagram of simple radial AC power distribution
system. The figure does not show other equipment like circuit breakers, measuring instruments
etc. for simplicity purpose.
Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried to distribution
transformers via feeder conductors. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeders so that the
current remains same throughout. The main consideration in designing of a feeder conductor is
its current carrying capacity.
Distribution transformer: A distribution transformer, also called as service transformer,
provides final transformation in the electric power distribution system. It is basically a step-
down 3-phase transformer. Distribution transformer steps down the voltage to 400Y/230 volts.
Here it means, voltage between any one phase and the neutral is 230 volts and phase to phase
voltage is 400 volts. However, in USA and some other countries, 120/240 .
Distributors: Output from a distribution transformer is carried by distributor conductor.
Tappings are taken from a distributor conductor for power supply to the end consumers. The
current through a distributor is not constant as tappings are taken at various places throughout its
length. So, voltage drop along the length is the main consideration while designing a distributor
conductor.
Service mains: It is a small cable which connects the distributor conductor at the nearest pole to
the consumer's end.
Primary Distribution
It is that part of an AC distribution system which operates at somewhat higher voltages than
general residential consumer utilization. Commonly used primary distribution voltages in most
countries are 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. Primary distribution handles large consumers such as
factories and industries. It also feeds small substation from where secondary distribution is
carried out. Primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
Secondary Distribution
This part directly supplies to the residential end consumers. Domestic consumers are fed with
single phase supply at 230 volts (120 volts in USA and some other countries). Three phase
supply may also be provided at 400 volts for big properties, commercial buildings, small
factories etc. Secondary transmission in most countries is carried out by 3-phase, 4-wire system.
Classification of Power Distribution Systems
 According to nature of current:
 DC distribution system
 AC distribution system
 According to type of construction:
 Overhead distribution system
 Underground distribution system
 On the basis of scheme of connection:
 Radial distribution system
 Ring main distribution system
 Inter-connected distribution system
Radial Distribution System

This system is used only when substation or generating station is located at the center of the
consumers. In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or a generating station and
feed the distributors at one end. Thus, the main characteristic of a radial distribution system is
that the power flow is in only one direction. Single line diagram of a typical radial distribution
system is as shown in the figure below. It is the simplest system and has the lowest initial cost.
Image credit: Wikimedia commons

Although this system is simplest and least expensive, it is not highly reliable. A major drawback
of a radial distribution system is, a fault in the feeder will result in supply failure to associated
consumers as there won't be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.
Parallel Feeders Distribution System

The above-mentioned disadvantage of a radial system can be minimized by introducing parallel
feeders. The initial cost of this system is much more as the number of feeders is doubled. Such
system may be used where reliability of the supply is important or for load sharing where the
load is higher. (Reference: EEP - Distribution Feeder Systems)
Ring Main Distribution System

A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be achieved by using ring
distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders but in different
paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the substation bus-bars, runs
through the load area feeding distribution transformers and returns to the substation bus-bars.
The following figure shows a typical single line diagram of a ring main distribution system.
Ring main distribution system is the most preferred due to its following advantages.
Advantages of Ring Main Distribution System

 There are fewer voltage fluctuations at consumer's terminal.
 The system is very reliable as each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders. That
means, in the event of a fault in any section of the feeder, the continuity of the supply is
ensured from the alternative path.
Interconnected Distribution System
When a ring main feeder is energized by two or more substations or generating stations, it is
called as an interconnected distribution system. This system ensures reliability in an event of
transmission failure. Also, any area fed from one generating stations during peak load hours can
be fed from the other generating station or substation for meeting power requirements from
increased load.
6. Electrical Bus System and Electrical Substation Layout

There are many different electrical bus system schemes available but selection of a particular
scheme depends upon the system voltage, position of substation in electrical power system,
flexibility needed in system and cost to be expensed.
6.1 Single Bus System

Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all the feeders and transformer
bay are connected to only one single bus as shown below:
Advantages:
1. This is very simple in design.
2. This is very cost effective scheme.
3. This is very convenient to operate.
Disadvantages:
1. One but major difficulty of these type of arrangement is that, maintenance of equipment of
any bay cannot be possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that
bay.
2. The indoor 11 KV switch boards have quite often single bus bar arrangement.
6.2 Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with circuit breaker. If there are
more than one incoming and the incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly distributed on
the sections as shown in the figure, interruption of system can be reduced to a good extent.
Advantages :
If any of the sources is out of system, still all loads can be fed by switching on the sectional
circuit breaker or bus coupler breaker. If one section of the bus bar system is under maintenance,
part load of the substation can be fed by energizing the other section of bus bar.
Disadvantages:
1. As in the case of single bus system, maintenance of equipment of any bay cannot be
possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that bay.
2. The use of isolator for bus sectionalizing does not fulfill the purpose. The isolators have
to be operated „off circuit‟ and which is not possible without total interruption of bus –
bar. So investment for bus-coupler breaker is required.
6.3 Double Bus System
1. In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing
or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus.
2. Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel through individual
isolator as shown in the figure.
3. By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated bus. Both of the buses
are energized and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus
and other from other bus. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to
other. There is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept close during bus transfer
operation. For transfer operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker
then close the isolator associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred
and then open the isolator associated with the bus from where feeder is transferred. Lastly
after this transfer operation he or she should open the bus coupler breaker.
Advantages:
Double Bus Bar Arrangement increases the flexibility of system.
Disadvantages:
The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance with out interruption.
6.4 Double Breaker Bus System
In double breaker bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing
or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus similar to double bus bar system. Only
difference is that here every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel through
individual breaker instead only isolator as shown in the figure. By closing any of the breakers
and its associated isolators one can put the feeder to respective bus. Both of the buses are
energized and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus and other
from other bus similar to previous case. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one
bus to other. There is no need of bus coupler as because the operation is done by breakers instead
of isolator. For transfer operation, one should first close the isolators and then the breaker
associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then he or she opens the
breaker and then isolators associated with the bus from where feeder is transferred.
6.5 One and A Half Breaker Bus System

This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of circuit
breakers. For every two circuits only one spare breaker is provided. The protection is however
complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the feeder whose own breaker is
taken out for maintenance. For the reasons given under double breaker scheme and because of
the prohibitory costs of equipment even this scheme is not much popular. As shown in the figure
that it is a simple design, two feeders are fed from two different buses through their associated
breakers and these two feeders are coupled by a third breaker which is called tie breaker.
Normally all the three breakers are closed and power is fed to both the circuits from two buses
which are operated in parallel. The tie breaker acts as coupler for the two feeder circuits. During
failure of any feeder breaker, the power is fed through the breaker of the second feeder and tie
breaker, therefore each feeder breaker has to be rated to feed both the feeders, coupled by tie
breaker.
Advantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

During any fault on any one of the buses, that faulty bus will be cleared instantly without
interrupting any feeders in the system since all feeders will continue to feed from other healthy
bus.
Disadvantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System
This scheme is much expensive due to investment for third breaker.
6.6 Main and Transfer Bus System
This is an alternative of double bus system. The main conception of Main and Transfer Bus
System is, here every feeder line is directly connected through an isolator to a second bus called
transfer bus. The said isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally called bypass
isolator. The main bus is as usual connected to each feeder through a bay consists of circuit
breaker and associated isolators at both side of the breaker. There is one bus coupler bay which
couples transfer bus and main bus through a circuit breaker and associated isolators at both sides
of the breaker. If necessary the transfer bus can be energized by main bus power by closing the
transfer bus coupler isolators and then breaker. Then the power in transfer bus can directly be fed
to the feeder line by closing the bypass isolator. If the main circuit breaker associated with feeder
is switched off or isolated from system, the feeder can still be fed in this way by transferring it to
transfer bus.
Switching Operation for Transferring a Feeder to Transfer Bus from Main Bus without
Interruption of Power
1. First close the isolators at both side of the bus coupler breaker.
2. Then close the bypass isolator of the feeder which is to be transferred to transfer bus.
3. Now energized the transfer bus by closing the bus coupler circuit breaker from remote.
4. After bus coupler breaker is closed, now the power from main bus flows to the feeder line
through its main
5. breaker as well as bus coupler breaker via transfer bus.
6. Now if main breaker of the feeder is switched off, total power flow will instantaneously
shift to the bus coupler breaker and hence this breaker will serve the purpose of
protection for the feeder.
7. At last the operating personnel open the isolators at both sides of the main circuit breaker
to make it isolated from rest of the live system.
So, it can be concluded that in Main and Transfer Bus System the maintenance of circuit breaker
is possible without any interruption of power. Because of this advantage the scheme is very
popular for 33 KV and 13 KV system.
6.7 Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators
This is combination of the double bus system and main and transfer bus system. In Double Bus
System with Bypass Isolators either bus can act as main bus and second bus as transfer bus. It
permits breaker maintenance without interruption of power which is not possible in double bus
system but it provides all the advantages of double bus system. It however requires one
additional isolator (bypass isolator) for each feeder circuit and introduces slight complication in
system layout. Still this scheme is best for optimum economy of system and it is best optimum
choice for 220 KV system.
6.8 Ring Bus System

