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Amy Glen
The Mathematics Institute @ Reykjavík University
amy.glen@gmail.com
http://www.ru.is/kennarar/amy
1 Combinatorics on Words
Sturmian & Episturmian Words
Outline
1 Combinatorics on Words
Sturmian & Episturmian Words
Number Theory
Discrete Theoretical
Dynamical Systems
Combinatorics on Words Computer Science
Topology Algorithmics
Theoretical Physics Automata Theory
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
DNA sequencing, Patterns
algebra
Free Groups, Semigroups
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems
Number Theory
Discrete Theoretical
Dynamical Systems
Combinatorics on Words Computer Science
Topology Algorithmics
Theoretical Physics Automata Theory
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
DNA sequencing, Patterns
algebra
Free Groups, Semigroups
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems
Number Theory
Discrete Theoretical
Dynamical Systems
Combinatorics on Words Computer Science
Topology Algorithmics
Theoretical Physics Automata Theory
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
DNA sequencing, Patterns
algebra
Free Groups, Semigroups
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).
Low complexity accounts for many interesting features, as it induces
certain regularities, without periodicity.
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).
Low complexity accounts for many interesting features, as it induces
certain regularities, without periodicity.
Points of view: combinatorial; algebraic; geometric.
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).
Low complexity accounts for many interesting features, as it induces
certain regularities, without periodicity.
Points of view: combinatorial; algebraic; geometric.
References in: Combinatorics, Symbolic Dynamics, Number Theory,
Discrete Geometry, Theoretical Physics, Theoretical Computer Science.
Sturmian words
Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).
Low complexity accounts for many interesting features, as it induces
certain regularities, without periodicity.
Points of view: combinatorial; algebraic; geometric.
References in: Combinatorics, Symbolic Dynamics, Number Theory,
Discrete Geometry, Theoretical Physics, Theoretical Computer Science.
Numerous equivalent definitions & characterisations . . .
Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48
Combinatorics on Words Sturmian & Episturmian Words
a
L(5,3) = a
a a
L(5,3) = aa
b
a a
L(5,3) = aab
a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aaba
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaa
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaab
a
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaaba
b
a
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaabab
3
Lower & Upper Christoffel words of slope 5
a a
b b
a a
a
b b
a
a a
b b
a a
√
5−1
Example: y= 2 x −→ Fibonacci word
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
J. Berstel, 1990
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa
Properties
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa
Properties
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa
Properties
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa
Properties
Theorem (folklore)
A finite word w is a Christoffel word if and only if w = apb or w = bpa
where p = Pal (v ) for some word v over {a, b}.
Theorem (folklore)
A finite word w is a Christoffel word if and only if w = apb or w = bpa
where p = Pal (v ) for some word v over {a, b}.
Theorem (folklore)
A finite word w is a Christoffel word if and only if w = apb or w = bpa
where p = Pal (v ) for some word v over {a, b}.
(race)+ =
(race)+ = race
(tie)+ =
(tie)+ = tie
(tie)+ = tie it
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ =
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top s
(tie)+ = tie it
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ =
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) =
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a
Pal (race) =
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a
(tie)+ = tie it
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a
∆: directive word of s.
∆: directive word of s.
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = a
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = ab
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = aba
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaa
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaaba
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaabab
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaababaaba · · ·
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaababaaba · · ·
Note: Palindromic prefixes have lengths (Fn+1 − 2)n≥1 = 0, 1, 3, 6, 11, 19, . . . where
(Fn )n≥0 is the sequence of Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . ,
defined by: F0 = F1 = 1, Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 2.
Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 32 / 48
Combinatorics on Words Sturmian & Episturmian Words
Outline
1 Combinatorics on Words
Sturmian & Episturmian Words
Continued fractions
Every irrational number α > 0 has a unique continued fraction expansion
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
where the ai are non-negative integers, called partial quotients, with a0 ≥ 0
& all other ai ≥ 1. The n-th convergent to α is the rational number:
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn
Continued fractions
Every irrational number α > 0 has a unique continued fraction expansion
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
where the ai are non-negative integers, called partial quotients, with a0 ≥ 0
& all other ai ≥ 1. The n-th convergent to α is the rational number:
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn
Example:
√
Golden ratio (conjugate): τ̄ = 1/τ = 5−1 2 = 0.61803 . . . = [0; 1, 1, 1, . . .]
1
Convergents: 11 = 1, 1
= 12 , 23 , 35 , 58 , . . . , FFn−1 , ...
1+ 1 n
Continued fractions
Every irrational number α > 0 has a unique continued fraction expansion
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
where the ai are non-negative integers, called partial quotients, with a0 ≥ 0
& all other ai ≥ 1. The n-th convergent to α is the rational number:
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn
Example:
π = [3, 7, 15, 1, 292, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 14, 2, . . .]
Convergents: 3, 22/7, 333/106, 355/113, . . .
Note: 2[1, 1, 1, 3, 32] = 355/113 = 3.14159292 ≈ π . . . → v. good approx.
f = ab s1 , length F2 = 2
f = aba s2 , length F3 = 3
f = abaab s3 , length F4 = 5
f = abaababa s4 , length F5 = 8
f = abaababaabaab s5 , length F6 = 13
f = abaababaabaababaababa s6 , length F7 = 21
f = abaababaabaababaababa · · ·
aaaaaa · · ·
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
abaabaaabaaaab · · ·
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
abaabaaabaaaab · · ·
(abcba)(abcba)(abcba) · · ·
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
abaabaaabaaaab · · ·
(abcba)(abcba)(abcba) · · ·
Sturmian and episturmian words
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
abaabaaabaaaab · · ·
(abcba)(abcba)(abcba) · · ·
Sturmian and episturmian words
Infinite words with abundant palindromic prefixes
Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 43 / 48
Some Connections to Number Theory Transcendental Numbers
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.
Thank you!