CULTURE

OF
ENGLISH
SPEAKING
COUNTRIES
II
 INDEX
CANADA...................................................... 4
Etymology............................................... 4
Location and Borders ............................. 4
Divisions ................................................. 4
History .................................................... 5
Independence......................................... 7
Form of Government.............................. 7
Official and Non-official languages ........ 7
Religion ................................................... 8
Natives.................................................... 8
National Symbols.................................... 8
Celebration and Traditions ................... 11
Family and Marriage ............................ 11
Economic Resources............................. 11
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ................... 11
Location and Borders ........................... 11
History .................................................. 11
Independence....................................... 16
Form of Government............................ 16
Official and Non-official languages ...... 17
Religion ................................................. 17
Ethnic groups........................................ 17
National Symbols.................................. 17
Celebration and Traditions ................... 19
JAMAICA ................................................... 20
Location and Borders ........................... 20
History .................................................. 21
Independence....................................... 23
Form of Government............................ 23
Official and Non-official languages ...... 24
Religion ................................................. 24
Ethnic groups........................................ 24
National Symbols.................................. 25
Celebration and Traditions ................... 25
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Family and Marriage ............................ 26
Economic Resources ............................ 26
IRELAND ................................................... 27
Location and Borders ........................... 27
History.................................................. 27
Independence ...................................... 31
Form of Government ........................... 31
Official and Non-official languages ...... 33
Religion ................................................ 33
Ethnic groups ....................................... 33
National Symbols ................................. 33
Celebration and Traditions .................. 34
Family and Marriage ............................ 34
Economic Resources ............................ 35
UNITED KINGDOM ................................... 36
Location and Borders ........................... 36
History.................................................. 37
Independence ...................................... 42
Form of Government ........................... 42
Official and Non-official languages ...... 43
Religion ................................................ 44
Ethnic groups ....................................... 44
National Symbols ................................. 44
Celebration and Traditions .................. 44
Family and Marriage ............................ 45
Economic Resources ............................ 45
AUSTRALIA ............................................... 46
Location and Borders ........................... 46
History.................................................. 46
Independence ...................................... 47
Form of Government ........................... 47
Official and Non-official languages ...... 47
Religion ................................................ 48
Ethnic groups ....................................... 48
 National Symbols.................................. 48
Celebration and Traditions ................... 49
Family and Marriage ............................ 49
Economic Resources............................. 49
NEW ZEALAND.......................................... 50
Location and Borders ........................... 50
History .................................................. 50
Independence....................................... 51
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Form of Government ........................... 51
Official and Non-official languages ...... 52
Religion ................................................ 52
Ethnic groups ....................................... 52
National Symbols ................................. 53
Celebration and Traditions .................. 53
Family and Marriage ............................ 53
Economic Resources ............................ 53
 CANADA
Etymology
The name comes from the Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535,
indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French
explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word Canada to
refer not only to that particular village, but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief
at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region
along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.

From the 16th to the early 18th century "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay
along the Saint Lawrence River.[14] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper
Canada and Lower Canada collectively named the Canadas; until their union as the British
Province of Canada in 1841.[15] Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal
name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred
as the country's title.[16] The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected
in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, which refers only to Canada. Later that year, the
name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[17] The term
Dominion is also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after
the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[18]

Location and Borders

It’s located in the northern part of North America.

It borders with the Artic Ocean at the north, the Pacific Ocean and the USA to the west, the
Atlantic Ocean to the East and with the United States to the south, this is the world's longest
bi-national land border.

Divisions
Provinces (10)
Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador,
Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island,
Quebec, and Saskatchewan.
Differences
Receive their power and authority from the
Constitution Act, 1867 (formerly called the
British North America Act, 1867)
The provinces are considered to be
sovereign within certain areas based on the
divisions of responsibility between the
provincial and federal government
Territories (3)
Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon,
Territorial governments have powers
delegated to them by the Parliament of
Canada
The territories are not sovereign, but instead
their authorities and responsibilities come
directly from the federal level, and as a
result have a commissioner instead of a
lieutenant governor.

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History
Aboriginal Canadians are First Nations, Métis and Inuits.

1,000AD: The first Europeans to arrive in Canada were the Vikings. The left soon most probably
due to conflict with the natives.

Leif Eriksson

Leif Erikson or Leif Ericson[6] c. 970 – c. 1020) was a Norse explorer from Iceland. He was the
first known European to have discovered continental North America (excluding Greenland),
before Christopher Columbus.

Leif apparently saw North America for the first time after being blown off course on his way to
introduce Christianity to Greenland. Vinland was the name given to North America as far as it
was explored by the Vikings. The name Vinland could mean "pasture-land" or "wine-land" due
to the extensive pasture lands and wild wine grapes they found there.

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1497: King Henry VII of England sent the Italian, John Cabot, on an expedition to
Newfoundland - a journey that England would later use to claim Canada as their own. Cabot
also discovered the great wealth of fish off the Canadian coastline.

1530s: Frenchman, Jacques Cartier sailed towards the St. Lawrence River claiming the territory
as French. In fact, the very first permanent settlers from Europe were French, establishing
themselves in the St. Lawrence valley which they referred to as New France.

Early 17th century: French missionaries attempted to convert the natives to Christianity.
Furthermore, European diseases, such as smallpox, killed many natives who did not have
resistance to these foreign diseases.

Meanwhile, the English/French rivalry raged on in the struggle for Canadian colonisation.
Eventually, after the Seven Years War, in 1763, the Treaty of Paris handed New France to
Britain. France was merely left with two islands: St. Pierre and Miquelon, although years later
the British Crown was persuaded into extending the French territory to Quebec in 1774. Along
with this Quebec Act, the French were granted more freedom, they were permitted to use
their own civil laws and the Roman Catholic Church was given special entitlements. This gave
way for French culture and traditions to blossom in Quebec.

During the American War of Independence, Canada stayed loyal to Britain rather than fighting
alongside the 13 American colonies. After the war, a new boundary was created between the
United States and Canada whereby the Great Lakes were used to draw up this boarder. During
this time the Canadian population was most certainly booming, provinces had to
accommodate thousands of immigrants who soon began to protest for greater rights. Due to
the demands from the new Canadians the Crown passed the Constitutional Act 1791, dividing
Quebec into Lower Canada and Upper Canada, being mostly French and English respectively.

A century on and another wave of immigrants came to Canada. The cheap land in Upper
Canada and the discovery of gold in British Columbia was sufficient to draw the attention of
many Europeans and Americans. People from all over the world came to Canada to “get rich”;
even today many people continue to immigrate to Canada.

The term “Canada” was first used when Lower and Upper Canada were formed, however they
later united to form the province Canada. Nevertheless, the official birth of Canada was in
1867 after Britain passed the British North American Act whereby Canada had the liberty to
govern itself and became the first Dominion of the British Empire.

During the early 1900s although Canada was in possession of its own government - their
powers were still constrained. Not only was Canada restricted from signing its own treaties but
it did not its have representatives in international meetings nor foreign embassies. Soon after
the First World War, Canada's situation transformed and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster
granted Canada the right to be an independent nation.

The Canada Act in 1982 finally severed Canada’s last remaining ties with the British parliament.
Before this Act was passed, certain amendments to Canada’s constitution had to be approved
by the UK government. Despite the Canada Act, Queen Elizabeth II is still Head of State and
Queen of Canada, this role is separate to her role as British monarch.

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Independence
Form of Government
Canada is a democracy and a federal state and a constitutional monarchy that uses a
parliamentary system to give responsible government to their people.

1. It is a democracy because people are able to vote their representatives.

2. It´s a federal state because they have different levels of governments (Such as
governors for provinces and mayors for cities).
3. It´s a constitutional monarchy because they have a Queen but she only has symbolic
power
 Queen of Canada: Is Elizabeth II (UK) and she only performs ceremonial duties.
 Although the country is independent from the UK it had been decided to keep
a certain degree of symbolic connection to the crown. It’s a sort of affinity for
their British colony past.
 Governor General: Represents the Crown in Canada. He or she mostly
performs ceremonial duties as well. Their most important duty is to sign bills
into laws. They are appointed by the Prime Minister
4. They use a parliamentary system of government i.e a body of elected representatives
that make decisions on laws and leaders.
 House of Commons: Their members are elected and they represent the
different communities that make up Canada. The political party that has a
majority of members on the HoC forms the government of Canada and picks
the Prime Minister. But the HoC can vote to put a new government if
necessary.
 Senate: Their members are the Senators and they can serve up the age of 75.
They are appointed by the Prime Minister in turn and cannot be replaced
before they are 75 years old. So their members are not elected by people.
 Political parties: Currently there are 5 and the bosses of each party are the
ones who run to become Prime Ministers.
 Prime Minister: Similar to a President is the leader of the Canadian
government. They remain in power as long as their party has the majority of
seats in the HoC.
5. Responsible government: The politicians must be responsible to the voters and the
democratic parliamentary system. They must follow the constitution

Official and Non-official languages

Official Languages
English and French are the mother tongues of 56.9% and 21.3% of Canadians respectively.

Under the Official Languages Act of 1969, both English and French have official federal status
throughout Canada, in respect of all government services, including the courts, and all federal
legislation is enacted bilingually.

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Non-official languages
There are 65 distinct languages and dialects. Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibway have a
large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.

Religion
Canada has no official religion

Christians: 67%

No Religion: 24%

Islam: 3 %

Other: 5%

Natives
Canada’s Native people are still referred to officially in three broad categories by government
for administrative purposes, and in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms:

• The Inuit are the people who originally lived in the Arctic. Their language is Inuktitut, but it
has several dialects that differ considerably from place to place.

• The First Nations were called "Indians" by Christopher Columbus when he landed in North
America, because he thought he had reached India. Many now prefer to call themselves First
Nations, though many still call themselves Indians in everyday conversation.

• The Métis, are the group of people who resulted from the mixing of European and Native
men and women. The Métis developed a unique culture that included elements of both
European and Native ways and artifacts (clothes, tools, means of travel, etc.). They pride
themselves on their distinctiveness from both the cultures from which they are descended.

In the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Canada's First Peoples are referred to as Indians, Inuit,
and Metis. The Charter recognizes the special Aboriginal Rights of Inuit, Indians, and Metis.

National Symbols
National Flag

The Royal Standard

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Also called The Queen's Personal Canadian Flag,[3] is a heraldic banner[4] adopted and
proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II in 1962 for her use in her capacity as Queen of Canada. With
its introduction, red and white, first proclaimed by George V in 1921, became entrenched as
the national colours of Canada.

Coat of Arm

It is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and
distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version

Crown: It’s a rendition of St Edwards Crown and symbolizes the status of constitutional
monarchy of Canada.

Lion: Symbolizes sovereignty

Shield: It contains three golden lions that represent England, then a red lion representing
Scotland, then a golden Irish harp, and a gold fleur de lis representing France. Finally at the
bottom there are three red maple leaves representing Canada itself.