The schematic diagram of the system is given in the figure. It provides a double feed to each
feeder circuit, opening one breaker under maintenance or otherwise does not affect supply to any
feeder. But this system has two major disadvantages. One as it is closed circuit system it is next
to impossible to extend in future and hence it is unsuitable for developing system. Secondly,
during maintenance or any other reason if any one of the circuit breaker in ring loop is switch of
reliability of system becomes very poor as because closed loop becomes opened. Since, at that
moment for any tripping of any breaker in the open loop causes interruption in all the feeders
between tripped breaker and open end of the loop.
7. Important Considerations of Substation Design

7.1 Initial and Ultimate Requirement
 Cooperatives should consider both short- and long-range plans in the development of their
systems. Timely development of plans is not only essential for the physical and financial
integrity of electrical systems, it is also essential in supplying customers with adequate
service.
 The long-range plan identifies the requirements of a substation not only for its initial use but
also for some years in the future. Consider ultimate requirements during the initial design.
 Make economic comparisons to discover what provisions are necessary for ease of addition.
 Remember that development plans embrace philosophies of equipment and system
operation and protection before construction is started. Changes in the cooperative‟s
standard design philosophies should be reviewed by the personnel who design, operate, and
maintain the proposed equipment. Departures from standard designs could jeopardize the
operation ofthe system.
7.2 Site Consideration
Two of the most critical factors in the design of a substation are its location and sitting. Failure to
carefully consider these factors can result in excessive investment in the number of substations
and associated transmission and distribution facilities. It is becoming increasingly important to
perform initial site investigations prior to the procurement of property.
The following factors should be evaluated when selecting a substation site:
a. Location of present and future load center
b. Location of existing and future sources of power
c. Availability of suitable right-of-way and access to site by overhead or underground
transmission and distribution circuits
d. Alternative land use considerations
e. Location of existing distribution lines
f. Nearness to all-weather highway and railroad siding, accessibility to heavy equipment under
all weather conditions, and access roads into the site
g. Possible objections regarding appearance, noise, or electrical effects
h. Site maintenance requirements including equipment repair, watering, mowing, landscaping,
storage, and painting
7.3 Interfacing Considerations
Substations interface with roadways, area drainage, communications systems, and electric power
lines. When locating a new substation, coordinate the location, design, and construction with
other utilities operating in the area. Other utility concerns include but are not limited to:
1. Telecommunications 2. Cable television 3. Water and sewer 4. Gas 5. Radio and television
stations
There should be little difficulty ensuring proper substation interfacing with distribution, sub
transmission, and transmission lines. Timely plans should be made so there is mutual agreement
between the substation engineer and the various line engineers on the following:
1. Connecting hardware procurement responsibility

2. Mating of hardware to line support structure
3. Line identifications and electrical connections to suit planning engineering requirements
4. Substation orientation and line approach
5. Phase conductor and shield wire identification
6. Pull-off elevations, spacings, tensions, and angles
7.4 Reliability Considerations
A prime objective in the operation of an electric power system is to provide reliable service
within acceptable voltage limits. Information on reliability may be found in SI Std. C84.1-1995,
“Electric Power Systems and Equipment-Voltage Rating (50 Hz).” Cooperatives that design
substations to operate within the voltage levels specified in this SI Standard should have
reasonably reliable substations.
7.5 Operating Considerations
For simplicity and ease of maintenance, substation equipment arrangements, electrical
connections, signs, and nameplates should be as clear and concise as possible. Information on
safety signs can be found in SI Std. Z535.2, “Environmental and Facility Safety Signs.”
A substation may occasionally experience emergency operating conditions requiring equipment
to perform under abnormal situations. Depending on the length of time, the provision of unusual
current carrying capacity of some equipment or connections should always be considered and
appropriately accounted for in the design.
7.6 Safety Considerations
 It is paramount that substations be safe for the general public and for operating and
maintenance personnel. Practical approaches include the employment and training of
qualified personnel, appropriate working rules and procedures, proper design, and correct
construction.
 The safeguarding of equipment also needs to be considered in substation design.
 Personnel working standards are prescribed by regulations issued by the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). These regulations are included in 29 CFR 1910
for general industry and 29 CFR 1926 for construction.
 In addition, various states may have standards the same as or stricter than those of OSHA.
The engineer is expected to follow the regulations appropriate to the jurisdiction in which a
substation is built.
 It should be recognized that this bulletin presents substation design guidance information
only and not detailed regulatory provisions, especially related to safety.
 The engineer is responsible for researching and ensuring substations are designed in
compliance
8. FUNCTIONS OF SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTS

Equipment & Function
1. Bus-Bar: Incoming & outgoing circuits. Connected to bus-bar
2. Circuit Breaker: Automatic switching during normal or abnormal conditions
3. Isolators: Disconnection under no-load condition for safety, isolation and maintenance.
4. Earthing switch: To discharge the voltage on deadlines to earth
5. Current Transformer: To step-down currents for measurement, control & protection
6. Voltage Transformer: To step-down voltages for measurement, control & protection
7. Lightning Arrester: To discharge lightning over voltages and switching over voltages to earth
8. Shunt reactor: To control over voltages by providing reactive power compensation
9. Neutral-Grounding resistor : To limit earth fault current

10. Coupling capacitor : To provide connection between high voltage line & PLCC equipment
11. Line –Trap: To prevent high frequency signals from entering other zones.
12. Shunt capacitors: To provide compensations to reactive loads of lagging power factors
13. Power Transformer: To step-up or step-down the voltage and transfer power from one a.c.
voltage another a.c. voltage at the same frequency.
14. Series Capacitor: Compensation of long lines.
References:
1. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/08/thermal-power-plant.html
2. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/09/hydroelectric-power-plant-layout.html
3. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/09/nuclear-power-plant.html
4. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2016/03/basics-of-electrical-power-transmission.html
5. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2018/01/electric-power-distribution-system.html
6. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2018/02/radial-parallel-ring-main-interconneted-
distribution.html
7. https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-bus-system-and-electrical-substation-layout/

Chapter 1 Problems and Chapter 2 PSPO

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Chapter 1 Problems and Chapter 2 PSPO

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Prepared by Dr. GopiKrishna P, Dept. of Elec. & Comp. Engg.

Chapter-1 Problems on Forecasting

Method 1: Average method

Method 2: Moving average method

Method 3: Weighted moving average method

Example: The manager of a restaurant wants to make decision on inventory

Method 4: Exponential smoothing method

Example: One of the two wheeler manufacturing company experienced

Method 5: Regression analysis method

Chapter-2: Planning and Design of Power System

Power Plants or Electricity Generating Stations

Fig. 2.1: Power generation in the world by different power plants

1. Basic Layout and Working of a Thermal Power Plant

A simplified layout of a thermal power station is shown in Fig.2.2.

Fig. 2.2 (a): Typical Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

Fig. 2.2 (b): Typical Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

Efficiency of a Thermal Power Station

2. Hydroelectric Power Plant : Layout, Working And Types

Fig. 2.3 (a) : Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant

Fig. 2.3 (b) : Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant

3. Basic Layout And Working of A Nuclear Power Plant

Fig. 2.4: Basic components and layout of a nuclear power station.

Basic Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

4. Electrical Power Transmission System Planning

Fig. 2.5: Power transmission planning

Main Elements of a Transmission Line

5. Electric Power Distribution Planning

Fig. 2.6: Power Distribution Planning

Radial Distribution System

Image credit: Wikimedia commons

Parallel Feeders Distribution System

Ring Main Distribution System

Advantages of Ring Main Distribution System

6. Electrical Bus System and Electrical Substation Layout

6.1 Single Bus System

6.2 Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

6.3 Double Bus System

6.4 Double Breaker Bus System

6.5 One and A Half Breaker Bus System

Advantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

6.6 Main and Transfer Bus System

6.8 Ring Bus System

7. Important Considerations of Substation Design

1. Connecting hardware procurement responsibility

8. FUNCTIONS OF SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTS

9. Neutral-Grounding resistor : To limit earth fault current

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