The circled ribbon is marked desiderantes meliorem patriam, meaning "desiring a better
country.

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Motto: The motto of Canada is in Latin a mari usque ad mare (From sea to sea)

Supporters: Supporting the shield on either side are the English lion and Scottish unicorn,
which are also the supporters of the UK coat of arms.

The entire coat of arms rests on the compartment, which is made up of the floral emblems of
the founding nations.

National Anthem

O Canada

Royar Anthem: God Save the Queen

National Currency

The Canadian Dollar

National Tree National Symbol National Animal

Maple Maple leaf Beaver

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Celebration and Traditions
Family and Marriage
Economic Resources

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Location and Borders

The United States of America is the world's third largest country in size and nearly the third
largest in terms of population. Located in North America, the country is bordered on the west
by the Pacific Ocean and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Along the northern border is
Canada and the southern border is Mexico.

History
c. 12,000B.C. - North American Indian cultures flourish.

A.D.1000 - Norse seaman Leif Ericsson lands in Newfoundland, which he calls Vinland.

1492 - Christopher Columbus, financed by Spain, makes the first of four voyages to the New
World. He lands in the Bahamas (Oct. 12).

1513 - Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León lands on the coast of Florida.

1565 - Saint Augustine, Florida, settled by the Spanish, becomes the first permanent European
colony in North America.

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1607 - Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America, is established by the
London Company in southeast Virginia(May 14 o.s.).

1619 - The first African slaves are brought to Jamestown.

1620 - The Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts is established by Pilgrims from England (Dec. 11
o.s.). Before disembarking from their ship, the Mayflower, 41 male passengers sign
theMayflower Compact, an agreement that forms the basis of the colony's government.

1754–1763 - French and Indian War: Final conflict in the ongoing struggle between the British
and French for control of eastern North America. The British win a decisive victory over the
French on thePlains of Abrahamoutside Quebec (Sept. 13, 1759) and, by theTreaty of
Paris(signed Feb. 10, 1763), formally gain control of Canada and all the French possessions east
of the Mississippi.

1773 - Boston Tea Party: Group of colonial patriots disguised as Mohawk Indians board three
ships in Boston harbor and dump more than 300 crates of tea overboard as a protest against
theBritish tea tax(Dec. 16).

1775–1783 - American Revolution: War of independence fought between Great Britain and the
13 British colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America. Battles of Lexington and
Concord, Mass., between the British Army and colonial minutemen, mark the beginning of the
war (April 19, 1775). Battle-weary and destitute Continental army spends brutally cold winter
and following spring atValley Forge, Pa. (Dec. 19, 1777–June 19, 1778). British generalCharles
Cornwallissurrenders toGen. George WashingtonatYorktown, Va. (Oct. 19, 1781). Great Britain
formally acknowledges American independence in theTreaty of Paris, which officially brings
the war to a close(Sept. 3, 1783).

1776 - Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia (July 4).

1777 - Continental Congress approves the first official flag of the United States (June 14).
Continental Congress adopts the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitution (Nov. 15).

1787 - Constitutional Convention, made up of delegates from 12 of the original 13 colonies,

meets in Philadelphia to draft theU.S. Constitution(May–Sept.).

1789 - George Washington is unanimously elected president of the United States in a vote by
state electors (Feb. 4). U.S. Constitution goes into effect, having been ratified by nine
states(March 4).

1800 - The U.S. capital is moved from Philadelphia to Washington, DC (June 15).

1803 - Louisiana Purchase: United States agrees to pay France $15 million for the Louisiana
Territory, which extends west from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and
comprises about 830,000 sq mi (treaty signed May 2). As a result, the U.S. nearly doubles in
size.

1819 - Spain agrees to cede Florida to the United States(Feb. 22).

1830 - President Jackson signs the Indian Removal Act, which authorizes the forced removal of
Native Americans living in the eastern part of the country to lands west of the Mississippi River
(May 28). By the late 1830s the Jackson administration has relocated nearly 50,000 Native
Americans.

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1831 - Nat Turner, an enslaved African American preacher, leads the most significant slave
uprising in American history. He and his band of about 80 followers launch a bloody, day-long
rebellion in Southampton County,Virginia. The militia quells the rebellion, and Turner is
eventually hanged. As a consequence, Virginia institutes much stricter slave laws.

William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing the Liberator, a weekly paper that advocates the
complete abolition of slavery. He becomes one of the most famous figures in the abolitionist
movement.

1836 - Texas declares its independence from Mexico (March 1)

1845 - U.S. annexes Texas by joint resolution of Congress(March 1).

1846 - Oregon Treaty fixes U.S.-Canadian border at 49th parallel; U.S. acquires Oregon
territory (June 15).

1846–1848 - Mexican War: U.S. declares war on Mexico in effort to gain California and other
territory in Southwest (May 13, 1846). War concludes with signing of Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo (Feb. 2, 1848). Mexico recognizes Rio Grande as new boundary with Texas and, for $15
million, agrees to cede territory comprising present-day California, Nevada, Utah, most of New
Mexico and Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming.

1853 - Purchase treaty is signed; U.S. acquires border territory from Mexico for $10 million.

1854 - Congress passes the Kansas-Nebraska Act, establishing the territories of Kansas and
Nebraska.

1860 - Abraham Lincoln is elected president (Nov. 6).South Carolina secedes from the Union.

1861 - Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana secede (Jan.). Confederate States
of America is established (Feb. 8). Texas secedes (March 2). Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated as
the 16th president (March 4).

1861–1865 - Civil War: Conflict between the North (the Union) and the South (the
Confederacy) over the expansion of slavery into western states. Confederates attackFt. Sumter
in Charleston, S.C., marking the start of the war (April 12, 1861). Virginia, Arkansas, North
Carolina, and Tennessee secede (April–June).Emancipation Proclamation is issued, freeing
slaves in the Confederate states (Jan. 1, 1863).Battle of Gettysburg is fought (July 1–3).
President Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg Address (Nov. 19).Gen. William T. Sherman captures
Atlanta (Sept. 2, 1864). Lincoln's second inauguration (March 4, 1865).

1865 - Lincoln is assassinated (April 14) by John Wilkes Booth in Washington, DC, and is
succeeded by his vice president, Andrew Johnson. Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution
is ratified, prohibiting slavery (Dec. 6).

1867 - U.S. acquires Alaska from Russia for the sum of $7.2 million (treaty concluded March
30).

1870 - Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution is ratified, giving blacks the right to vote (Feb.
3).

1877 - The first telephone line is built from Boston to Somerville, Mass.; the following year,
President Hayes has the first telephone installed in the White House.
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1886 - Statue of Liberty is dedicated (Oct. 28).

1898 - Spain gives up control of Cuba, which becomes an independent republic, and cedes
Puerto Rico, Guam, and (for $20 million) the Philippines to the U.S.

1898 - U.S. annexes Hawaii by an act of Congress (July 7).

1903 - U.S. acquires Panama Canal Zone (treaty signed Nov. 17). Wright brothers make the first
controlled, sustained flight in heavier-than-air aircraft at Kitty Hawk, N.C. (Dec. 17).

1914–1918 - World War I: U.S. enters World War I, declaring war on Germany (April 6, 1917)
and Austria-Hungary (Dec. 7, 1917) three years after conflict began in 1914. Armistice ending
World War I is signed (Nov. 11, 1918).

1915 - First long distance telephone service, between New York and San Francisco, is
demonstrated (Jan. 25).

1916 - U.S. agrees to purchase Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands) for $25 million (treaty signed
Aug. 14).

1919 - Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution is ratified, granting women the right to
vote.

1929 - Stock market crash precipitates the Great Depression (Oct. 29).

1931 - The Star-Spangled Banner is adopted as the national anthem (March 3).

1939–1945 - World War II: U.S. declares its neutrality in European conflict (Sept. 5, 1939). F.
Roosevelt's third inauguration (Jan. 20, 1941). He is the first and only president elected to a
third term. Japan attacks Hawaii, Guam, and the Philippines (Dec. 7, 1941). U.S. declares war
on Japan (Dec. 8).Germany and Italy declare war on the United States; U.S. reciprocates by
declaring war on both countries (Dec. 11). Allies invade North Africa(Oct.–Dec. 1942) and Italy
(Sept.–Dec. 1943). Allies invade France on D-Day (June 6, 1944).

U.S. drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan (Aug. 6). U.S. drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki,
Japan(Aug. 9). Japan agrees to unconditional surrender (Aug. 14). Japanese envoys sign
surrender terms aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo harbor (Sept. 2).

1946 - The Philippines, which had been ceded to the U.S. by Spain at the end of the Spanish-
American War, becomes an independent republic (July 4).

1950–1975 - Vietnam War: Prolonged conflict between Communist forces of North Vietnam,
backed by China and the USSR, and non-Communist forces of South Vietnam, backed by the
United States. President Truman authorizes $15 million in economic and military aid to the
French, who are fighting to retain control of French Indochina, including Vietnam. As part of
the aid package, Truman also sends 35 military advisers (May 1950).North Vietnamese torpedo
boats allegedly attack U.S. destroyer in Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of North Vietnam(Aug. 2,
1964). Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution, authorizing President Johnson to take any
measures necessary to defend U.S. forces and prevent further aggression (Aug. 7). U.S. planes
begin bombing raids of North Vietnam (Feb. 1965). First U.S. combat troops arrive in South
Vietnam (March 8–9). North Vietnamese army and Viet Cong launch Tet Offensive, attacking
Saigon and other key cities in South Vietnam (Jan.–Feb. 1968). American soldiers kill 300
Vietnamese villagers in My Lai massacre (March 16). U.S. troops invade Cambodia (May 1,
1970). Representatives of North and South Vietnam, the Viet Cong, and the U.S. sign a cease-

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fire agreement in Paris (Jan. 27, 1973). Last U.S. troops leave Vietnam (March 29). South
Vietnamese government surrenders to North Vietnam; U.S. embassy Marine guards and last
U.S. civilians are evacuated (April 30, 1975).

1951 - Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution is ratified, limiting the president to two
terms (Feb. 27). President Truman speaks in first coast-to-coast live television broadcast (Sept.
4).

1952 - Puerto Rico becomes a U.S. commonwealth (July 25). First hydrogen bomb is detonated
by the U.S. on Eniwetok, an atoll in the Marshall Islands (Nov. 1).

1959 - Alaska becomes the 49th state (Jan. 3) and Hawaii becomes the 50th (Aug. 21).

1963 - Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivers his “I Have a Dream” speech before a crowd of
200,000 during the civil rights march on Washington, DC (Aug. 28). President Kennedy is
assassinated in Dallas, Tex. (Nov. 22).

1969 - Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., become the first men to land on the
Moon (July 20).

1983 - U.S. invades Caribbean island of Grenada after a coup by Marxist faction in the
government (Oct. 25).

1992 - Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in Dec. 1991, President Bush and Russian
president Boris Yeltsin meet at Camp David and formally declare an end to the cold war (Feb.
1). President Bush authorizes sending U.S. troops to Somalia as part of UN relief effort (Dec.
4).

2001 - Two hijacked jetliners ram twin towers of World Trade Center in worst terrorist attack
against U.S.; a third hijacked plane flies into the Pentagon, and a fourth crashes in rural
Pennsylvania. More than 3,000 people die in the attacks(Sept. 11).

2004 - The U.S. returns sovereignty to an interim government in Iraq, but maintains roughly
135,000 troops in the country to fight a growing insurgency (June 28).

2008 - After months of unraveling, the economy finally comes crashing down in 2008, with the
Dow Jones Industrial Average tumbling 4.4% in one day, Lehman Brothers filing for bankruptcy,
and Bush putting mortgage giants Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac under government
conservatorship (Sept.).

Barack Obama becomes the first African-American to be elected President.

2010 - The Senate votes 65 to 31 in favor of repealing Don't Ask, Don't Tell, the Clinton-era
military policy that forbids openly gay men and women from serving in the military.

2012 - The Pentagon announces that women will now be permanently assigned to battalions.
Many women already serve in those battalions due to demand in Iraq and Afghanistan. The
new ruling only makes these job assignments official and upholds the ban on women serving in
combat (Feb. 9).

President Obama is re-elected.

2013 - The Guardian receives information that reveals that the National Security Agency (NSA)
is using PRISM to spy on the web activities, including email, of U.S. citizens. Through PRISM, a
clandestine national security surveillance program, the NSA has direct access to Facebook,
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YouTube, Skype, Google, Apple, Yahoo and other websites (June 6). The Guardian publishes a
report on another NSA tool called Boundless Informant, used by the U.S. government to watch
activity in every country in the world. President Obama confirms the existence of PRISM and
its use to spy on the online activity of U.S. citizens(June 8). Edward Snowden, a former CIA
employee, comes forward and admits that he is the source of the recent NSA leaks (June 9).

Independence
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second
Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence
Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the thirteen American
colonies,[2] then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would now regard themselves as
thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. With the Declaration these
states formed a new nation – the United States of America.

The Declaration was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. A committee of five had drafted
the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a
leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson
to compose the original draft of the document,[3] which Congress edited to produce the final
version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to
declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American
Revolutionary War. Even though Adams wrote to his wife, Abigail, that "The Second Day of July
1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America",[4] Independence Day is
celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was
approved.

Form of Government
Federal Government

Organization

The Constitution of the United States divides the federal government into three branches to
ensure a central government in which no individual or group gains too much control:

Legislative – Makes laws (Congress)

Executive – Carries out laws (President, Vice President, Cabinet)

Judicial – Evaluates laws (Supreme Court and Other Courts)

President - The president leads the country. He/she is the head of state, leader of the federal
government, and commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president serves
a four-year term and can be elected no more than two times.

16
Official and Non-official languages
There is no official language of the United States, according to the U.S. government. While
almost every language in the world is spoken in the United States, Spanish, Chinese, French
and German are among the most frequently spoken non-English languages. Ninety percent of
the U.S. population speaks and understands at least some English, and most official business is
conducted in English.

The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more than 300 languages are spoken in the United
States. The bureau divides those languages into four categories: Spanish; other Indo-European
languages, which includes German, Yiddish, Swedish, French, Italian, Russian, Polish, Hindi,
Punjabi, Greek and several others; Asian and Pacific Island languages, including Chinese,
Korean, Japanese, Thai, Tamil and more; and "all other languages," which is a category for
languages that didn't fit into the first three categories, such as Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew,
languages of Africa and languages of native people of North, Central and South America.

Religion
Nearly every known religion is practiced in the United States, which was founded on the basis
of religious freedom. About 83 percent of Americans identify themselves as Christians,
according to an ABC poll, while 13 percent replied that they had no religion at all. Another poll
in 2012reported similar findings. It also found that Judaism is the second most-identified
religious affiliation, at about 1.7 percent of the population. Only 0.6 percent of respondents
identified as Muslim.

Ethnic groups

National Symbols

Liberty Bell: was commissioned by the Pennsylvania colony in 1752. The colony's leaders
wanted a bell for Its state house (now known as Independence Hall) that could be heard
around the city. One side of the bell has a biblical quote: "Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the
land unto all the Inhabitants thereof." The most notable feature of the bell, though, Is a crack
In the metal that runs up from the bell's lip.

Although there is no proof, many people believe that the Liberty Bell was rung to mark the
reading of the Declaration of Independence on July 8, 1776. In the 1830s, abolitionists adopted
the bell as a symbol of their struggle to abolish slavery; they popularized the name the Liberty
Bell. Between 1885 and 1915, the bell traveled around the country for exhibitions and patriotic
events.

17
The flag of the United States: is commonly known as the "Stars and Stripes" or "Old Glory." On
June 14, 1777, the Continental Congress adopted a resolution stating: "Resolved, That the flag
of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen
stars, white In a blue field, representing a new Constellation."

The current 50-star flag is the 27th "edition· of the flag and the one that has been In use the
longest, since 1960. In 1818, Congress passed a law stating that a new star be added for each
new state; the 13 stripes would remain constant to represent the 13 colonies.

The bald eagle has long been the national bird of the United States. In 1782, the Continental
Congress adopted the Great Seal of the United States, which depicts a bald eagle holding 13
olive branches in one talon and 13 arrows in the other. The olive branch stands for the power
to make peace, while the arrows stand for the power to make war.

The national anthem, "The Star- Spangled Banner," has a colorful history. Francis Scott Key
wrote the lyrics to the anthem as a poem in 1814, after he witnessed the British Navy
bombarding ships during the Battle of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812. The melody was
"borrowed" from the tune of a popular British song. The song became the official national
anthem in 1931, replacing several other songs commonly sung at public events. The anthem is
somewhat controversial because of its war-related imagery and the challenge that the music
poses to singers.

The Statue of Liberty (its formal title is Uberty Enlightening the World) was a gift to the United
States from the people of France. Dedicated in 1886, the statue shows Ubertas, the Roman
goddess of freedom. Located in New York Harbor, the statue holds a torch in one hand and a
tablet representing the law in the other. The date of the Declaration of Independence is
inscribed on the tablet. A broken chain sits at Libertas's feet. The statue is an iconic symbol of
freedom.

Uncle Sam, whose image appeared during the War of 1812, is a symbol of the U.S.
government. He is portrayed as an older, bearded man dressed in clothes that evoke the u.S.
flag. uncle Sam is commonly used in political cartoons, as well} as in advertising.

The great seal

It is a great detailed symbol that represents the country. The seal is found on passports,
money. medals, and important documents.

In the front of the Great Seal, It shows the national bird, the bald eagle, holding an olive
branch with 13 berries and leaves in the right talon. They represent the 13 original colonies. In
the left talon its holding 13 arrows. This represents the power of peace and war. The nation’s
motto is "E plunbus Unum meaning "out of many one, "Aunil coeplis" which means “It has
favored our undertakings" is on top or the unfinished pyramid behind the Great Seal. "Novus
ordo seplorum" means “a new order of the ages” Is below the unhnished pyramid. The

18
backside of the Great Seal is an unfinished pyramid that represents that more states can be
bedded in the U.S.

Celebration and Traditions

19
 JAMAICA

Location and Borders

Jamaica is an island in the Caribbean Sea situated about 145 km (90 mi) s of Cuba. It has a total
area of 10,990 sq km (4,243 sq mi) and extends, at maximum, 235 km (146 mi) n–s and 82 km
(51 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Jamaica is slightly smaller than the state of
Connecticut. The total coastline is 1,022 km (634 mi).

Jamaica's capital city, Kingston, is located on the country's southeastern coast.

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History
Original Inhabitants
The original inhabitants of Jamaica are believed to be the Arawaks, also called Tainos. They
came from South America 2,500 years ago and named the island Xaymaca, which meant ““land
of wood and water”. The Arawaks were a mild and simple people by nature.

They grew cassava, sweet potatoes, maize (corn), fruits, vegetables, cotton and tobacco.
Tobacco was grown on a large scale as smoking was their most popular pastime.

The discovery of Jamaica

On May 5, 1494 Christopher Columbus landed in Jamaica on his second voyage to the West
Indies. Columbus had heard about Jamaica, then called Xaymaca, from the Cubans who
described it as “the land of blessed gold”. Columbus was soon to find out that there was no
gold in Jamaica.

On arrival at St Ann’s Bay, Columbus found the Arawak Indians inhabiting the island. Initially,
Columbus thought these Indians were hostile, as they attacked his men when they tried to
land on the island. As he was determined to annex the island in the name of the king and
queen of Spain, he was not deterred. Columbus also needed wood and water and a chance to
repair his vessels. He sailed down the coast and docked at Discovery Bay. The Arawaks there
were also hostile to the Spaniards. Some of the Arawaks were killed and wounded in this
attack. Columbus was then able to land and claim the island.

The Spaniards, when they came, tortured and killed the Arawaks to get their land. They were
so overworked and ill-treated that within a short time they had all died. The process was aided
by the introduction of European diseases to which the Arawaks had little or no resistance.

The island remained poor under Spanish rule as few Spaniards settled here. Jamaica served
mainly as a supply base: food, men, arms and horse were shipped here to help in conquering
the American mainland.

In 1509 the first town was created by the Spanish, Sevilla la Nueva.

The little attention the colony received from Spain soon led to a major reason for internal
strife. This contributed to the weakening of the colony in the last years of Spanish occupation.
The governors were not getting proper support from home and quarrels with church
authorities undermined their control. Frequent attacks by pirates also contributed to the
colony’s woes.

The English attack

On May 10, 1655, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led a successful attack
on Jamaica. The Spaniards surrendered to the English, freed their slaves and then fled to Cuba.
It was this set of freed slaves and their descendants who became known as the Maroons.

The early period of English settlement in Jamaica, drew much attention to the buccaneers
based at Port Royal. Port Royal prior to this time was an insignificant town in Jamaica. Under
the buccaneers’ leadership the town, within a decade and a half, grew to become known as
one of the “wealthiest and wickedest city in the world”.

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A violent earthquake destroyed Port Royal on June 7, 1692. The survivors of the earthquake
who re-settled in Kingston abandoned the Port. Port Royal became an important naval base in
the eighteenth century.

The slave trade

The English settlers concerned themselves with growing crops that could easily be sold in
England. Tobacco, indigo and cocoa soon gave way to sugar which became the main crop for
the island.

The sugar industry grew so rapidly that the 57 sugar estates in the island in 1673 grew to
nearly 430 by 1739.

Enslaved Africans filled the large labour force required for the industry.

The slave trade became a popular and profitable venture for the colonists. In fact the
transportation of slaves became such a regular affair that the journey from Africa to the West
Indies became known as the ‘Middle Passage’. The voyage was so named because the journey
of a British slaver was 3-sided, starting from England with trade goods, to Africa where these
were exchanged for slaves. Afterwards, the journey continued to the West Indies where the
slaves were landed and sugar, rum and molasses taken aboard for the final leg of the journey
back to England.

The slaves, however, were unhappy with their status, so they rebelled whenever they could.
Many of them were successful in running away from the plantations and joining the Maroons
in the almost inaccessible mountains.

Several slave rebellions stand out in Jamaica’s history for example, the Easter Rebellion of
1760 led by Tacky; and the Christmas Rebellion of 1831 which began on the Kensington Estate
in St. James, led by Sam Sharpe. He has since been named a National Hero.

The Maroons also had several wars against the English. In 1739 and 1740 after two major
Maroon Wars, treaties were signed with the British. In the treaty of 1740, they were given land
and rights as free men. In return they were to stop fighting and help to recapture run-away
slaves. This treaty resulted in a rift among the Maroons as they did not all agree that they
should return run-away slaves to the plantations.

The frequent slave rebellions in the Caribbean was one factor that led to the abolition of the
slave trade and slavery. Other factors included the work of humanitarians who were
concerned about the slaves’ well-being. Humanitarian groups such as the Quakers publicly
protested against slavery and the slave trade. They formed an anti slavery committee which
was joined by supporters such as Granville Sharp, James Ramsay, Thomas Clarkson and later
on, William Wilberforce.

On January 1, 1808 the Abolition Bill was passed. Trading in African slaves was declared to be
“utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful”. Emancipation and apprenticeship
came into effect in 1834 and full freedom was granted in 1838.

The immediate post slavery days were very difficult for the poorer classes.

In October 1865, an uprising in St. Thomas, called the Morant Bay Rebellion, was led by Paul
Bogle. Bogle and his men stormed the Morant Bay Courthouse while it was in session. A

22
number of white people was killed including the custos of the parish. Paul Bogle and George
William Gordon, now National Heroes, were hanged. George Gordon was a prominent
coloured legislator who was sympathetic to the problems of the poor people and was blamed
for the trouble caused by the masses.

The succeeding years saw the island’s recovery and development – social, constitutional and
economic, and its evolution into a sovereign state.

The island’s capital was moved from Spanish Town to Kingston (1872).

The 1930s saw Jamaica heading towards another crisis. The contributing factors were
discontent at the slow pace of political advance.

In 1938 things came to a head with widespread violence and rioting. Out of these disturbances
came the formation of the first labour unions and the formation of the two major political
parties.

In 1958, Jamaica and ten (10) other Caribbean countries formed the Federation of the West
Indies. The concept of Caribbean unity was soon abandoned in 1961 when Jamaicans voted
against the Federation of the West Indies.

Independence
In February 1962, a new Constitution was approved by the Legislature and the Premier
Norman Manley called General Elections.

Alexander Bustamante was elected in April and became the first Prime Minister of Jamaica. On
August 6, 1962, Jamaica became an Independent Nation and a member of the British
Commonwealth.

Jamaica becoming an Independent Nation, now meant that Britain, no longer controlled the
affairs of the country. It was now the responsibility of the newly elected Prime Minister and
the locally elected Cabinet.

The Jamaican Constitution

The Jamaica Constitution 1962 is the most fundamental legal document in the country,
guaranteeing the freedom, rights and privileges of every Jamaican citizen. The Constitution
reflects the country’s independence as a nation state and, to this day, remains the cornerstone
of the island’s legal systems and institutions.

Form of Government
The 1962 constitution provides for a governor-general appointed by the crown, a cabinet
presided over by a prime minister, and a bicameral legislature.

The Senate, the upper house, consists of 21 members appointed by the governor-general, 13
on the advice of the prime minister and 8 on the advice of the leader of the opposition. The
popularly elected House of Representatives consists of 60 members (increased from 53 in
1976). The House is by far the more important of the two. The governor-general appoints both

23
the prime minister and the leader of the opposition. The normal term of office in parliament is
five years, but elections can be called at any time. Suffrage is universal at age 18.

The cabinet consists of the prime minister and at least 11 additional ministers, appointed by
the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister.

Official and Non-official languages

English is the official language of Jamaica.

The most unique of the languages of Jamaica is a dialect formed by the amalgamation of words
from many languages with English. It is known as Jamaican Creole or Patois. It is the most
widely spoken language of Jamaica. Patois is popular because of the musical lilt and rhythm in
the words of the language. It is also used in the lyrics of Reggae, the famous music of Jamaica.

The immigrants from outside Jamaica have brought with them their language as well and
languages like Spanish, Irish, Scottish are also spoken. The other two significant languages of
Jamaica are Taino (mixed with Spanish) and Arawak, specific to particular regions.

The Jamaican Creole having elements of English is however not easy to understand for
outsiders because of the way it is spoken by the Jamaicans.

Religion
There is freedom and equality of religion in Jamaica. Protestant churches are dominant, with
various denominations comprising over 61% of the total population. The Church of God now
claims the largest number of adherents, with 24% of the populace. Seventh-Day Adventists,
with 11%, and Pentecostals, with 10%, are the next largest denominations. About 7% of the
population are Baptist. The Church of England (Anglican), formerly the dominant religion in
Jamaica, claims about 4%. Other denominations include Roman Catholics (2%), United Church
(2%), Methodists (2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (2%), Moravians (1%), and Brethren (1%). Other
religious groups, including Hindus, Jews, Muslims, and Rastafarians, as well as some spiritual
cults, make up about 10% of the population. About 22% of the population claim no religious
affiliation.

The Rastafarian movement continues to grow and is culturally influential in Jamaica and
abroad. Rastas regard Africa (specifically Ethiopia) as Zion and consider their life outside Africa
as an exile or captivity; the use of marijuana, or ganja, plays an important role in the
movement. The government officially recognized Rastafarianism as a religion in 2003.

Ethnic groups

24
National Symbols
The Jamaica National Flag was first raised on Independence Day,
August 6, 1962. It signifies the birth of our nation. The Flag
brings to mind memories of past achievements and gives
inspiration towards further success. It is flown on many
triumphant occasions, showing the pride that Jamaicans have in
their country and in the flag itself.

Symbolism
“The sun shineth, the land is green and the people are strong and creative” is the symbolism of
the colours of the flag. Black depicts the strength and creativity of the people; Gold, the
natural wealth and beauty of sunlight; and green, hope and agricultural resources.

The Coat of arms

The Jamaican national motto is ‘Out of Many One People’, based on the population’s
multiracial roots.
The motto is represented on the Coat of Arms, showing a male and female member of
the Taino tribe standing on either side of a shield which bears a red cross with five
golden pineapples.
The crest shows a Jamaican crocodile mounted on the Royal Helmet of the British
Monarchy and mantling.

The National fruit: Although the ackee is not indigenous to Jamaica, it has
remarkable historic associations. Originally, it was imported to the island from
West Africa, probably on a slave ship. Now it grows here luxuriantly, producing
large quantities of edible fruit each year.

The doctor bird: According to Frederic Cassidy the bird is an object of superstition. The
Arawaks spread the belief that the bird had magical powers. They called it the ‘God
bird’, believing it was the reincarnation of dead souls. This is manifested in a folk song
which says: “Doctor Bud a cunny bud, hard bud fe dead”. (It is a clever bird which
cannot be easily killed).

The Lignum Vitae (Guiacum Officinale) was found here by Christopher Columbus.
The short, compact tree is native to continental tropical American and the West
Indies. The plant is extremely ornamental, producing an attractive blue flower and
orange-yellow fruit, while its crown has an attractive rounded shape. The tree is
one of the most useful in the world.

The Blue Mahoe: The name mahoe is derived from a Carib Indian word. The ‘blue’
refers to blue-green streaks in the polished wood, giving it a distinctive appearance.

Celebration and Traditions

25
Family and Marriage

Economic Resources

26
 IRELAND

Location and Borders

Ireland (/ˈaɪərlənd/ (About this sound listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] (About this sound listen);
Ulster-Scots: Airlann [ˈɑːrlən]) is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great
Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the
third-largest island in Europe. It is the second largest island in the British Isles, after Great
Britain.

Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially named Ireland), which
covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, in
the northeast of the island. In 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.6 million, ranking it
the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.8 million live in the
Republic of Ireland and just over 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.[3]

Northern Ireland (Irish: Tuaisceart Éireann [ˈt̪ˠuəʃcəɾˠt̪ˠ ˈeːɾʲən̪ ˠ] (About this sound listen);[8]
Ulster-Scots: Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of
Ireland,[9][10] variously described as a country, province or region.[11][12][13] Northern
Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its
population was 1,810,863,[4] constituting about 30% of the island's total population and about
3% of the UK's population. Established by the Northern Ireland Act 1998 as part of the Good
Friday Agreement, the Northern Ireland Assembly holds responsibility for a range of devolved
policy matters, while other areas are reserved for the British government.

Republic of Ireland (Poblacht na hÉireann), is a sovereign state in north-western Europe

occupying 26 of 32 counties of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which
is located on the eastern part of the island, and whose metropolitan area is home to around a
third of the country's 4.75 million inhabitants. The state shares its only land border with
Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic
Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint George's Channel to the south-east, and the Irish
Sea to the east.

History
Early Irish History
Historians estimate that Ireland was first settled by humans at a relatively late stage in
European terms – about 10,000 years ago. Around 4000 BC it is estimated that the first
farmers arrived in Ireland.

Around 300BC, Iron Age warriors known as the Celts came to Ireland from mainland Europe.
The current first official language of the Republic of Ireland, Irish (or Gaeilge) stems from Celtic
language.

27
Early Christian Ireland
Following the arrival of Saint Patrick and other Christian missionaries in the early to mid-5th
century, Christianity took over the indigenous pagan religion by the year 600 AD. Irish Christian
scholars excelled in the study of Latin, Greek and Christian theology in monasteries throughout
Ireland.

The Viking Era

At the end of the 8th century and during the 9th century Vikings, from where we now call
Scandinavia, began to invade and then gradually settle into and mix with Irish society. The
Vikings founded, Dublin, Ireland’s capital city in 988. Following the defeat of the Vikings by
Brian Boru, the High King of Ireland, at Clontarf in 1014, Viking influence faded.

The Norman Era

The 12th century saw the arrival of the Normans. The Normans built walled towns, castles and
churches. They also increased agriculture and commerce in Ireland.

Plantations and Penal Laws

After King Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church in England in 1534 he ensured that
the Irish Parliament declared him King of Ireland in 1541. From this time up to the late 17th
century, an official English policy of ‘plantation’ led to the arrival of thousands of English and
Scottish Protestant settlers. The most successful plantation occurred in Ulster. From this
period on, sectarian conflict became a common theme in Irish history.

The 17th century was a bloody one in Ireland. It culminated in the imposition of the harsh
regime of Penal laws. These laws set about disempowering Catholics, denying them, for
example, the right to take leases or own land above a certain value, outlawing Catholic clergy,
forbidding higher education and entry to the professions, and imposing oaths of conformity to
the state church, the Church of Ireland. During the 18th century strict enforcement of the
Penal laws eased but by 1778 Catholics held only about 5% of the land in Ireland.

Union with Great Britain

In 1782 a Parliamentary faction led by Henry Grattan (a Protestant) successfully agitated for a
more favourable trading relationship with England and for greater legislative independence for
the Parliament of Ireland. However, London still controlled much of what occurred in Ireland.
Inspired by the French Revolution, in 1791 an organisation called the United Irishmen was
formed with the idea of bringing Irish people of all religions together to reform and reduce
Britain’s power in Ireland. Its leader was a young Dublin Protestant called Theobald Wolfe
Tone. The United Irishmen were the inspiration for the armed rebellion of 1798. Despite
attempts at help from the French the rebellion failed and in 1801 the Act of Union was passed
uniting Ireland politically with Britain.

In 1829 one of Ireland’s greatest leaders Daniel O’Connell, known as ‘the great liberator’ was
central in getting the Act of Catholic Emancipation passed in the parliament in London. He

28
succeeded in getting the total ban on voting by Catholics lifted and they could now also
become Members of the Parliament in London.

After this success O’Connell aimed to cancel the Act of Union and re-establish an Irish
parliament. However, this was a much bigger task and O’Connell’s approach of non-violence
was not supported by all. Such political issues were overshadowed however by the worst
disaster and tragedy in Irish history – the great famine.

The Great Famine

Potatoes were the staple food of a growing population at the time. When blight (a form of
plant disease) struck potato crops nationwide in 1845- 1847 disaster followed. Potatoes were
inedible and people began to starve to death. The response of the British government also
contributed to the disaster – trade agreements were still controlled by London. While
hundreds of thousands of people were suffering from extreme hunger, Ireland was forced to
export abundant harvests of wheat and dairy products to Britain and further overseas.

Between 1845 and 1851 two million people died or were forced to emigrate from Ireland. The
population of Ireland has never since reached its pre-famine level of approximately 8 million.

Ireland’s history of emigration continued from this point onwards with the majority of Irish
emigrants going to the United States of America.

Home Rule
There was little effective challenge to Britain’s control of Ireland until the efforts of Charles
Stewart Parnell (1846-91). At the age of 31 he became leader of the Irish Home Rule Party,
which became the Irish Parliamentary Party in 1882.

While Parnell did not achieve Home Rule (or self-government), his efforts and widely
recognised skills in the House of Commons earned him the title of ‘the uncrowned king of
Ireland’. The impetus he gave to the idea of Home Rule was to have lasting implications.

In Ulster in the north of Ireland the majority of people were Protestants. They were concerned
about the prospect of Home Rule being granted as they would be a Protestant minority in an
independent Ireland with a Catholic majority. They favoured the union with Britain. The
Unionist Party was lead by Sir Edward Carson. Carson threatened an armed struggle for a
separate Northern Ireland if independence was granted to Ireland.

A Home Rule Bill was passed in 1912 but crucially it was not brought into law. The Home Rule
Act was suspended at the outbreak of World War One in 1914. Many Irish nationalists believed
that Home Rule would be granted after the war if they supported the British war effort. John
Redmond the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party encouraged people to join the British
forces and many did join. However, a minority of nationalists did not trust the British
government leading to one of the most pivotal events in Irish history, the Easter Rising.

29
Easter Rising
On April 24th (Easter Monday) 1916, two groups of armed rebels, the Irish Volunteers and the
Irish Citizen Army seized key locations in Dublin reading the Proclamation of the Republic
which declared an Irish Republic independent of Britain.

Battles ensued with casualties on both sides and among the civilian population. The Easter
Rising finished on April 30th with the surrender of the rebels. The majority of the public was
actually opposed to the Rising. However, public opinion turned when the British administration
responded by executing many of the leaders and participants in the Rising. All seven
signatories to the proclamation were executed.

Two of the key figures who were involved in the rising who avoided execution were Éamon de
Valera and Michael Collins. In the December 1918 elections the Sinn Féin party led by Éamon
de Valera won a majority of the Ireland based seats of the House of Commons. On the 21st of
January 1919 the Sinn Féin members of the House of Commons gathered in Dublin to form an
Irish Republic parliament called Dáil Éireann, unilaterally declaring power over the entire
island.

War of Independence
What followed is known as the ‘war of independence’ when the Irish Republican Army – the
army of the newly declared Irish Republic – waged a guerilla war against British forces from
1919 to 1921. One of the key leaders of this war was Michael Collins. In December 1921 a
treaty was signed by the Irish and British authorities. While a clear level of independence was
finally granted to Ireland the contents of the treaty were to split Irish public and political
opinion. One of the sources of division was that Ireland was to be divided into Northern
Ireland (6 counties) and the Irish Free State (26 counties) which was established in 1922.

Civil War
Such was the division of opinion in Ireland that a Civil War followed from 1922 to 1923
between pro and anti treaty forces, with Collins (pro-treaty) and de Valera (anti-treaty) on
opposing sides. The consequences of the Civil war can be seen to this day where the two
largest political parties in Ireland have their roots in the opposing sides of the civil war – Fine
Gael (pro-treaty) and Fianna Fáil (anti-treaty). A period of relative political stability followed
the Civil war.

Northern Ireland
Under the same Government of Ireland Act of 1920 that created the Irish Free State, the
Parliament of Northern Ireland was created. The Parliament consisted of a majority of
Protestants and while there was relative stability for decades this was to come to an end in the
late 1960s due to systematic discrimination against Catholics.

1968 saw the beginning of Catholic civil rights marches in Northern Ireland which led to violent
reactions from some Protestant loyalists and from the police force. What followed was a
period known as ‘the Troubles’ when nationalist/republican and loyalist/unionist groups
clashed.

30
In 1969 British troops were sent to Derry and Belfast to maintain order and to protect the
Catholic minority. However, the army soon came to be seen as a tool of the Protestant
majority by the minority Catholic community. This was reinforced by events such as Bloody
Sunday in 1972 when British forces opened fire on a Catholic civil rights march in Derry killing
13 people. An escalation of paramilitary violence followed with many atrocities committed by
both sides. The period of ‘the Troubles’ are generally agreed to have finished with the Belfast
(or Good Friday) Agreement of April 10th 1998.

Between 1969 and 1998 it is estimated that well over 3,000 people were killed by paramilitary
groups on opposing sides of the conflict.

Since 1998 considerable stability and peace has come to Northern Ireland. In 2007 former
bitterly opposing parties the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin began to co-
operate in government together in Northern Ireland.

Republic of Ireland – 20th Century to present day

The 1937 Constitution re-established the state as the Republic of Ireland.

In 1973 Ireland joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union).

In the 1980s the Irish economy was in recession and large numbers of people emigrated for
employment reasons. Many young people emigrated to the United Kingdom, the United States
of America and Australia.

Economic reforms in the 1980s along with membership of the European Community (now
European Union) created one of the world’s highest economic growth rates. Ireland in the
1990s, so long considered a country of emigration, became a country of immigration. This
period in Irish history was called the Celtic Tiger.

Independence

Form of Government
Northen Ireland

Since 1998, Northern Ireland has had devolved government within the United Kingdom. The
UK Government and UK Parliament are responsible for reserved and excepted matters.
Devolution is the statutory delegation of powers from the central government of a sovereign
state to govern at a subnational level, such as a regional or local level. It is a form of
administrative decentralization. Devolved territories have the power to make legislation
relevant to the area.

The Executive is co-chaired by the First Minister and deputy First Minister. Its official functions
are:

acting as a forum for the discussion of, and agreement on, issues which cut across the
responsibilities of two or more ministers;

31
prioritising executive and legislative proposals;

discussing and agreeing upon significant or controversial matters.

Election

As originally established under the Northern Ireland Act 1998, the First Minister was elected by
the Assembly on a joint ticket with the deputy First Minister through a cross-community vote.
It was created to enable the leaders of the main unionist and nationalist parties to work
together, with guaranteed joint representation of both main communities.

Republic of Ireland

The government is headed by the Taoiseach, the head of government (i.e Prime Minister)

The government is composed of government ministers, all of whom must be members of the
Irish parliament.

The Taoiseach must be nominated and approved by the Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the
Oireachtas, the Irish legislature. Following the Dáil's nomination, the President of Ireland
appoints the Taoiseach to his role. T

The government is dependent upon the Oireachtas to make primary legislation and as such,
the government needs to command a majority in the Dáil in order to ensure support and
confidence for budgets and government bills to pass. Collectively, the government as known as
"the cabinet".

Historically, where there have been multi-party or coalition governments, the Taoiseach has
been the leader of the largest party in the coalition.

President of Ireland

The Constitution of Ireland provides for a parliamentary system of government, under which
the role of the head of state is largely a ceremonial one. The President is formally one of three
parts of the Oireachtas (national parliament), which also comprises Dáil Éireann (the lower
house) and Seanad Éireann (the Senate or upper house).

Unlike many other parliamentary democracies, the President is not even the nominal chief
executive. Rather, executive authority is expressly vested in the Government (cabinet). The
Government is obliged, however, to keep the President generally informed on matters of
domestic and foreign policy.

The President holds office for seven years, and can be elected for a maximum of two terms.

Constitutional functions

The main functions are prescribed by the Constitution:

Appoints the government

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The President formally appoints the Taoiseach (head of government) and other ministers, and
accepts their resignations. The Taoiseach is appointed upon the nomination of the Dáil, and
the President is required to appoint whomever the Dáil designates without the right to decline
appointment. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed upon the nomination of the Taoiseach
and approval of the Dáil; as with appointing the Taoiseach, the President is required to make
the appointment without the right to appoint someone else.

Signs bills into law

Represents the state in foreign affairs

Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces

Official and Non-official languages

Northen Ireland

English is the most spoken language in Northern Ireland. There are also two recognised
regional languages in Northern Ireland: the Irish language (see Irish language in Northern
Ireland) and the local variety of Scots known as Ulster Scots.[4] Northern Ireland Sign Language
and Irish Sign Language have been recognised since 29 March 2004.[5][6]

English is spoken as a first language by almost all of the Northern Ireland population. It is the
de facto official language and the Administration of Justice (Language) Act (Ireland) 1737
prohibits the use of languages other than English in legal proceedings.

Republic of Ireland

In the Republic of Ireland, under the Constitution of Ireland, both English and Irish have official
status, with Irish being the national and first official language.

Religion

Ethnic groups

National Symbols
 The shamrock: Anyone who sees this three-leafed plant automatically thinks of
Ireland. The shamrock is a three-leafed clover that grows abundantly in Ireland. Some
people say that St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, used the shamrock to spread
Christianity in Ireland, since the three leaves of the plant could represent the Holy
Trinity. Other people say that the shamrock and the number three were considered
magical in Celtic tradition, so this plant was believed to bring good luck.
 The Celtic Cross: This symbol is a variation of the traditional Christian cross. The circle
that circumnavigates the intersection of the cross is often believed to represent a
fusion of the old ways and the new. It is said that St. Patrick combined the Christian

33
 cross with the sun cross that is used by Pagans. Many historians, though, say that Irish
monks already used Celtic crosses made of stone as far back as the 7th century.
 The Leprechaun: The legend of the leprechaun and his pot of gold are known by many
people all over the world. A leprechaun is a fairy-like being in traditional Irish folklore.
Clad in green, the leprechaun is often drawn as a bearded old man of dwarfish
proportions. He has also been said to love mischief and pranks of all sorts.
 The Irish Harp: The Irish loved to entertain guests with the use of a harp during the
Gaelic times. Since then, it has always been a well-loved symbol or Ireland. The harp
was used in documents written by Benedictine monks in the 8th century. It was also
shown in coins made during the 1500s. It was also placed in the banners that were
waved at the funeral of Queen Elizabeth 1. The harp was also featured prominently in
the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and became part of the national flag of Ireland from the
18th to the 19th centuries.

Celebration and Traditions

Much of the Irish calendar still today reflects the old pagan customs, with later Christian
traditions also having significant influence.

Christmas in Ireland has several local traditions, some in no way connected with Christianity.

The national holiday in the Republic of Ireland is Saint Patrick's Day, 17 March and is marked
by parades and festivals in cities and towns across the island of Ireland, and by the Irish
diaspora around the world. The festival is in remembrance to Saint Patrick, the patron saint of
Ireland. Pious legend credits Patrick with banishing snakes from the island, and legend also
credits Patrick with teaching the Irish about the concept of the Trinity by showing people the
shamrock, a 3-leaved clover, using it to highlight the Christian belief of 'three divine persons in
the one God'.

In Northern Ireland the The Twelfth of July, which commemorates William III's victory at the
Battle of the Boyne is a public holiday. The holiday is celebrated by Irish Protestants the vast
majority of whom live in Northern Ireland and is notable for the numerous parades organized
by the Orange Order which take place throughout Northern Ireland. These parades are
colourful affairs with Orange Banners and sashes on display and include music in the form of
traditional songs such as The Sash and Derry's Walls performed by a mixture of Pipe, Flute,
Accordion, and Brass marching bands.

Brigid's Day (1 February, known as Imbolc or Candlemas) also does not have its origins in
Christianity, being instead another religious observance superimposed at the beginning of
spring. The Brigid's cross made from rushes on this day represents a pre-Christian solar wheel.

Other pre-Christian festivals, whose names survive as Irish month names, are Bealtaine (May),
Lúnasa (August) and Samhain (November). The last is still widely observed as Halloween which
is celebrated all over the world, including in the United States followed by All Saints' Day,
another Christian holiday associated with a traditional one. Important church holidays include
Easter, and various Marian observances.

Family and Marriage

34
Economic Resources

35
 UNITED KINGDOM
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
 (to give its full name) refers to the political union between England, Wales, Scotland
and Northern Ireland. The UK is a sovereign state, but the nations that make it up are
also countries in their own right.
 From 1801 to 1922 the UK also
included all of Ireland.
 The Channel Islands and Isle of
Man are not part of the UK, but
are Crown Dependencies.

Great Britain
 Great Britain is the official
collective name of of England,
Scotland and Wales and their
associated islands. It does not
include Northern Ireland and
therefore should never be used
interchangeably with ‘UK’ –
something you see all too often.
 Here at Ordnance Survey, we’re
responsible for mapping Great
Britain, which is why we don’t
make maps of Northern Ireland.
 Technically, if you lose the
‘Great,’ Britain only refers to
England and Wales.

British Isles
This is purely a geographical term – it
refers to the islands of Great Britain and
Ireland – including the Republic of
Ireland – and the 5000 or so smaller
islands scattered around our coasts. Remember this only refers to geography, not nationality,
and while the Republic of Ireland is part of the British Isles, its people are not British – a very
important distinction.

Location and Borders

36
History
The earliest people to occupy Britain are of unknown origin. Remains of these early
inhabitants include the stone circles of Avebury and Stonehenge in Wiltshire.

Scotland was inhabited in early historic times by the Picts and by roaming bands of Gaels, or
Celts, from Ireland.

6th BC - Celtic tribes from the Continent, the first known settlers

The islands were visited in ancient times by Mediterranean traders seeking jet, gold, pearls,
and tin, which were being mined in Cornwall.

8th AD - Norsemen raided Scotland.

55th BC - Julius Caesar invaded England but soon withdrew.

1st century AD - the Romans occupied most of the present-day area of England, remaining
until the 5th century.

After the decline and withdrawal of the Roman Empire Celtic tribes fought among themselves,
and Scots and Picts attacked from the north and from Ireland. Early raids by Angles, Saxons,
and Jutes from the Continent soon swelled into invasions, and the leaders established
kingdoms in the conquered territory while the native Celts retreated into the mountains of
Wales and Cornwall.

10th AD - Welsh king, Howel the Good (Hywel Dda), united northern and a southern Wales.

Among the new English kingdoms, that of the West Saxons (Wessex) became predominant,
chiefly through the leadership of Alfred the Great, who also had to fight a new wave of
invasions by the Danes and other Norsemen. Alfred's successors were able to unify the
country.

1017 - The Danes completed their conquest, and King Canute (II) of Denmark became ruler of
England.

1124 - David I unites Scotland and forms a responsible government, walled towns were
developed, and foreign trade was encouraged.

1034 – Duncan I unifies most of Scotland.

1066 - William, duke of Normandy, invaded England and claimed the throne, in the Battle of
Hastings, beginning the Norman Conquest.

1135 - Period of civil war and anarchy.

1153 – Threaty of Westminster put and end to the civil war and designates Hery II as the
successor to the throne of England.

1154 - Accession of Henry II, he instituted notable constitutional and legal reforms. He and
succeeding English kings expanded their holdings in France, touching off a long series of
struggles between the two countries.

37
1174 - William the Lion (King of Scotland) was captured by Henry II of England in 1174 and
forced to accept the Treaty of Falaise, by which Scotland became an English fief1.

1215 – The Magna Carta: Long-standing conflict between the nobles and the kings reached a
climax in the reign of King John with the victory of the barons, who at Runnymede forced the
king to grant the Magna Carta. This document restricted the powers of the King who now was
limited by a parliament.

13th AD - Edward I expanded the royal courts and reformed the legal system; he also began
the first systematic attempts to conquer Wales and Scotland.

1282 - Edward I conquered Wales.

1300 - King Edward I of England began a war with Philip of France and demanded Scottish
troops, but the Scots allied themselves with Philip, beginning the long relationship with France
that distinguishes Scottish history.

1305 - Edward I subdued the Scots, and established English rule.

1328 - Edward III signed a treaty acknowledging Scotland's freedom.

1337 - Under Edward III, the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) with France was begun.

1348 - The plague, known as the Black Death, broke out in England, wiping out a third of the
population; it hastened the breakdown of the feudal system and the rise of towns.

1399 - After 22 years of rule, Richard II was deposed and was succeeded by Henry IV, the first
king of the house of Lancaster.

1453 - After permanent gains for England were made, the English were driven out of France.

1455 - The Wars of the Roses: the houses of Lancaster and York fought for the throne.

1485 - The Wars of the Roses ended with the accession of Henry VII, a member of the Tudor
family, marking the beginning of the modern history of England. Under the Tudors, commerce
was expanded, English seamen ranged far and wide, and clashes with Spain (accelerated by
religious differences) intensified.

1536 - Under Henry VIII, the Act of Union made English the legal language and abolished all
Welsh laws.

1531 - Henry separated the Anglican Church from Rome and proclaimed himself its head.

1538 - French influence in Scotland grew under James V (r.1513–42), who married Mary of
Guise.

1542 - After James's death, Mary of Guisa ruled as regent for her daughter, Mary, Queen of
Scots, who had married the dauphin of France, where she lived as dauphiness and later as
queen.

1561 – Mary I returned to Scotland and claimed the throne of England.

1583 - Under Elizabeth, England in acquired its first colony, Newfoundland.

1
Something over which one has rights or exercises control.
38
1587 – Mary I was imprisoned and executed by Elizabeth.

1588 – Queen Elizabeth I defeated the Spanish Armada; it also experienced the beginning of a
golden age of drama, literature, and music, among whose towering achievements are the plays
of William Shakespeare.

1603 - Elizabeth was succeeded by Mary I's son, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of
England establishing the Stuart line. Under James and his son, Charles I (r.1625–49), the rising
middle classes (mainly Puritan in religion) sought to make Parliament superior to the king.

1642 - In the English Civil War, Charles was supported by the Welsh, who had remained
overwhelmingly Catholic in feeling, but most Scots opposed him.

1649 - Charles was tried and executed and Oliver Cromwell as Protector ruled the new
Commonwealth until his death in 1658. In Wales, after Cromwell and the Commonwealth, the
people began to turn to Calvinism; dissent grew. Most Welsh were won to the Calvinistic
Methodist Church, which played a large part in fostering a nonpolitical Welsh nationalism.

1660 - Charles II, eldest son of the executed king, regained the throne. The Restoration was
marked by a reaction against Puritanism, by persecution of the Scottish Covenanters
(Presbyterians), by increased prosperity, and by intensified political activity

1688- Charles II's younger brother, James II (r.1685–88), who vainly attempted to restore
Roman Catholicism, was overthrown and was succeeded by his daughter, Mary II, and her
Dutch husband, William III, who were invited to rule by Parliament. By this transfer of power,
known to English history as the Glorious Revolution, the final supremacy of Parliament was
established.

1707 – The Act of Union of Scotland and England was voted by the two parliaments, thereby
formally creating the kingdom of Great Britain under one crown and with a single Parliament
composed of representatives of both countries.

1763 - Britain won control of North America and India in the Seven Years' War by the Treaty of
Paris which also established British supremacy over the seas.

1783 - The American Revolution costs Britain its most important group of colonies. A few years
later, British settlement of Australia and then of New Zealand became key elements in the
spreading British Empire. Britain increased its power further by its leading role in the French
Revolutionary Wars and in the defeat of Napoleon and French expansionist aims.

1800s - English colonial expansion developed further and Britain's overseas possessions were
consolidated.

In 1800, with the Act of Union of Great Britain and Ireland, the United Kingdom formally came
into being.

1900s - Was a time of rapid colonial and mercantile expansion abroad and internal stability
and literary and artistic achievement at home.

Ireland: Absentee landlordism, particularly in the 26 southern Ireland counties, fostered

poverty and hatred of the English. Moreover, there was a growing division of interest between
these counties and the six counties of the north, popularly called Ulster, where, early in the
17th century, Protestant Scots and English had settled on land confiscated by the British crown

39
after a rebellion. While the north gradually became Protestant and industrial, the rest of
Ireland remained Catholic and rural.

1914 - A long struggle to disestablish the Church of England in Wales culminated successfully in
an act of Parliament.

1920 - Government of Ireland Act, established separate domestic legislatures for the north
and south, as well as continued representation in the UK Parliament. The six northern counties
accepted the act and became Northern Ireland. The 26 southern counties, however, did not
accept it.

1921 -The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed, by which these counties left the United Kingdom to
become the Irish Free State (now the Irish Republic, or Éire), which was officially established in
1922.

Queen Victoria's Reign

The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the second half of the 18th century, provided the
economic underpinning for British colonial and military expansion throughout the 1800s.
However, the growth of the factory system and of urbanization also brought grave new social
problems. The enclosure of grazing land in the Scottish highlands and the industrialization of
southern Wales were accompanied by extensive population shifts and led to largescale
emigration to the United States, Canada, and Australia. Reform legislation came slowly,
although the spirit of reform and social justice was in the air.

1832 - The great Reform Acts enfranchised the new middle class and the working class.

1834 - Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire

The long reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901) saw an unprecedented commercial and
industrial prosperity. This was a period of great imperial expansion, especially in Africa, where
at the end of the century Britain fought settlers of predominantly Dutch origin in the South
African (or Boer) War. Toward the end of the century, also, the labor movement grew strong,
education was developed along national lines, and a regular civil service was finally
established. Factory acts, poor laws, and other humanitarian legislation did away with some of
the worst abuses, and pressure mounted for eliminating others.

1900: The vast economic and human losses of World War I, in which nearly 800,000 Britons
were killed, brought on serious disturbances in the United Kingdom as elsewhere

1930 - The economic depression resulted in the unemployment of millions of workers.

1931 - The Statute of Westminster granted the status of equality to the self-governing British
dominions and created the concept of a British Commonwealth of Nations.

1939 - After Hitler invaded Poland, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. Prime
Minister Winston Churchill led the United Kingdom during World War II in a full mobilization of
the population in the armed services, in home defense, and in war production. Although
victorious, the United Kingdom suffered much destruction from massive German air attacks,
and the military and civilian death toll exceeded 900,000. At war's end, a Labour government
was elected; it pledged to carry out a full program of social welfare "from the cradle to the

40
grave," coupled with the nationalization of industry. Medicine was socialized, other social
services were expanded, and several industries were put under public ownership.

Post-World War II Era: To a large extent, the United Kingdom's postwar history can be
characterized as a prolonged effort to put the faltering economy on its feet and to cope with
the economic, social, and political consequences of the disbandment of its empire.

1969 - Long-smoldering tensions between Protestants and Catholics erupted into open warfare
after civil rights protests by Catholics claiming discrimination and insufficient representation in
the government. The Protestant reaction was violent, and the Irish Republican Army (IRA),
seeking the union of Ulster with the Irish Republic, escalated the conflict by committing
terrorist acts in both Northern Ireland and England.

1070s - The principal domestic problems in this decade were rapid inflation, labor disputes,
and the protracted conflict in Northern Ireland.

1972 - Northern Ireland's parliament (Stormont) was prorogued, and direct rule was imposed
from London. Numerous attempts to devise a new constitution failed, as did other proposals
for power sharing.

1073 - The United Kingdom overcame years of domestic qualms and French opposition when it
entered the European Community (EC).

1979 - A Conservative government, headed by Margaret Thatcher, came to power with a

program of income tax cuts and reduced government spending.

1982 - Legislation establishing a new 78-member Northern Ireland Assembly was enacted.
Elections were held that October, but the 19 Catholic members chosen refused to claim their
seats. Meanwhile, the violence continued.

1982 - Britain sent a naval task force to the Falkland Islands following Argentina's occupation
of the islands. After intense fighting, British administration was restored.

1983 - Thatcher, who won reelection embarked on a policy of "privatizing"—selling to the

private sector—many of the UK's nationalized businesses.

1985 - The United Kingdom and the Irish Republic signed an agreement committing both
governments to recognition of Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom and to
cooperation between the two governments by establishing an intergovernmental conference
concerned with Northern Ireland and with relations between the two parts of Ireland.

1988 - All that remained of what had been the largest empire in the world were 14
dependencies, many of them small islands with tiny populations and few economic resources.

1998 - Ireland and the United Kingdom signed a peace agreement (Good Friday agreement) in
which Ireland pledged to amend Articles 2 and 3 of the Irish constitution, which lay claim to
the territory in the North. In return, the United Kingdom promised to amend the Government
of Ireland Act.

1999 - The power-sharing government came into being in December Between Britain and NI
but was suspended 11 weeks later because the IRA refused to make any disarmament
commitments.

41
2000 - The IRA agreed allowed leading international figures to inspect arms dumps and to
begin the process of complete and verifiable disarmament. The Protestant party voted to
revive the power-sharing arrangements on 27 May 2000 and the UK government promised to
restore substantial authority to the new Northern Irish cabinet (this was accomplished on 29
May).

2002 - Devolution was suspended due to the spying allegations and direct rule from London
was reimposed on Northern Ireland.

2003 - Britain offered strong support for the US-led war on terrorism begun after the 11
September 2001 attacks on the United States; British forces took part in the campaign in
Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime.

2005 -The IRA announced it would halt its armed campaign to oust British rule. The statement
was received with skepticism.

2005 - The United Kingdom was wracked by terrorist violence on several terrorists attacks.

The United Kingdom remains one of three European Union (EU) members not adopting
European economic and monetary union and embracing the euro as its currency. The other
two nations are Denmark and Sweden.

Independence

Form of Government
The United Kingdom is a monarchy in form but a parliamentary democracy in substance. The
sovereign—Elizabeth II since 1952—is head of state and as such is head of the legislature, the
executive, and the judiciary, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and temporal head of
the established Church of England. In practice, however, gradually evolving restrictions have
transmuted the sovereign's legal powers into instruments for affecting the popular will as
expressed through Parliament. In the British formulation, the sovereign reigns but does not
rule, for the sovereign is under the law and not above it, ruling only by approval of Parliament
and acting only on the advice of her ministers.

The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the sovereign, by Her Majesty's
Government—a body of ministers who are the leading members of whichever political party
the electorate has voted into office and who are responsible to Parliament.

Parliament it is the supreme legislative authority. Its composed of two chambers and both
function within the Westminster palace:

 House of Lords: its member are not elected. Its composed of hereditary peers
(Majority appointed by the prime minister), spiritual peers (archbishops and bishops of
the Church of England), and life peers (eminent persons unwilling to accept a
hereditary peerage). It has 733 members.
 House of Commons: It’s memebers are elected by popular vote every 5 years and is
composed of 650 members.

 Bills passed by the parliament need of royal consent to become law.

 All British subjects 18 years old and over may vote in national elections; women won
equal franchise with men in 1922. Citizens of Ireland resident in Britain may also vote,

42
 as may British subjects abroad for a period of five years after leaving the United
Kingdom.
 Each Parliament may during its lifetime make or unmake any law. Parliamentary bills
may be introduced by either house, unless they deal with finance or representation;
these are always introduced in the Commons, which has ultimate authority for
lawmaking. The House of Lords may not alter a financial measure or delay for longer
than a year any bill passed by the Commons.

Northern Ireland had its own parliament (Stormont) subordinate to Westminster; however,
because of civil strife in Ulster, the Stormont was prorogued on 30 March 1972, and direct rule
was imposed from Westminster. After several abortive attempts over the next decade to
devise a system of home-rule government acceptable to both Protestant and Catholic leaders,
the 78-member Northern Ireland Assembly was established in 1982, but it was dissolved in
1986. As a result of the 1998 "Good Friday Agreement," a Catholic-Protestant power-sharing
government came into being in 1999. It was suspended in October 2002, and direct rule from
London returned.

In 1979, proposals for the establishment of elected legislatures in Wales and Scotland failed in
the former and, though winning a bare plurality, fell short of the required margin for approval
(40% of all eligible voters) in the latter. Regional parliaments for Scotland and Wales were
ratified by referendum in 1997, however, and they began their first sessions in 1998.

Executive power is vested in the prime minister, who, though nominally appointed by the
sovereign, is traditionally the leader of the majority party in Parliament. The prime minister is
assisted by ministers, also nominally appointed by the sovereign, who are chosen from the
majority party and mostly from the Commons, which must approve the government's general
policy and the more important of its specific measures.

Official and Non-official languages

The de facto official language of the United Kingdom is English. Spoken throughout the United
Kingdom and by over 456 million people throughout the world, English is second only to
Mandarin Chinese in the number of speakers in the world. It is taught extensively as a second
language and is used worldwide as a language of commerce, diplomacy, and scientific
discourse. In northwestern Wales, Welsh, a form of Brythonic Celtic, is the first language of
most of the inhabitants.

Approximately 26% of those living in Wales speak Welsh (up from 19% in 1991). Some 60,000
or so persons in western Scotland speak the Scottish form of Gaelic (down from 80,000 in
1991), and a few families in Northern Ireland speak Irish Gaelic. On the Isle of Man, the Manx
variety of Celtic is used in official pronouncements; in the Channel Islands some persons still
speak a Norman-French dialect. French remains the language of Jersey for official ceremonies.

43
Religion
There is complete religious freedom in the United Kingdom. All churches and religious societies
may own property and conduct schools.

Established churches are:

The Church of England (Anglican): Its is uniquely related to the crown in that the sovereign
must be a member and, on accession, promise to uphold the faith; it is also linked with the
state through the House of Lords, where the archbishops of Canterbury and York have seats.
The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England. The monarch appoints all officials of
the Church of England.

The Church of Scotland (Presbyterian): The established Church of Scotland has a Presbyterian
form of government: all ministers are of equal status and each of the congregations is locally
governed by its minister and elected elders.

About 71.6% of the population belong to one of the four largest Christian denominations in the
country: the Church of England, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of Scotland, and the
Methodist Church in Britain (originally established as a type of revival movement by the
Church of England minister John Wesley, 1703–91).

Many immigrants have established community religious centers in the United Kingdom. Such
Christian groups include Greek, Russian, Polish, Serb-Orthodox, Estonian and Latvian Orthodox,
and the Armenian Church; Lutheran churches from various parts of Europe are also
represented.

A total of about 2% of the population are Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Christian Scientists,
or Unitarians. The Anglo-Jewish community, with an estimated 300,000 members, is the
second-largest group of Jews in Western Europe. There are also sizable communities of
Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus, and Buddhists.

In Northern Ireland, about 53% of the population are nominally Protestants and 44% are
nominally Catholics; only about 30–35% of all Northern Irish are active participants in religious
services. The Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland tend to live in self-segregated
communities.

Ethnic groups
The present-day English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish are descended from a long succession of early
peoples, including Iberians, Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans.

About 1.8% of the population are Indian, and 1.3% are Pakistani. There are about 300,000
persons who belong to a group known as Travellers, a blend of Roma, Irish, and other ethnic
groups who maintain an itinerant lifestyle.

National Symbols

Celebration and Traditions

44
Family and Marriage

Economic Resources

45
 AUSTRALIA
Australia is the 6th biggest country in the world. Only Russia, China, Canada, USA, and Brazil
are bigger. It is the world’s largest island.

Even though the country is so big it only has

about 23 million inhabitants. 88 % of all
Australians live in the big cities or smaller
towns which makes big areas of the country
empty.

Location and Borders

History
Australia was unknown to most people until
1770. That year the British explorer Captain
James Cook arrived to the country on his ship
The Endeavour. His mission was to sail to Tahiti and watch the planet Venus pass between the
earth and the sun. Scientists needed the observations to figure out the distance between the
earth and the sun. But Cook also had a secret mission. He was supposed to find the unknown
southern continent. In April 1770 Cook reached the Australian coast and planted the British
flag and claimed the land for Great Britain. The Captain called the land New South Wales.

For about 20 years nothing more happened with New South Wales. At the end of the 18th
century and the beginning of the 19th century many people came to the country. Until the
revolution in America in 1776 many British criminals were sent to the states. But after the
revolution the English authorities needed some place new for these people. Someone
remembered Cook’s voyage to Australia and thought that New South Wales would be a good
place. It was certainly far away. Poor people and criminals were sent to Australia to keep them
out of trouble and out of England. After seven years the prisoners were free to return to
England but most of them couldn’t afford it.

The first group of people sent to the land were called “The First Fleet” and landed in January in
1788 and built the first European settlement in Australia – that was the starting of the city
Sydney. The country was called New South Wales until the 1820s when it got its present name:
Australia.

When James Cook reached the new continent he met the native people – the Aborigines. They
had already been in the land for 40,000 years.

Australia consisted earlier of six British colonies. In 1901 the colonies joined together to form a
new country, the Commonwealth of Australia. The old colonies changed into new states.
Besides the six states Australia has two territories: the Northern Territory and the Australian
Capital Territory, Canberra. Each state has its own government and laws. There is also a
federal government which makes laws for the whole country.

In 1902, Australia was one of the first countries to give women the right to vote. But it wasn’t
until 1967 that the Aborigines, the first people in Australia, finally received the right to vote! If

46
you are 18 years of age or older, you have to vote in the parliamentary and state elections. If
you don’t you have to pay a fee.

Independence
Until 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They
voted to join together to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in
1901. Australia was still a dominion of the British Empire.

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between
Australia and the UK Australia adopted it in 1942.

Form of Government
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the
Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other
Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the
federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of
her ministers.1152)(1531Thus, in practice the Governor-General has no actual decision-making
or de facto governmental role, and merely acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the
Prime Minister and the Federal Executive Council. The Governor-General does have
extraordinary reserve powers which may be exercised outside the Prime Minister's request in
rare and limited circumstances, the most notable exercise of which was the dismissal of the
Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of1975.

The federal government is separated into three branches:

• Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the Queen (represented by the Governor-
General), the Senate, and the House of Representatives; Elections for The Senate and th House
of Representatives are normally held every three years simultaneously

• Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions
of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Govemor
General.

• Judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed
by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council.

Official and Non-official languages

Although Australia has no official language, English has always been entrenched as the de facto
national language. Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive
accent and lexicon and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.[
General Australian serves as the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is the
only language spoken in the home for close to 81% of the population. The next most common
languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%), Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese

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(1.3%), Greek (1.3%), and Vietnamese (1.2%);] a considerable proportion of first- and second-
generation migrants are bilingual.

Over 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first
European contact, of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups. About 110
others are spoken exclusively by older people. At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000
Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they
spoke an Indigenous language at home. Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which
is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people.

Religion

Ethnic groups
The native population of Australia is called the Aborigines. They have lived in Australia for
thousands of years. Many English words come from their language, for example: koala,
kangaroo, boomerang.

Most of the Aborigines died out after the Europeans arrived. No one knows how many the
Aborigines were when the Europeans arrived. They may have been as many as 750,000. But
the contact with the whites was a catastrophe. There were a lot of fights and many Aborigines
were killed, or taken as slaves. Sadly enough, white settlers who killed Aborigines weren’t
punished until as late as 1838. But all Aborigines weren’t killed directly by the whites. They
died in the diseases the Europeans brought with them. Today there are about 275,000
Aborigines in Australia.

National Symbols
The flag
There are five stars on the right side of the
Australian flag which represent the Southern Cross.
These five stars helped ships to navigate in the
Southern Hemisphere in olden times.

The flag is dark blue with the British Union Flag

(Union Jack) in the upper left corner. The British flag
symbolizes Australia’s historic links with the UK and the Queen. There is also a large 7-pointed
star under the Union Flag. This star symbolizes Australia’s six states and the Northern Territory.

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Some people think that Australia should have a new flag without the British flag in the corner.
The Australian flag is also very easily confused with New Zealand’s flag, which is very similar.

Celebration and Traditions

Australia Day: Every year on the 26th of January, aussies from state to state take the day off
and come together to celebrate what makes us Australia on our official national holiday. From
playing backyard cricket, award ceremonies to name the Australian of the Year to raising the
Australian flag in Canberra at the citizenship ceremony or chilling all day at the beach. There is
plenty to do on Australia Day.

New Year's Eve fireworks in Sydney: Greet the New Year in style by joining the hundreds of
thousands all ready to party the night away with this world famous fireworks show. Designed
to be different every year, Sydney strives to create a lasting impression for years to come.
More than 1.5 million people seek out special spots to watch this show every year.

Australian Open: Hosted in Melbourne, the Australian Open embraces the very best in tennis
every year since 1905 and still hundreds travel to Melbourne to watch them outwit and
outplay. Only at the Australian Open do you get to see who the next world number one tennis
player is named in prime fashion.

Melbourne's Spring Racing Carnival - Melbourne Cup: Fondly called "The Race that Stops a
Nation", Melbourne Cup Day is a public holiday in Melbourne. Every first Tuesday of November
is marked for the Melbourne Cup run, and the cup's history spans decades since its first gallop
in 1861. Men and women dress in their best to outdo each other especially the women with
their sometimes eccentric hats.

Family and Marriage

Economic Resources

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 NEW ZEALAND

Location and Borders

New Zealand (Maori: Aotearoa [a:,'trar:,a]) is an island count in the southwestern Pacific
Ocean. The countzy geographically comprises two main landmasses-the North Island (or Te
Ika-a-Maui), and the South Island (or Te Waipounamu)-and around 600 smaller islands.

History
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans.

1250 – 1300 - First settled by Eastern Polynesians. Over the centuries that followed, these
settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Maori.

1642 - The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel
Tasman and his crew in a hostile encounter.

1769 - British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.

Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whalin ,
sealin and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for
timber, Maori food, artefacts and water.

In 1788 Captain Arthur Philli assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of
New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.

Early 19th century - Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting
most of the Maori population.

The Maori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century;
introduced diseases were the major factor.

1835 - Declaration of independence of New Zealand.

1840 - NZ was annexed to the UK after the signing of the treaty of Waitangi in 1840, it was a
treaty of the british and the maoris. It promised to protect Maori land if Maoris recognize
british rule.

1841 - New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colon of
New Zealand.

1852 - The colony gained a representative government.

1854 - The first Parliament met.

1856 - The colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic
matters other than native policy.

1865 - Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred
Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook
Strait. Wellington was chosen for its central location.

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1860 – 1870 - As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand
Wars , resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Maori land.

1891 - The Liberal Party, led by John Ballance, came to power as the first organised political
party. They passed many important social and economic measures.

1893 - New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote.

In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New
Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status.

1947 - The country ado ted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament
could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.

Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and
Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression. The depression led to the
election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare
state and a rotectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following
the Second World War and Maori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the
cities in search of work.

Independence
It has no fixed date of independence.

In oder to avoid making the mistakes which had led to the American Revolution a report was
made that laid down the principles of self-governement whithin the Empire colonies.

The British parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution act 1852 in 1853 to grant the
colony’s settlers the right to self-governance only 12 years after the founding the colony.

On 26 September 1907 the UK granted New Zealand dominion status.

In 1926 the Balfour Declaration declared that the British Dominions were equal which granted
New Zealand control over its own foreing policy and military.

The statute of Westminster was adopted on 25 November 1947, this allowed to pass the New
Zealand Constitution Amendment which granted the New Zealand parliament full legislative
powers, extra territorialcontrol of NZ, military forces and legally separated NZ Crown form the
British Crown.

Form of Government
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its
constitution is not codified.

Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state The Queen is represented by
the Governor-General, whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-
General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and
making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare
situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal
Assent of a bill into law). The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by

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constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of
ministers.

The New Zealand Parliament golds legislative power and consist of the Queen and the House
of Representatives.

The supremacy of Parliament, over the Crown and other government institutions, was
established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New
Zealand.1691 The House of Representatives is democratically elected every three years and a
government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.

Official and Non-official languages

English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 96.1% of the population. New
Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern
Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.

After the Second World War, Maori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te
reo Miiori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few
remote areas. It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation, being declared one ofNew
Zealand's official languages in 1987.

Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by Hindi (1.7%),
''Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 1.3%) and French (1.2%). 20,235 people (0.5%)
reported the ability to use New Zealand Sign Language. It was declared one of New Zealand's
official languages in 2006.

Religion
49.0% identifying as Christians. Another 41.9% indicated that they had no religion.

The main Christian denominations are, by number of adherents, Roman Catholicism (12.6%),
An licanism (11.8%), Presb erianism (8.5%) and "Christian not further defined" (i.e. people
identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 5.5%))2671 The Maori-based Ringatii
and Ratana religions (1.4%) are also Christian in origin.

Immigration and demographic change in recent decades has contributed to the growth of
minority religions, such as Hinduism (2.1%), Buddhism (1.5%), Islam (1.2%) and Sikhism (o.5%).

Ethnic groups
In the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and
14.9% as Maori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7,4%).

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National Symbols
Flag: NZ used the UK flag but they needed to design a new
flag denoting their status as a British colony in order to avoid
their ships being captured in the sea. Its colors derive from
the UK flag and the three stars represent the South Cross
which helped ships to navigate in those regions.

Celebration and Traditions

Family and Marriage

Economic Resources

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